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遗传（heredity） 生物的上一代将自己的一整套遗传因子传递给下一代的行为或功能，它具有及其稳定的特性。 遗传型（genotype） 又称基因型，指某一生物个体所含有的全部遗传因子即基因的总和。 表型（phenotype） 某一生物体所具有的一切外表特征及内在特性的总和，是遗传型在合适环境下的具体体现。 变异（variation） 生物体在某种外因或内因的作用下所引起的遗传物质的结构或数量的改变，亦即遗传型的改变。 饰变（modification） 不涉及遗传物质结构改变而只发生在转录、转译水平上的表型变化。 基因突变（gene mutation） 简称突变，指生物体内遗传物质的分子结构突然发生的可遗传的变化。突变几率一般为10-6~10-9。 突变率（mutation rate） 每一细胞在每一世代中发生某一性状突变的几率。突变一般是独立发生的，双重突变的几率是各个突变几率的乘积。 营养缺陷型（auxotroph） 某一野生型菌株由于发生基因突变而丧失合成一种或几种生长因子的能力，因而无法在基本培养基上正常生长繁殖的变异类型。 抗性突变型（resistant mutant） 由于基因突变而使原始菌株发生了对某种化学药物或致死因子抗性的变异类型。 条件致死突变型（conditional lethal mutant） 某菌株或病毒经基因突变后，在某种条件下可正常生长、繁殖并实现其表型，而在另一种条件下却无法生长、繁殖的突变类型。 形态突变型（morphological mutant） 由于突变而产生的个体或菌落形态所发生的非选择型变异。 抗原突变型（antigenic mutant） 由于基因突变而引起的抗原结构发生突变的变异类型。 产量突变型（producing mutant） 通过基因突变而活得的在有用代谢产物产量上高于原始菌株的突变株。 基本培养基（MM, minimal medium） 仅能满足某微生物的野生型菌株生长需要的最低成分组合培养基。 完全培养基（CM, complete medium） 凡可满足一切营养缺陷型进驻营养需要的天然或半组合培养基。 补充培养基（SM, supplemental medium） 凡只能满足相应的营养缺陷型生长需要的组合培养基。 野生型（wild type） 从自然界分离到的任何微生物在其发生营养缺陷突变前的原始菌株。 原养型（prototroph） 一般指营养缺陷型菌株经回变或重组后产生的菌株，其营养要求在表型上野生型相同。 基因重组（gene recombination） 凡把两个不同性状个体内的遗传基因转移到一起，经过遗传分子间的重新组合，形成新遗传型个体的方式。 转化（transformation） 直接吸收了来自供体菌的DNA片段，通过交换，把它整合到自己的基因组中，再经复制就使自己变成了一个转化子。这种受体菌接受供体菌的DNA片段而获得部分新的遗传性状的现象称为转化。 转导（transduction） 通过完全缺陷或部分缺陷噬菌体的媒介，把供体细胞的DNA小片段携带导受体细胞中，通过交换与整合，从而使后者获得前者部分遗传性状的现象。 普遍转导（generalized transduction） 通过完全缺陷噬菌体对供体菌任何DNA小片段的“误包”，而实现其遗传性状传递至受体菌的转导现象。 局限转导（restricted transduction） 通过部分缺陷的温和噬菌体把供体菌的少数特定基因携带到受体菌中，并获得表达的转导现象。 溶源转变（lysogenic conversion） 当温和噬菌体感染其宿主而使其发生溶源化时，因噬菌体的基因整合到宿主的核基因组上，而使后者获得了除免疫性以外的新性状的现象。 接合（conjugation） 供体菌（“雄”）通过其性菌毛与受体菌（“雌”）相接触，前者传递不同长度的单链DNA给后者，并在后者细胞中进行双链化或进一步与核染色体发生交换、整合，从而使后者获得供体菌的遗传性状的现象。 原生质体融合（protoplast fusion） 通过认为的方法，使遗传性状不同的两细胞的原生质体发生融合，并进而发生遗传重组以产生同时带有双亲性状的、遗传性稳定的融合子的过程。 基因工程（genetic engineering） 在基因水平上的遗传工程，用人为的方法将所需要的某一供体生物的遗传物质——DNA大分子提取出来，在离体的条件下用适当的工具酶进行切割后，把它与作为载体的DNA分子连接，然后与载体一起导入某一更易生长、繁殖的受体细胞中，以让外源遗传物质在其中“安家落户”，进行正常的复制和表达，从而获得新物种的一种崭新的育种技术。 有性杂交（sexual hybridization） 不同遗传型的两性细胞间发生的接合和随之进行的染色体重组，进而产生新遗传型后代的一种育种技术。 准性杂交（parasexual hybridization） 同种生物两个不同菌株的体细胞发生融合，且不以减数分裂的方式而导致低频率的基因重组并产生重组子。 复壮（rejuvenation） 狭义的复壮仅是一种消极的措施，它指的是在菌种已发生衰退的情况下，通过纯种分离和测定生产性能等方法，从衰退的群体中找出少数尚未衰退的个体，以达到恢复该菌原有典型性状的一种措施；而广义的复壮则应是一种积极的措施，即在菌种的生产性能尚未衰退前就经常有意识地进行纯种分离和生产性能地测定工作，以期菌种地生产性能逐步有所提高。翻译：Genetic (heredity) The older generation of a set of their genetic factor transmitted to the next generation of acts or functions, it has the characteristics and stability. Genetic type (genotype) Also known as genotype, which refers to a biological entity containing all the genetic factor is the sum of genes. Phenotype (phenotype) An all organisms have an inherent characteristic appearance characteristics and the sum of genetic type is suitable environment in a concrete manifestation. Variation (variation) Organisms some external factors or internal factors in the effects of genetic material caused by the change in the number or structure, that is the type of genetic change. Decorated change (modification) Genetic material does not involve structural changes and only occurred in transcription, translation level phenotypic changes. Gene mutation (gene mutation) Short mutation, genetic material that the body of the molecular structure can suddenly genetic changes. Mutation probability generally 10-6 to 10-9. Mutation rate (mutation rate) Each cell in each generation of mutation in a particular traits risk. Mutations in general is an independent, the probability of double mutation probability is the product of various mutations. Nutrition deficient (auxotroph) A wild type strain due to gene mutation and loss of one or more of the growth factor's ability and is therefore unable to basic medium in the growth and reproduction of the normal variation types. Resistance mutations (resistant mutant) The gene mutation而使original strain occurred on the death of a chemical or drug-resistant variants. Conditions lethal mutant (conditional lethal mutant) The virus strain or a gene mutation, under certain conditions can be normal growth, reproduction and realize their phenotype, and in another condition is not growth, reproduction mutation type. Morphology mutant (morphological mutant) Because mutations arising from the individual or colony morphology of the non-selective variation. Antigen mutant (antigenic mutant) The gene mutation caused mutations in the structure of antigen mutation type. Yield mutant (producing mutant) Through gene mutation and the useful life of the metabolites yield higher than the original mutant strain. Medium (MM, minimal medium) The microbes can only meet a growing need for wild-type strain the minimum Composition medium. Full medium (CM, complete medium) Where can meet all nutritional deficiencies stationed nutritional needs of the combination of natural or semi-medium. Add medium (SM, supplemental medium) Where can only meet the nutritional deficiencies of the corresponding need for a combination of growth medium. Wild-type (wild type) Isolated from the nature of any microbes in their nutritional deficiencies occurred before the mutation of the original strain. Dependents of the original (prototroph) Nutritional deficiencies generally refers to the change of strain or strains arising after the reorganization, their nutritional requirements in the wild-type phenotype on the same. Gene recombinant (gene recombination) Where the two different genetic traits of the individual transfer together, after the re-molecular genetic composition of a new type of individual genetic approach. Conversion (transformation) Absorbed directly from the donor of the DNA fragments through the exchange, put it into our own genome and then on the copy itself into a transformants. This receptor acceptance of the donor of the DNA fragment was part of a new phenomenon called genetic traits into. Transduction (transduction) Through all defects or deficiencies phage part of the media, the donor cells with small fragments of DNA I. receptor cells, through the exchange and integration, so that the latter was the former part of the phenomenon of genetic traits. Universal transduction (generalized transduction) Through entirely on donor defects phage DNA of any small fragment of the "misuse of packets" and achieve its receptor to transmit genetic traits of the transduction phenomenon. Limitations transduction (restricted transduction) Some defects through the modest donor phage to the bacteria to a small number of specific receptor gene carrying bacteria, and the transduction to express their phenomenon. Solubilization of changing (lysogenic conversion) When moderate phage infection and its host to a source of solution, because the phage gene into the host genome, nuclear due to the latter access to the outside in addition to the new characters autoimmune phenomena. Bonding (conjugation) Donor bacteria ( "male"), through its pilus bacteria with receptors ( "ER") contact, the former transmission of different length single strand of DNA to the latter, and in the latter cells for double-stranded or further nuclear chromosome in exchange, integration, so that the latter was the donor of the genetic traits phenomenon. Protoplast fusion (protoplast fusion) Through that method, the genetic traits of two different cell protoplast fusion occurred, and thus to generate recombinant genetic occurred at the same time with both parents traits, genetic stability of the integration process. Genetic engineering (genetic engineering) In genetic engineering on the gene level, the use of the method will need a donor of the genetic material - DNA extracted macromolecules, in vitro conditions with the appropriate tools for cutting enzyme, and it as vector DNA molecular connectivity, and then together with the vector into a more growth and reproduction of receptor cells, in order to allow foreign genetic material in which the "settled for" normal replication and expression, which was a new species new species of breeding techniques. Sexual hybridization (sexual hybridization) Gender different genetic type of bonding occurring chromosome and the subsequent reorganization, thereby generating new generations of a genetic breeding techniques. Quasi-sexual hybridization (parasexual hybridization) With two different types of biological strains of somatic cell fusion occurred, it was not the way to meiosis result of the low frequency gene recombination and produce recombinant. Rejuvenation (rejuvenation) Rejuvenation only narrowly measures is a negative, it means the bacteria has been a decline in the circumstances, separation and through pure performance of the methods of production, from the recession of a few groups have yet to identify the individual recession to achieve typical bacteria restore the original character of the measures, and should be broad Rejuvenation is a positive measure, that is, the production performance in the bacteria before the recession has not been a conscious manner often isolated and purebred production performance of the work, with a view strain and production performance gradually increased.
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下面是我为大家整理的一些关于“英文文献综述的 范文 ”的资料，供大家参阅。
英文文献综述范文
How to Write a Literature Review ?
I. The definition of Literature Review
文献综述(Literautre Review)是科研 论文 中重要的文体之一。它以作者对各种文献资料的整理、归纳、分析和比较为基础，就某个专题的 历史 背景、前人的工作、研究现状、争论的焦点及发展前景等方面进行综合、总结和评论。通过阅读文献综述，科研工作者可花费较少的时间获得较多的关于某一专题系统而具体的信息，了解其研究现状、存在的问题和未来的发展方向。
II. The purposes of literature review And Its Components
A. The Purposes
On the one hand, it helps you broaden the view and perspective of the topic for your graduation thesis.
On the other hand, it helps you narrow down the topic and arrive at a focused
research question.
B. Its Components
There are six parts in a complete Literature Review.
标题与作者(title and author)
摘要与关键词(abstract and key words)
引言(introduction)
述评(review)
结论(conclusion)
参考文献(references)
III. Classification of Source Materials
How can we locate the materials relevant to our topics better and faster? Basically, all these source materials may be classified into four majors of sources.
A: Background sources:
Basic information which can usually be found in dictionaries and
encyclopedia complied by major scholars or founders of the field. Three very good and commonly recommenced encyclopedias are encyclopedias ABC, namely, Encyclopedia Americana, Encyclopedia Britannica, and Collier’s Encyclopedia. There are also reference works more specialized, such as The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics for linguistics and TEFL studies. Moreover, you may also find Encyclopedia on the web.
B: Primary sources
Those providing direct evidence, such as works of scholars of the field,
biographies or autobiographies, memoirs, speeches, lectures, diaries, collection of letters, interviews, case studies, approaches, etc. Primary sources come in various shapes and sizes, and often you have to do a little bit of research about the source to make sure you have correctly identified it. When a first search yields too few results, try searching by broader topic; when a search yields too
many results, refine your search by narrowing down your search.
C: Secondary sources
Those providing indirect evidence, such as research articles or papers, book
reviews, assays, journal articles by experts in a given field, studies on authors or
writers and their works, etc. Secondary sources will inform most of your writing
in college. You will often be asked to research your topic using primary sources,
but secondary sources will tell you which primary sources you should use and
will help you interpret those primary sources. To use theme well, however, you
need to think critically them. There are two parts of a source that you need to
analyze: the text itself and the argument within the text.
D: Web sources
The sources or information from websites. Web serves as an excellent
resource for your materials. However, you need to select and evaluate Web
sources with special care for very often Web sources lack quality control. You
may start with search engines, such as Google, Yahoo, Ask, Excite, etc. It’s a
good idea to try more than one search engine, since each locates sources in its
own way. When using websites for information, be sure to take care for the
authorship and sponsorship. If they are both unclear, be critical when you use
information. The currency of website information should also be taken into
account. Don’t use too out information dated for your purpose.
IV. Major strategies of Selecting Materials for literature review
A. Choosing primary sources rather than secondary sources
If you have two sources, one of them summarizing or explaining a work and
the other the work itself, choose the work itself. Never attempt to write a paper
on a topic without reading the original source.
B. Choosing sources that give a variety of viewpoints on your thesis
Remember that good argument essays take into account counter arguments.
Do not reject a source because it makes an argument against you thesis.
C. Choosing sources that cover the topic in depth
Probably most books on Communicative Language Teaching mention William
Littlewood, but if this your topic, you will find that few sources cover the topic
in depth. Choose those.
D. Choosing sources written by acknowledged experts
If you have a choice between an article written by a freelance journalist on
Task-based Teaching and one written by a recognized expert like David Nunan,
Choose the article by the expert.
E. Choosing the most current sources
If your topic involves a current issue or social problem or development in a
scientific field, it is essential to find the latest possible information. If all the
books on these topics are rather old, you probably need to look for information in
periodicals.
V. Writing a literature Review
A. When you review related literature, the major review focuses should be:
1. The prevailing and current theories which underlie the research problem.
2. The main controversies about the issue, and about the problem.
3. The major findings in the area, by whom and when.
4. The studies which can be considered the better ones, and why.
5. Description of the types of research studies which can provide the basis for the current theories and controversies.
6. Criticism of the work in the area.
B. When you write literature review, the two principles to follow are:
1. Review the sources that are most relevant to your to your thesis.
2. Describe or write your review as clear and objective as you can.
C. Some tips for writing the review:
1. Define key terms or concepts clearly and relevant to your topic.
2. Discuss the least-related references to your question first and the most
related references last.
3. Conclude your review with a brief summary.
4. Start writing your review early.
VI. 文献综述主要部分的细节性提示和 注意事项
英文文献主要部分细节提示：
引言(Introduction)
引言是文献综述正文的开始部分，主要包括两个内容：一是提出问题;二是介绍综述的范围
和内容。提出问题时，作者要给出定义性解释、交代研究背景、简单介绍不同文献的看法和
分歧所在并介绍该文献的写作目的;介绍该综述的范围和主要内容时，作者应使用简明扼要
的语句加以概括。
引言的内容和结构具有以下特点：
(1)综述的引言通常包括定义性解释、研究背景、现存问题或分歧、综述的目的、内容和
范围;
(2)使用一般现在时介绍背景知识，使用现在完成时叙述他人成果，使用一般将来时或一
般现在时简介本文内容;
(3) 句子 结构力求简洁明了，多用简单句，并列成份较为常见;
(4)以第三人称主语为主，间或使用第一人称复数充当主语。
述评(Review)
述评是文献综述的核心所在，是对引言的展开和深入。根据引言所提出的问题和限定的范围，
作者要对大量有关文献进行系统的整理、归纳、对比和分析，在此基础上列出与主题有关的
所有重要学术观点，然后分别加以论述，以便读者获得全面的了解。回顾前人研究，以时间
为序，由远及近。以有叙有议的方式体现述评的功能，叙前人研究，议其结果、探其原因、
究其不足。
分析评论，特别是表达作者自己的观点时，要客观、谨慎，因此多使用模糊性语言和表推测
的语言形式。
综述的结论(Conclusion)
结论不仅是作者对全文的总结，也是作者发表个人 意见 的部分，一般有标题Conclusion 或
Summary，较短的综述如果没有小标题，则往往有As mentioned above，To sum up，To
conclude，Inshort，In all 等 短语 引出结论。结论的内容包括：对述评的归纳、对各种问
题的评论性意见、对未来研究的建议或展望。
二.注意事项
⒈搜集文献应尽量全面。掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一 点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好的文献综述，甚至写出的文章根本不成为综述。
⒉注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性。在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的 文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和 科学性较好的文献。
⒊引用文献要忠实文献内容。由于文献综述有作者自己的评论分析，因此在撰写时应分清 作者的观点和文献的内容，不能篡改文献的内容。
⒋参考文献不能省略。有的科研论文可以将参考文献省略，但文献综述绝对不能省略，而 且应是文中引用过的，能反映主题全貌的并且是作者直接阅读过的文献资料。
5.文献综述不应是对已有文献的重复、罗列和一般性介绍，而应是对以往研究的优点、不足和贡献的批判性分析与评论。因此，文献综述应包括综合提炼和分析评论双重含义。
6.文献综述要文字简洁，尽量避免大量引用原文，要用自己的语言把作者的观点说清楚，从原始文献中得出一般性结论。
7. 文献综述不是资料库，要紧紧围绕课题研究的“问题”，确保所述的已有研究成果与本课题研究直接相关，其内容是围绕课题紧密组织在一起，既能系统全面地反映研究对象的历史、现状和趋势，又能反映研究内容的各个方面。
8. 文献综述的综述要全面、准确、客观，用于评论的观点、论据最好来自一次文献，尽量避免使用别人对原始文献的解释或综述。
VII. A Sample of Literature Review
A Study of Chinese Vogue Expressions and Translations
Although we can see the obtained achievements in researching on Chinese vogue expressions, papers on the translation of contemporary Chinese vogue expressions are scarce and rare, not to mention the discussion of translation methods and untranslatability of Chinese vogue expressions, which is a great regret in the field of vogue expressions. Few representative papers on Chinese vogue expressions translation are listed as follows: A Study of Shooting Star Language Translation(Wang Jian, Zhou Yongping, 2005:92～94); Cultural Reflection on Vogue Word s Translation (Su Yu, Wang Ting, 2011:50 ～ 51); The optimization of “Zero Translation” in Translating Vogue Words (Shi Rui, 2010:102～105).
Hence, the numbers of researches on contemporary Chinese vogue expressions translation are expected to be increased and the comprehensive and detailed researches on this field are also expected to appear. Since 1990s, scholars have already paid attention to Chinese vogue expressions, but the research at that time is still in the stage of tentative exploration. Some representative papers are: City Buzzwords and Social-Cultural Analysis (Sun Manjun,1996:101～107) discusses the development and changes of buzzwords in the current society facing transformation as well as the relation between buzzwords and background of social culture and psychological changes of urban people; Metaphorically Semantic Generalization of Vogue Expressions (Liu Dawei,1997:35 ～ 38) talks about the semantic generalization of metaphors of vogue expressions; Study on Creativity and Homoplasy of Language from Vogue Expressions (Xia Lihong, 1999:16～18) treats the development process of vogue expressions from the characteristics of creativity
and homoplasy, believing that vogue expressions are originally the “creativity” used in a certain range, and finally surpass the original range of use because of the interaction among people and the homoplasy of aesthetic interests. Due to the characteristics of timeliness, periodicity and randomness, some vogue expressions can not be included in common dictionaries, therefore, language scholars carried out the work of compiling vogue expressions dictionaries, such as Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese Vogue Expressions (Xiong Zhongwu, 1992), andBeijing Modern Buzzwords (Zhou Yimin, 1992).
After entering 21st century, increasingly great number of Chinese vogue expressions emerges and penetrates into different aspects of social life; accordingly, related researches on Chinese vogue expressions become comparatively richer. Researching on Chinese vogue expressions has already become the hot topic of linguistic and cultural circles. The Linguistic will contribute to the filed of Chinese vogue expressions and make references forothers who are interested in contemporary Chinese vogue expressions and their Translations.
References
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Enhancing Genetic Gain through Genomic Selection: From Livestock to Plants 这篇是徐云碧老师2019年发表在《Plant Communications》上的综述。徐老师是农科院作科所以及CIMMYT的分子育种专家，著有《分子数量遗传学》和《分子植物育种》，提出环境型、遗传增益等非常具有指导意义的理论，是真正的行业大佬。最难得的是，他还是行业内的布道者，大力宣传先进知识，实在是业界良心。
这篇综述是从遗传增益的角度来理解GS，或者是说以GS为中心的遗传增益，积淀了徐老师大量的观点和成果。除了提炼要点，我也会参杂一点自己的理解和看法。
遗传增益 公式：ΔG = i σ A r MG / t
提高遗传增益围绕着以上公式展开：增加选择强度，加大遗传方差，提高选择/预测准确性或遗传力，缩短育种周期。
自交和杂交作物育种的GS应用示例：
在动物中，个体价值更高，世代间隔短，因此遗传增益更高。此外，有合适的基因分型平台（价格合理的芯片），标记稳定，广泛的系谱信息及后代测试年限，种群结构少，流程相对简单。奶牛、猪、绵羊、肉牛、鸡等家畜陆续应用GS。
在植物GS中需考虑的影响遗传增益的因素：
几个主要影响植物GS的因素： 标记密度、群体大小、统计模型、参考群和候选群的遗传关系、群体结构和表型准确性等。
植物中最大的限制是成本，需要开发出具有高效益成本的基因分型、表型和环境分型平台，创建多样化和可更新的参考群，开发高效和多功能的基因组预测模型，缩短育种周期时间和加快育种过程，建立强大的决策支持系统，并建立开源育种计划。
此外，还要考虑纯种系和建立预测模型的高通量和精密表型，因为基因-环境相互作用（GEI或GxE）对植物的表型影响重大，但对动物的影响有限（在设施中饲养更便于管理）。
动物和植物GS的比较：
根据GS的影响因素，GS预测的准确性可用以下公式来表示：
高密度标记
增加群体规模，同时平衡参考-候选群关系
将标记效应和GWAS结果整合到预测模型中
在预测模型中加入GxE和非加性效应
通过多组学信息来优化预测模型
从GS的角度来看，有两种不同的策略可以提高植物育种的遗传增益。
此外，GS还可以与速育方法结合使用，以进一步缩短育种周期。
用于GS的综合育种平台：
关于GS的开源育种，这个是真的很有意义，康奈尔大学的 Susan R. McCouch也在做类似的事情，详情参见： When more is better: how data sharing would accelerate genomic selection of crop plants 网站：
不过这个实施起来太难了，涉及到太多人的利益，育种家视之如宝的育种材料和数据能轻易共享出去吗？在此打一个大大的问号。实际上，这些开源育种项目也是建立了Partner关系的，类似于育种联盟吧，需要门票，路人无法访问。
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