英语化学毕业论文范文

英语专业毕业论文答辩陈述稿范文

时间过得真快，大学生活即将结束，毕业论文是大学生都必须通过的，毕业论文是一种有准备的检验大学学习成果的`形式，毕业论文应该怎么写才好呢？以下是我整理的英语专业毕业论文答辩陈述稿范文，仅供参考，大家一起来看看吧。

Good morning, all appraiser committee members. I am xx and my supervisor is xx. With her constant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. Now, it is the show time. I will present my efforts to you and welcome any correction.

The title of my paper is On Transformation of Parts of Speech in Translation. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. Different languages have different standards to distinguish parts of speech. Each language has its own special structure. And there are no equivalent parts of speech between different languages. In order to make the target version more idiomatic and standard, the transformation of parts of speech is always used by translators. So the transformation of parts of speech is playing a more important role in English to Chinese based on different characteristics of English and Chinese. For the above facts, I select the subject of“On Transformation of parts of speech”as the title of my paper.

I hope by studying this topic we can know the importance of the transformation of parts of speech in English to Chinese translation. Through transformation, we can get the better version and improve the translation skills.

The way of thinking and expressing is quite different between Chinese and English. English is a kind of static languages which tends to use more nouns. While Chinese is a dynamic one in which verbs are often used.

So when we make translation in English to Chinese, we should know this point and shift the parts of speech.

Next, it is an outline of my paper. In the main part of this paper, I divide it into five parts.

Part one presents an introduction to the basic concepts of parts of speech and transformation.

Part two discusses the definition of translation and emphasizes the importance of transformation of parts of speech in the course of translation.

Part three gives four basic ways of transformation of parts of speech through illustrative examples. There are transformed English words into Chinese verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs.

Part four presents some problems about transformation and gives some advise to solve the problems.

Part five draws some conclusions that transformation between parts of speech is necessary for us to achieve good translation. It is demonstrated that we can have a good master of transformation and improve the translation. In addition, we must continuously study and explore in all kinds of translation practices.

OK! That is all. Thank you! Please ask questions.

Good morning, distinguished professors and teachers, thank you for attending the oral defense. Im xxand come from class xx. My supervisor is professor Li. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. his consistent guidance and valuable suggestions, I have finished my paper. Now I will present my efforts to you and gratefully welcome any suggestion.

The title of my paper is choose this as my topic due to the following reasons.

Firstly, I am very interested in the study of ambiguity. Ambiguity is a common phenomenon in all natural languages. As is known to all, in our daily conversations, ambiguity is often employed to achieve the effect of humor, thus creating a relaxing atmosphere and letting people feel at ease. Some jokes caused by ambiguity is very interesting.

Secondly, I have read several articles about ambiguity written by linguistics and scholars. I found my knowledge of ambiguity is very limited, superficial and nonsystematic. What I knew is just the tip of the iceberg. So I plan to learn more about ambiguity by this research.

Thirdly, I found many scholars have carried out numerous studies of ambiguity, but a majority of these studies are focused on single language separately. Articles about comparison between English ambiguity and Chinese ambiguity are not sufficient. So it is necessary to make further study.

For the above facts, I select this title.

Next, I will present the outline of my thesis. It consists of 7 parts.

The first part gives a brief introduction to the ambiguity and structure of the thesis.

The second part is literature review, briefly introducing the development of study of ambiguity and some scholarss main views.

The third to fifth parts focus on three types of ambiguity in English and Chinese: phonological ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity. In every broad type, I respectively list some detailed branches and cite some vivid English and Chinese examples to explain these ambiguity phenomena. But I put more focus on the third part and point out two differences of ambiguity between English ambiguity and Chinese ambiguity.

The part six will point out positive results by using ambiguity deliberately in daily conversations, advertisements and literary works.

The last part is the conclusion.

I hope by this contrastive research, we will have a better understanding of ambiguity in English and Chinese and apply it to our life and study.

When reading the final draft, I still find my argument is not so comprehensive and improvements are needed. So welcome your precious suggestion.

Thats all. Thank you.

英语毕业论文答辩稿范文（精选8篇）

一段忙碌又充实的大学生活要即将结束，我们毕业前都要通过最后的`毕业论文，毕业论文是一种比较重要的检验学生学习成果的形式，快来参考毕业论文是怎么写的吧！下面是我帮大家整理的英语毕业论文答辩稿范文，希望对大家有所帮助。

Good morning, all appraises committee members. I am XXX and my supervisor is XXX.

With his constant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper.

Now it is the show time. I will present my efforts to you and welcome any correction.

The title of my paper is Comparative Study between English and Chinese idioms.

With the developing globalization, communication demand precise language.

Idioms are not a separate part of the language, we cannot omit. Studying the similarities and differences between English and Chinese idioms would be helpful to cross-cultural understanding and it’s also a good advance to our future if we can learn well.

For the above facts, I select the subject of “comparative study between English and Chinese idioms” as the title of my paper.

In the main part of this paper, I divide it four parts.

Part one presents general introduction to the basic concept and the studying purpose.

Part two presents overview of the Chinese and English idioms; it concludes similar origins and similar functions. Part three emphasize differences between English and Chinese idioms.

Through contrast analysis of well-known Chinese and English language, found the differences cultural discrepancy and the translation of animal words. Part four draws some conclusions that characteristics of English and Chinese idioms. And it is helpful to cross-culture .It’s necessary for a better understanding of international promotional communication. OK, that’s all. Thank you.

Good morning,Distinguished professors and teachers, ladies and gentlemen, thank you for attending the oral defense.

I am XX. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, professorXX, for his intellectual guidance, invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this topic is On the tragedy figures at historical turning points（Comparison of KongYiji and Rip Van ）The whole thesis consists of 6 parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of the negative, evasive and conservative attitudes of Kong and Rip as well as the topic s significance in the real society. And the second part is going to analyze the figures background to show the historical necessity of the tragedies. In the third part, the tragic heroes failing in the character according to their living environment will be further discussed and the fourth part is to talk about their different tendency of dispositions and behaviors in the society. Then the author will dig into the root causes of the tragedies in the fifth part, and sum up the whole paper to reveal the ideological weak points of the two countries separately in the last part.

Good afternoon, all appraiser committee members. I’m Zhang Da and my supervisor is Professor Zhang Jingcai. With her constant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. Now, it is the show time. I will present my efforts to you and welcome any correction.

The title of my paper is On the Significance of Drama Method in the Improvement of English Learning in Chinese Rural Junior High School. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. First of all, I really want to be a teacher, so during the four years, I have read many books about how to become a good teacher. Secondly, when I was a freshman in the summer of 2008, I was chosen as a teaching assistant of the summer camp which was organized by the New Oriental English School in Shijiazhuang. In the summer camp, I rewrote a script of an English drama to be one of the programs of the open ceremony. It was very popular among those students. They thought it was very interesting. In 2010, I was practiced as an English teacher at Chenguantun Middle School in Qinhuangdao, I found that the students have little interest towards English learning, so I hoped I could help them. So I use the Drama Method as my teaching method. Almost all of the students were highly motivated by the interesting teaching method and they have made great progress in the exam one month later. So the research proved that the Drama Method can be used as an effective teaching method. For the above facts, I select the subject of On the Significance of Drama Method in the Improvement of English Learning in Chinese Rural Junior High School as the title of my paper. I hope by studying this topic we can find an effective teaching method to help all the students’ English learning in junior high school.

Next, it is an outline of my paper. In the main part of this paper, I divide it into five parts.

Part one presents an introduction to identify the major problem of junior high school students’ English learning problems

Part two overviews all relevant researches in drama application in teaching oral English.

Part three is the research design, the research hypothesis, the subjects of the research, the research methods and the research procedures are conducted.

Part four is the findings from research data. After analyzing the data with Excel 2007, pedagogical findings and implications are delivered before the conclusion of the thesis.

Part five draws some conclusions about the research. As what has been shown in the research, there are a lot of benefits from drama performance; the Drama Method can be used as an effective teaching method. In addition, there are some suggestions for forthcoming researches.

OK! That is all. Thank you! Please ask questions.

Good evening, all the appraiser committee members. I come from HUST, majoring in foreign linguistics and applied linguistics. With her sincere and intellectual guidance, for nearly one whole year's hard work, I have finished my paper. Finally, it is the show time. This evening I will present my efforts to you all and I gratefully welcome any correction.

The title of my paper is A Study of the Causes of the Gothic Style

in from a Feminist Perspective. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. Firstly, I am fond of literature works , especially gothic literature works. Secondly, I am quite familiar with this short story as this is one of the texts in our intensive teaching course and I have taught this text for more than 3 times . Last but not the least ,as a female , I am keen on the study of feminism. For the above facts, I select the subject of as the title of my paper.

I hope by studying this short story we can know more about American southern women in certain history and culture and more importantly help women in modern society get a deeper understanding about ourselves ,help us raise our independence and confidence and show more concern for our mental health.

Next , I will present it to you. Here is an outline of my presentation. They are literature review, gothic tradition , the gothic style in the story and the causes of the gothic style .

This paper consists of six parts. Part one presents an introduction to the author William Faulkner and by pointing out the purpose and significance of this study. Part two is literature review which introduces the relevant research about this novel at home and abroad and then points out the theoretical basis and methods. Part three gives a timeline of the gothic tradition in literature and explains the main characteristics of gothic works. Part four explains the three aspects of the gothic style in the novel，that is, the death theme, grotesque characters and mystic atmosphere. Part five then explains in detail the causes of the gothic style in this novel: patriarchal oppression, the myth of southern ladyhood and Emily’s attitude towards love. Finally, in the conclusion, the author summarizes the previous parts and emphasizes the significance of the argument of the thesis again.

Ok, that's all. Now you may raise your questions ! I am ready! Thank you !!!

I will present my efforts to you and welcome any title of my paper is on transformation of parts of speech in translation. i choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. different languages have different standards to distinguish parts of speech. each language has its own special structure. and there are no equivalent parts of speech between different languages. in order to make the target version more idiomatic and standard, the transformation of parts of speech is always used by translators. so the transformation of parts of speech is playing a more important role in english to chinese based on different characteristics of english and chinese. for the above facts, i select the subject of“on transformation of parts of speech”as the title of my hope by studying this topic we can know the importance of the transformation of parts of speech in english to chinese translation. through transformation, we can get the better version and improve the translation way of thinking and expressing is quite different between chinese and english. english is a kind of static languages which tends to use more nouns. while chinese is a dynamic one in which verbs are often when we make translation in english to chinese, we should know this point and shift the parts of , it is an outline of my paper. in the main part of this paper, i divide it into five one presents an introduction to the basic concepts of parts of speech and two discusses the definition of translation and emphasizes the importance of transformation of parts of speech in the course of three gives four basic ways of transformation of parts of speech through illustrative examples. there are transformed english words into chinese verbs, nouns, adjectives and four presents some problems about transformation and gives some advise to solve the five draws some conclusions that transformation between parts of speech is necessary for us to achieve good translation. it is demonstrated that we can have a good master of transformation and improve the translation. in addition, we must continuously study and explore in all kinds of translation ! that is all. thank you!

Good morning,Distinguished professors and teachers, ladies and gentlemen, thank you for attending the oral defense. （或Welcome to attend the oral defense.） :I am XX. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, professorXX, for his intellectual guidance, invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this topic is On the tragedy figures at historical turning points（Comparison of KongYiji and Rip Van ）The whole thesis consists of 6 parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of the negative, evasive and conservative attitudes of Kong and Rip as well as the topic s significance in the real society. And the second part is going to analyze the figures background to show the historical necessity of the tragedies. In the third part, the tragic heroes failing in the character according to their living environment will be further discussed and the fourth part is to talk about their different tendency of dispositions and behaviors in the society. Then the author will dig into the root causes of the tragedies in the fifth part, and sum up the whole paper to reveal the ideological weak points of the two countries separately in the last part.

stant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. Now, it's show time. You and I will work hard to welcome any topic of my thesis is 《Angela carter to mythology research - the female archetype in “new eve passion”, for example》。 I choose this as my topic due to the following Carter （1940-1992） is an outstanding feminist writer whose influence on Britishwomen's writing was “pivotal in this opening and transformation” [“23]. The year 2014 represents the 22”^ anniversary of Angela Carter's death. In those twenty-two years, her works have been widely taught internationally and brought about much critical debate. In a survey conducted by Cristina Bacchilega and Danielle M. Roemer [2],Carter is one of the most commonly taught women writers on North American programs. She has endowed us with an amazingly large number of legacies in her comparatively limited life, setting foot in various fields such as novels,short stories,children stories, dramas, non-fictions and so on. The acute observations with great insights,as well as the devastating wit and poignant mockery in Carter's works have made her stand out as an iconic figure in English literature. Many scholars and critics have devoted themselves to the research on Angela Carter from many perspectives,including gothic, magic realism, feminism,post-modernism and so on. As a prolific writer who is always ready to blur the boundaries between different genres, Carter has left us a wonderful world to delve the emergence of western women's movement as well as the development of feminist criticism in the 1960s,the feminist approach has become a potent weapon for those who are concerned with the emancipation and legal rights of women. Though women's social status has considerably improved due to the contribution made by countless predecessors,the fundamental problem still lingers on. Carter, with her versatile and avant-garde reputation, is best known as a feminist writer. Concerning the dilemmas and predicaments faced by women nowadays,it is very necessary for us to probe into her insightful and penetrating reflections on femininity as well as the relationship between two genders. The Passion of New Eve, as one of Carter's most representative works, is of great value in the research of her feminist thoughts and , is my paper outline. In the main part of this article, I put it into five one is an introduction to the thesis, covering the research background, theobjective and significance as well as the organization of the two presents a broad picture of Angela Carter's life and her works, as well as the background information about The Passion of New Eve. It also reviews previous studies on Angela Carter and her works at home and abroad, summarizing achievements in the past and pointing out new directions in the three conducts a retrospective study on feminism and archetypal criticism. The author attempts to work out the origin and development of feminism, demonstrating the important role feminism plays in Carter's life. Then is the history of archetypal criticism,as well as those classic female archetypes in mythology. Regarding those fossilized and monotonous images as impediments to women's freedom and liberation,Carter endeavors to shatter them in her demythologizing strategy and appeals for a rational attitude toward heterosexual four is the main body of the thesis. Through an in-depth analysis on The Passion of New Eve,it demonstrates Carter's demythologizing of “The Temptress,,,”Mother Goddess“and ”Eve“ respectively in the text. Leilah,the embodiment of Delilah,the famous temptress in the Bible,cannot escape the fate of being objectified by men and herself. By exposing”temptresses“ as mere victims rather than symbols of viciousness. Carter condemns the oppression and exploitation of women in a patriarchal society. ”Mother“ in Beulah serves as a severe satire on those mother goddesses in mythology. Carter smashes the legend by revealing the surgically-made essence of mother and the patriarchal values lurking behind her alleged matriarchal kingdom, warning against the peril and impracticality of extremist her most convincing example goes to Eve, the most important female character in the Bible, Her transformative journey from a chauvinist to a real woman in the story illustrates that gender, rather than a hereditary feature, is the result of social influence and unremitting imitations. Carter concludes the story with proposing ”androgyny“ as a solution to the current problems,implying that mutual respect and understanding is the only way to achieve the harmony between the two five comes to a general conclusion, summarizing the limitations of the theses as well as some suggestions for further ! That is all. Thank you!

Good morning, distinguished professors and teachers, thank you for attending the oral defense. I’m *** and come from class *. My supervisor is professor Li. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. his consistent guidance and valuable suggestions, I have finished my paper. Now I will present my efforts to you and gratefully welcome any suggestion.

Firstly, I am very interested in the study of ambiguity. Ambiguity is a common phenomenon in all natural languages. As is known to all, in our daily conversations, ambiguity is often employed to achieve the effect of humor, thus creating a relaxing atmosphere and letting people feel at ease. Some jokes caused by ambiguity is very interesting.

Secondly, I have read several articles about ambiguity written by linguistics and scholars. I found my knowledge of ambiguity is very limited, superficial and nonsystematic. What I knew is just the tip of the iceberg. So I plan to learn more about ambiguity by this research.

Thirdly, I found many scholars have carried out numerous studies of ambiguity, but a majority of these studies are focused on single language separately. Articles about comparison between English ambiguity and Chinese ambiguity are not sufficient. So it is necessary to make further study.

For the above facts, I select this title.

Next, I will present the outline of my thesis. It consists of 7 parts.

The first part gives a brief introduction to the ambiguity and structure of the thesis.

The second part is literature review, briefly introducing the development of study of ambiguity and some scholars’s main views.

The third to fifth parts focus on three types of ambiguity in English and Chinese: phonological ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity. In every broad type, I respectively list some detailed branches and cite some vivid English and Chinese examples to explain these ambiguity phenomena. But I put more focus on the third part and point out two differences of ambiguity between English ambiguity and Chinese ambiguity.

The part six will point out positive results by using ambiguity deliberately in daily conversations, advertisements and literary works.

The last part is the conclusion.

I hope by this contrastive research, we will have a better understanding of ambiguity in English and Chinese and apply it to our life and study.

When reading the final draft, I still find my argument is not so comprehensive and improvements are needed. So welcome your precious suggestion.

That’s all. Thank you.

学校应该都有论文写作指导的吧。 都写了那么多年的实验报告了，范文这个东西真得那么必要么？

浅析透过交往行为理论看隐喻的英汉翻译论文关键词:交往行为理论;隐喻理解;翻译论文摘要:本文利用哈贝马斯的交往行为理论重释翻译学的理解观，并借此说明在翻译实践这一特殊形式的跨文化交际中如何有效地解读隐喻。1.引言隐喻翻译是一项以语言为载体的跨文化交际活动，也是将一种语言所承载的信息传递到另一种语言中去的主体间性交往行为。对于主体间性交往行为的研究，德国后现代哲学家哈贝马斯的“交往行为理论”( Theory of Communication Action)为人们开启了一扇新的窗户。该理论是在取舍抑扬不同哲学思想观点的基础上创立的一个复杂的、多层面的“理性联盟系统”，它以“理解”为核心，语言为基础，融社会批判理论、普通语用学、社会进化理论为统一构架。2.交往行为理论视域下的翻译学理解观翻译学研究的新出路—交拄行为理论。翻译学研究从传统的语义学阶段到结构主义语言学阶段，发展到20世纪90年代传人我国的解构主义阶段，经历了漫长的历程。传统的语义学范式的翻译，受到古典主义知识论的影响，认为“人是万物之灵”，对客体的理解完全依赖于译者的主观感受，强调译者的悟性与灵感，讲求“神似”和“化境”，推祟所谓的神来之笔。由于它过分地强调译者的主观能动性，使得翻译这一跨文化交际活动变成了一种神秘的实践。20世纪80年代，我国结构主义语言学掀起了翻译学研究的新高潮。人们开始关注文本，尝试运用语言学的分析方法代替直觉感受，认为在纷繁复杂的言语现象背后隐藏着一种普遍性和规律性的东西，只要掌握了它就可以表达一切，使得翻译变成简单化的机械性操作，即用目标语言的语义一句法规则把存储在源语言的语义一句法规则中的思维内容编写进去。显然这种工具性又走到了另一个极端—过分强调作为客体的语言的规律作用，随之便受到了解构主义思潮的猛烈抨击。解构主义给人们提供了一种新的思维方式。它打破了结构，解构了系统，使一元规定走向多元化局面，把翻译从语言逻名斯主义的束缚中解放出来。但它毕竟又一次将翻译推向非理性，过分张扬主体意识，使释义变成了一种无限延宕的活动，人与人之间的理解和交往似乎变得不可能。如何克服这种思想观念的偏狭，进行有效的以语言为媒介的跨文化交际活动呢?笔者认为，借助哈贝马斯的交往行为理论，可为翻译学研究找到一条理性的新路。2. 2翻译学理解观的重释。一位法国译者说过:“翻译就是理解和使人理解”。理解是翻译大厦的基石，是翻译过程的第一步，没有一个好的理解，翻译寸步难行。当我们认为交往行为理论为翻译研究打开了一扇新的窗户时，就有必要对理解观进行重释。哈贝马斯认为社会交往以语言为媒介，语言交流必须互相理解，否则谈不上有效交往。交往行为中的语言，即言语，是可以进行规范分析的。每个言语行为都具有施行和陈述的双重结构。施行性部分作为主语句，处于主体间的交际层;而陈述性部分作为副语句，处于主体间的表内容层。施行性部分在一个言语行为中起决定作用，因为它限制了言语者和听者的关系，同时也规约了陈述内容的意义。这两个结构在言语行为中是相互依存的。有时言说者也许会强调其中的一部分，但并不意味着否定另外一部分，只是让它暂时退居次要的位置而已。比如，“我手机没电了”一语，看上去似乎仅仅陈述了手机电池已耗尽这一事实，但实际上它隐含着多种行为意义;①因为手机没电，所以我刚才没接你的电话;②我必须马上充电;③我不会带手机而带小灵通，所以有事请打我的小灵通。这就是隐性的施行性部分，而根据具体的情境，它将起到这样或者那样的施行效果。塞尔认为“说话人的思想的原初的，或内在的意向性被转换为语词、语句、记号、符号等等，这些语词、语句、记号、符号如果被有意义地说出来，它们就有了从说话人的思想中所派生出来的意向性。它们不仅具有传统的语言学意义，而且也具有有意图的说话人的意义。”这无疑与哈贝马斯的言语双重结构理论异曲同工。据此，对意义的理解也有必要进行相应的双重划分。理解某一言语应一分为二地看，在表述层上则是know-what的问题，而在交际层上是know-how的问题。know-what是指言说者何以会达到这种理解的明晰知识，即其能够获得关于理解的知识;从理解者的角度来看，就要求他能理解被语义、句法、规则排列起来的“语词、语句、记号符号”构成了怎样的意义。know how是指有能力言说者如何构造或施行这种言语行为的能力，是一种隐含的规则意识;从理解者的角度来看，就要求他能理解言说者的这种隐含性规则意识。在这一双重理解中，对言语表述内容的理解是一级理解(know-what )，而要真正把握言语者内在的意向性必须进人二级理解(know-how)，即对施行性部分的理解。因此，理解不能停滞在先验判断的形式上，必须在交往过程中达成。理解的目标是导向某种认同，即“共享知识，彼此信任，两相符合的主观际相互依存”。它不仅包含传统的对语言表达式的理解，还包括“在与彼此认为的规范性背景相关的话语的正确性上，两个主体之间存在着某种协调”，及“两个交往过程的参与者对世界上某种东西达成理解，并且能使自己的意向为对方所理解”。3.隐喻的解读哈贝马斯的交往行为理论对翻译学的建构具有宏观的方法论指导意义，对翻译实践是否同样具有指导意义呢?鉴于纽马克曾说“隐喻翻译是一切语言翻译的缩影，因为隐喻翻译给译者呈现出多种选择方式:要么传递其意义，要么重塑其形象，要么对其一进行修改，要么对其意义和形象进行完美的结合。”以下将利用交往行为理论说明隐喻在跨文化交际中的解读。隐喻是一种语言使用现象，在“词典中找不到隐喻”。从现代隐喻学观点来看，隐喻现象应在形式上搭配异常，在语义上类属不同，逻辑错位，从而产生了语义冲突，而当听者对冲突产生回应时，便生成了隐喻的意义，即理解了某一隐喻式言语。对于隐喻的运作机制，有人曾作过这样描述:“隐喻涉及两个不同领域(范畴)的概念，隐喻意义的产生是两个概念之间相互作用的结果。这一相互作用通过映射的方式进行。在映射过程中，属于某一领域的相关概念和结构被转移到另一领域，最终形成一种经过合成的新的概念结构，即隐喻意义。而这一映射和整合过程的基础是两个领域在某些方面的相似性。”这无疑表明对隐喻的理解需要双重划分。隐喻的理解过程应由两部分组成:隐喻的辨认和隐喻意义的推断。事实上这就是一个由一级理解进人二级理解的过程。举一个人们常提到的例子“The tongue is a fire”来说，从表述层理解(一级理解)，"tongue”被美国传统词典这样定义:"the fleshy，movable, muscular organ,attached in most vertebrates to the floor of the mouth, that is principal organ of taste, an aid in chewing, and swallo-wing, and, in human beings,，important organ of speech"。我们可以认为舌头作为人体的一个重要器官，首先具有与绝大多数脊椎动物一样的味觉和辅助咀嚼及吞食的功能，除此之外，还是具有言说能力的人的重要语言器官。以这个基本意义为中心，tongue一词背后形成了一个庞大的意义集合:它可以指形状像舌头的东西，例如tongue of flame(火舌)，guiding tongue(铁路导向尖轨)，switch tong(开关铜片)，也可以指人的言说行为和言说能力，例如hold one’s tongue (keep silent), lose one’s tongue (lose the capacity to speak, as from shock)。这一言语行为中的另一个关键词fire，在美国传统词典里可以找到如下定义;" a rapid, persistent chemical change that releases heat and light and is accompanied勿flame”。同样，在它背后的意义集合中可以找到诸如，cooking fire(炊火)，forest fire(森林火灾)，wild fire(野火),the fire ofcannon炮火)等火的具体形态。也可以发现其他意义，如The boy is full of fire(这男孩非常热情决奋)，He was on-der fire for mismanagement(因管理不善而受到责难)。当tongue和fire这两个背负着各自庞大意义集合的词语被嵌人A is B的基本语言框架(句型)中去时，两者的逻辑关系就通过“is’，发生相互作用。" is”用来表示一种等值。所以从字面上看，或者换一个角度说，从听者对表述层的理解来看就应该推理为:“舌头是火”。“是”表明两个意义集合在某方面来说是等值的。然而，从上面我们对这两个词的意义的理解来看，它们显然隶属于两个不同的范畴，将它们之间用‘` is"连接后，进行常规的等值逻辑推理的是行不通的，于是从表述层上我们能够辨别出这是一个隐喻，从而完成隐喻理解的第一部分。当听者明确说者使用的是隐喻式的言语行为之后，就要对隐喻所表达的真正意义进行推断，那理解当然就要进人二级阶段，理解该言语行为的施行性部分，即理解“说话人的思想的原始的，或内在的意向性”。可以这样假设，如果"The tongue is a fire”是说给一位正受媒体指责的艺人听的，那么说话人可能含有一种同情或瞥告的意向。艺人总是倍受媒体关注的，由于种种原因，媒体可能片面地、夸大地报道了某些事实，而这样的报道传播开来便演变成了某种绊闻和谣言，它们将或多或少地给艺人本人或其事业带来一些麻烦。这种语境为舌头与火的等值逻辑推理提供了一种可能:舌头—人类的语言器官—人的言语行为—媒体的报道—人们对报道的负面反应(纬闻和谣言)—给艺人本人或其事业带来麻烦(毁坏名誉或阻碍事业发展)，火—会发光发热的化学物质—光和热过度会引发火灾，毁坏东西，甚至造成人员死亡，这样二者在毁坏这一功能上找到了相似性，逻辑推理就站得住脚了。"The tongue is a fire”的意思是大众对艺人的多种看法和言论中不乏啡闻或谣言，它们也许会攻击其人格，甚至会因为它们的存在，公司解除雇佣关系，或者没人敢请这位艺人演出。因此我们有理由推断，说话者是在发出人言可畏的感叹，或是在告诫演艺者要注意自己的言行，以免被媒体捕捉到后进行炒作，从而自毁前程。至此，听者才完成了对原言语行为的有效理解，导向了听者与说者的某种认同。完成对隐喻的理解，必须经由一级理解(对言语表述内容的理解)到达二级理解(对言语者内在意向性的理解)。在同一语言体系中是这样，在不同的语言体系间也应该如此，因为唯有如此才能进行有效的跨文化交往。我们应该怎样操作隐喻翻译就不言而喻了，或保全源语隐喻，或进行译语隐喻替换，或使译语语言显性化都具有可行性，只要它能够帮助听读者完成意向性理解。3. 1保全源语隐喻。当隐喻的喻体和喻意在源语与译语中完全或大体相同时，对于源语的喻体，译语听读者能产生与源语听读者相似的心理联想，并完成相似的意向性理解，译语中则宜保全源语隐喻。如: (1)Heisafox.他是只孤狸。英语fox和汉语狐狸指的是同一种动物，当它被用作说人时都含有“狡猾”之意，即使听读者与说写者处于不同的语言体系和文化背景中，也能有效地理解该言语行为的施行性部分:要当心这个人，他很狡猾。再如:(2) think tank思想库“思想库”一词本不存在于汉语文化里，然而“库”在汉语文化中指储藏东西的地方，因此尽管处在汉语文化中的人们还未认识到用“库”的特性来描述“思想”的集合，但这种“库”的认识能导向对英语文化中的“think tank’，的认同，因此“库”这个喻体可以保全下来。毕竟在这种跨文化交际中，我们不能低估听读者的理解能力，更不能剥夺他们的理解权利。在翻译过程中，为了达到跨文化交际的目的，有时需要变通地保全源语隐喻，即在保全源语隐喻的同时做出适当的解释。如:(3)What will it be when the increase of yearly proddc-tion is brought to a complete stop? Here is the vulnerable place, the heel of Achilles, for capitalistic production.(Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 )要是每年的生产完全停止增长，情形又将怎样呢?像阿基里斯的脚踵一样，这将是资本主义生产的致命弱点。(《马克思恩格斯选集》第四卷)"the heel of Achilles”这个短语来源于古希腊神话。A-chilies是古希腊传说中的一位杰出英雄，他在特洛伊战争中身经百战，屡建功勋。据说，Achilles出生时也只是一个极其普通的孩子。他的母亲为了锻炼他坚强的意志，造就他一副刀枪不人的钢铁之躯，便倒提着他的身体放到环绕地狱的冥河中去浸泡。果然，他的身体经过浸泡变成了一副钢筋铁骨，任何凶恶的敌人也不是他的对手。但是，他的一双脚后跟却因握在母亲的手里，便与普通人的一样，成了这位英雄的致命弱点。后来，在一次战斗中，仇敌射中了他的脚后跟。这位战功赫赫、所向无敌的英雄最终死于自身的这一致命弱点。由于汉语文化中没有Achilles其人其事，若仅仅保全英语源语隐喻，而不做任何解释，则会阻碍汉语文化中的听读者完成意向性理解。因为他们对“阿基里斯的脚踵”只能作出符合汉语常识的判断:一个名为阿基里斯的人的脚后跟，而无法导出“致命的弱点”这一认同，即无法进人二级理解。所以在保全英语源语隐喻的基础上，增加必要的解释，这样不仅使听读者顺利地完成理解，导向某种认同，还使听读者见到其原有形象和风格，促进了两国文化的交流。3. 2译语隐喻替换。当源语的喻体所承载的喻义完全无法在译语中再现时，可根据具体的语境而采用译语文化中听读者所熟知的喻体形象进行替换。如:(4)差人道:“马老先生，··…老实一句，‘打开板壁讲亮话’，这事一些半些几十两银子的话，横竖做不起来……”(《儒林外史》)"Now Mr. Ma,”said the rtmner，“…Let’s put all。cards on the table > a few dozen tales are not going to settle anything....生活经历和认识方式的不同，导致汉语和英语中使用了两种不同的喻体，这时，我们不得不使用英语文化中的认识方式“put all our cards on the table”来替代汉语文化中的“打开板壁讲亮话”，因为隐喻不仅作为一种修辞手段存在，更是一种思维方式。既是思维方式就一定会受到认知结构和认知方式的制约，当这种制约条件本身不一致时，我们就不能抓着喻体形象不放。试想把“打开板壁讲亮话”直接搬到英语文化中去，英语语言的使用者没有这种思维方式，根本不能解读出“老实地说、坦诚地说”这一层意义，而只会停留在它的字面意义解读的困惑中。这种滞留于一级状态的理解是不完整的，并没有导向某种认同。为了导向“坦白地说、老实地说”这一认同，英语中就必须更换喻体“put all our cards on the table"。3. 3译语语言显性化。显性化是指在译语中把源语的隐喻变为一种直说或阐释。在翻译过程中，有时在译语中无法再现隐喻的喻体和喻意，也无法在译语文化中找到听读者所熟知的喻体形象进行替换。这时，为了到达二级理解阶段，导向某种认同，就只能舍弃源语隐喻的喻体，而保留其喻意。如:(5)填鸭式教学法forced-feeding method of teaching“填鸭”是一个具有丰富中国文化特色的词。中国有五大名宴:满汉席，孔府宴，全鸭席，文会宴，烧尾席。其中全鸭席的菜肴全部以北京填鸭为主料烹制而成，共有一百多种冷热鸭菜可供选择。据考，北京填鸭的祖籍是南方，后来迁至京西玉泉山，用人工填喂法逐渐育成今日的品种。它的生长期较短，只需60一65天就能长成5一7斤重，45天之前的雏鸭自由取食，最后15~20天则由人工填喂，每6小时一次，一天填喂4次，故得名北京填鸭。把填鸭的饲养方法应用到教学上，是指一种强制灌输的教学方法。处在汉语文化中的听读者很容易由填鸭的饲养方法联想到以教师为中心的满堂灌教学方法，从而完成了对“填鸭式”的一级理解和二级理解。此时，若保留喻体，将“填鸭式”生硬地搬到英语语言文化中去(如duck-feeding)，势必会阻碍该文化中的听读者理解这种教学法。由于在他们文化中没有这种饲养鸭子的方法，他们对duck-feeding的理解只能停留在字面意思即一级理解阶段上，无法进人到二级阶段。为了使他们“导向某种认同”—一种强制灌输的教学活动，就只能舍弃隐喻的喻体，而保留其喻意，故翻译为“forced-feeding method of teaching"。4.结语虽然中西方文化差异很大，人们的隐喻概念也时有不同，但并不意味着在跨文化交际中存在着不可逾越的鸿沟。随着社会的进步和各个学科领域的深人发展，翻译学以及在其抬导下的翻译实践活动被不断地注人新的血液。从哈贝马斯的交往行为理论这扇新打开的窗户看隐喻翻译时，我们获得了一种全新的思维方式:隐喻作为一种言语行为具有所有言语行为所共有的双重结构，基于此我们对它应有相应的双重理解，唯有如此才能达到“导向某种认同”的理解。相信这种思维方式能帮助我们在不同的文化交流中更好地解读隐喻。