1.Introduction 4
2.Theoretical foundation 5
2.1 A general understanding of RT 5
2.1.1 The concept of “communication” 5
2.1.2 Cognitive environment & mutual manifestness 5
2.1.3 Ostensive-inferential process of communication 6
2.1.4 Context & contextual effect 7
2.1.5 Definitions related to RT 7
2.2 Translation in view of RT 8
2.2.1 The notion of “translation” 8
2.2.2 The process of translation 8
2.2.3 The purpose of translation 9
3.Strategies used in the translation of Se, Jie under the guidance of RT 10
3.1 Reservation 11
3.2 Information Compensation 12
3.3 Information Omission 14
3.3.1 Voluntary Omission 15
3.3.2 Passive Omission 16
3.4 Clarification of Implicature 17
4.Conclusion 18
Acknowledgements 19
References 20
1. Introduction
Relevance Theory (RT for short) was originally proposed by Sperber and Wilson in 1986 in their book Relevance: communication and cognition, he adopted some basic terms in RT such as context, optimal relevance, and interpretive use of language to interpret translation.
In China, more and more scholars have begun researching on RT in recent years. Many a scholar such as Zhao Yanchun, and so forth.
Se, Jie by Julia Lovell, who is a lecturer in Cambridge University in England. Compared with other foreign translators, she has already translated various Chinese literary works which are full of cultural features. Therefore, when analyzing the concrete translation tasks, strategies and styles, it is more convincing to study from the perspective of RT. Since Eileen Zhang’s novels are famous for their delicate and subtle writing style, the novel Se, Jie necessarily presents the striking feature of implicature, which is of great importance to RT. With the analysis, this thesis tries to explore the discrepancies that result from different target readers and their cognitive environment. Under this situation, the translator should faithfully transfer the right author-oriented information and bridge the discrepancies, and then consider striking a balance between her own preference and the target reader’s expectation.
Some specific translation strategies are listed in this thesis, such as Reservation, Information Compensation, etc. to successfully transfer optimal relevance in some cases. By using them, the translator not only tries to bridge the discrepancies, but also shapes her own translation style. To sum up, this thesis is an attempt to illustrate the English translation of the novel Se,Jie from the perspective of RT.
2. Theoretical foundation
2.1 A general understanding of RT
2.1.1 The concept of “communication”
The central concept, also the premise of RT is the concept of “communication”. Two main problems that are concerned with communication are: what explicit information is; what implicit information is. All theories of communication, from Aristotle through to modern semiotics, were based on a single model, which we call the code model[1]2. As code model is achieved by encoding and decoding messages, it only gives answer to the first question. According to several philosophers, notably Paul Grice and David Lewis, there is another quite different model—inferential mode
l, under which communication is achieved by producing and interpreting evidence. However, Sperber and Wilson maintain that communication can be achieved by encoding and decoding messages, as well as by providing evidence for an intended inference[1]3.
2.1.2 Cognitive environment & mutual manifestness
In RT, there are another two key concepts: cognitive environment and mutual manifestness.
A fact is manifest to an individual at a given time if and only if he is capable at that time of representing it mentally and accepting its representation as true or probably true.
A cognitive environment of an individual is a set of facts that are manifest to him.[1]39
The key to the success of communication between people is the mutual manifestness of the cognitive environment. An individual’s total cognitive environment is a function of his physical environment and his cognitive abilities[1]39.
2.1.3 Ostensive-inferential process of communication
Communication is an ostensive-inferential process, which consists of the informative intention and the communicative intention. In general, recognising the intention behind the ostension is necessary for efficient information processing: someone who fails to recognise this intention may fail to notice relevant information[1]50. The definition of informative intention and communicative intention are as follows:
A communicator produces a stimulus intending thereby informative intention: to make manifest or more manifest to the audience a set of assumptionsⅠ[1]58.
To communicate intentionally by ostension is to produce a certain stimulus with the aim of fulfilling an informative intention, and intending moreover thereby communicative intention: to make it mutually manifest to audience and communicator that the communicator has this informative intention[1]61.
And the ostensive-inferential communication can be defined as follows: the communicator produces a stimulus which makes it mutually manifest to communicator and audience that the communicator intends, by means of this stimulus, to make manifest or more manifest to the audience a set of assumptionsⅠ[1]63. Here, the stimulus is a phenomenon designed to achieve cognitive effects[1]153.
2.1.4 Context & contextual effect
Besides, the notion of context plays quite an important role in RT. “context” is dynamic, variable. It can be regarded as a set of assumptions. The contextual factors needed in interpreting every utterance are different; the hearer has to construct new contexts during the process of interpreting utterances. However, utterance inference may result in different implicated conclusions, due to the various cognitive environment and construction among different people.
Then it is the appearance of the notion of a contextual effect. The following words quoted from Sperber and Wilson explains the intuitive idea behind the notion of a contextual effect.
To modify and improve a context is to have some effect on that context—but not just any modification will do…….the addition of new information which merely duplicates old information does not count as an improvement; nor does the addition of new information which is entirely unrelated to old information[1]109.
2.1.5 Definitions related to RT
Using contextual effect in defining relevance, although not incorrect, missed the fact that relevance is also, and more importantly, a comparative concept. Therefore, an extent-conditions format of the definition illustrated the definition in a better way:
Relevance
Extent condition 1: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effects in this context are large.
Extent condition 2: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small.[1]125
This comparative definition implies that the degree of relevance is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.
Discussing about RT, it is essential for us to be familiar with another two definitions:
(1) Presumption of optimal relevance[1]158
(a) The set of assumptionsⅠwhich the communicator intends to make manifest to the addressee is relevant enough to make it worth the addressee’s while to process the ostensive stimulus.
(b) The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicateⅠ.
(2) Principle of relevance[1]158
Every act of ostensive communication communicates a presumption of its own optimal relevance.
Above is a general review of some concepts in RT, which will lay a foundation for the following theoretical statement and analysis.
2.2 Translation in view of RT
2.2.1 The notion of “translation”
Gutt holds that one of the important claims of relevance theory is that there are two psychologically distinct modes of using language: the descriptive use and the interpretive use [3]44. These two terms are introduced as follows:
A language utteran
ce is said to be used descriptively when it is intended to be taken as true of a state of affairs in some possible world.
An utterance is said to be used interpretively when it is intended to represent what someone said or thought.[3]44
Translation, from the viewpoint of RT, is an inter-lingual communication that falls naturally under the interpretive use of language. That is, the translation is intended to restate in one language what someone else said or wrote in another language. In this case, the purpose of translation is to reach the highest resemblance and faithfulness by using the interpretive words; in other words, to reach the optimal relevance.
2.2.2 The process of translation
In the translation process under RT, the original author, translator and target readers constitute a triangle relationship. From the original author to the target readers there are two rounds of communication in which the translator plays a double role both being a reader and an author. In the first round of communication, the translator presents as a hearer/reader who has to fully understand the original author’s intention with the right assessment of her cognitive environment and to get the right content-combined and author-intended contextual assumptions. In the second round, the translator becomes an author who aims at giving the target readers the reconstructed information she perceives from the original author in the most relevant way. In the whole process, the translator’s own preference and ability inevitably affect the translation task to a great extent.
2.2.3 The purpose of translation
As one type of communication, the purpose of translation is clearly the pursuit of optimal relevance. Nevertheless, because of contextual and linguistic factors, it is not easy to achieve optimal relevance in translation.
First, during the translation process, we met the “secondary communication situation”. “Secondary communication situation” indicates all instances where a text is presented to an audience with a context different from the one originally envisaged51.
Secondly, the difficulties come from linguistic or lexical differences between target language and source language. Usually, the translator is required to master language skills excellently enough to help the audience overcome the language barriers. Still, most of the time, it is impossible for the translator to get rid of the discrepancies of lexicon and syntax and transfer the author-oriented meaning exactly the same way as the target language does.
The above two causes are, all in all, problems of interpretive resemblance. Interpretive resemblance is only a matter of degree. In translation, the more the sharing of explicatures and implicatures between utterances is, the closer the resemblance of interpretive use of language.
3. Strategies used in the translation of Se, Jie under the guidance of RT
As is known to all, Eileen Zhang is one of the most influential writers in Chinese modern literature. In 2005, the number of research papers on Eileen Zhang and her works came only after that of Lu Xun. Eileen Zhang’s novels and prose are characterized by her unmatchable wording and unique representational method of art: Like Lu Xun’s language using, many of Eileen Zhang’s expressions are quoted as classic; the aesthetics she set up can be summarized as “uneven”, which she explained that she was using the method of unevenness and comparison to figure the people in modern times--their sincerity in the dummy, their simplicity in flashiness. Another reason why her works enjoy such a great popularity and have so much influential power is that, apparently, she is writing about the love between men and women, describing the common life of common people, the thoughts she wants to convey is far more than her doubts and heckling for the emotions; virtually, she is trying, implicitly, to transfer her special opinion towards the weighty issues, such as country, race, warfare, and gender.
Se, Jie , a short novel, pictures the profound yet ruthless human nature with the same theme of desolate world, but more extremely than any other novels of Eileen Zhang. With the unique writing m
ethod, special subject, exquisite words and sentences, Se, Jie is a challenging task for any kind of reinterpretation, film adapting or translation. Inasmuch as these reasons, it becomes a transcript full of research value.
Julia Lovell is a female lecturer from Cambridge University in London. She has translated several books of typical Chinese culture, for example, The Great Wall: China Against The World, 1000BC-2000AD, A Dictionary of Maqiao, I Love Dollars, Sky Burial and so on. This time, she chooses Eileen Zhang’s novel Se, Jie, about which it is said that without relevant historical background, the readers will find it too hard to understand in such an obscure writing style.
This thesis will analyze the English translation version from a new perspective—relevance theory, which can avoid many endless controversies associated with translation. The classification of the strategies in this thesis is a bit different from that of others. The strategies are categorized under one principle that in order to achieve optimal relevance between the original author and the target readers, whether the author has done some modification to the original text during the process of translation. The following are the concrete analysis of the four categories of strategies employed by Julia Lovell.
3.1 Reservation
Reservation in this thesis happens for various factors. In the first place, according to section 2.1, we get to know two concepts—“informative intention” and “communicative intention”. Sperber and Wilson say “A communicator who produces an ostensive stimulus is trying to fulfill two intentions: first, the informative intention, to make manifest to her audience a set of assumptionsⅠ; and second , the communicative intention, to make her informative intention mutually manifest.[3]163” From what Sperber and Wilson say, information can be clearly inferred, that is, the informative intention serves for the realization of the communicative intention; In RT, the ultimate goal is to fulfill the communicative purpose.
In the second place, Gutt holds that two utterances interpretively resemble each other more closely, the more explicatures or implicatures they share[3]45. The more explicatures and implicatures they share, the more successful the translation is.
Hence, when the informative intention can easily lead to realization of the communicative intention and at the same time the processing effort of the target readers is small, the translator chooses to reserve the information exactly the same way as the original author conveys. The strategy of reservation here means transliteration of some of the culture-bounded terms. The advantage, on the one hand, lies in that this method maximizes the contextual effect. On the other hand, not only the scholars and researchers often study the works of Eileen Zhang, but also the common people sometimes want to appreciate her works. So, to reserve the original terms would help provide Chinese cultural knowledge, help promote the cross-cultural communication, and better spread the Chinese culture.
Example 1
麻将桌上白天也开着强光灯，洗牌的时候一只只钻戒光芒四射。
Though it was still daylight, the hot lamp was shining full-beam over the mahjong table.
Example 2
易太太是在自己家里，没穿她那件一口钟，也仍旧“坐如钟”，发福了。
Yi Taitai was chez elle, so she had dispensed with her own cape; but even without it, her figure still seemed to bell outward from her neck, with all the weight the years had put on her.
The two sentences come at the beginning of the story. In the second example, “太太” is transliterated as “taitai”, which keeps the original flavor of war-time culture in Shanghai. “太太” in China gives the denotation of wife of a rich man, who enjoys a decent life. This denotation creates a background of luxurious life of the high-position families of Yi and others. Besides, in the first sentence, “麻将” is transliterated as “mahjong”, a typical game quite popular among those wealthy, idle taitais. The conversations among these taitais at the mahjong table play quite a crucial role throughout the whole novel, that is, they take up 1/3 of the total 18,000 words. Thus, this translation achieves the contextual effect to the greatest extent with small processing effort for the target readers, for some of Chinese phrases have already been accepted in the western countries, such as tofu, kungfu, and kowtow. Most of the readers will not regard it too hard to capture the meaning of such a noun, which appears again and again in the novel. The translator has weighed the cognitive environment and ability of the target readers.
In Julia Lovell’s translation of Se, Jie, transliteration is easy to be found. For example, “品芬” is translated as “Pin Fen”. Those terms greatly enrich the foreign culture not only for academic stu
dy but also for appreciation and better recognition of Chinese culture.
3.2 Information Compensation
As is addressed in section 2.2.3, when the translator meets the problem of contextual difference, the translator should sometimes amend the translated text. Also, Gutt says that it is usually seen as the reader’s responsibility to familiarize himself with the historical and cultural background of a particular piece of literature to ensure correct understanding[3]50. The same strategy is employed in this text to add some information to reach the relevance. Because of the “secondary communication situations”, the words and sentences in the original text can not give the same communicative information as they do in the target text, that is, due to the discrepancies of the historical background, geography and culture, literal translation of meaning is inadequate to reach the communicative purpose and the target readers lack information in their cognitive and cultural environment.
In dealing with the same problem, the author uses the method of “information compensation”—to provide complementary information to the corresponding phrases to achieve certain effect needed.
Example 3
战时上海……因此成为汪政府官太太的制服。也许还是受重庆的影响，觉得黑大氅最庄严大方。
For these excellent reasons, the cape and gold chain had become the favored uniform of the wives of officials serving in Wang Jingwei’s puppet government. Or perhaps they were following the lead of Chongqing, the Chinese Nationalist regime’s wartime capital, where…glitterati.
Example 4
周佛海家里有，所以他们也有。
Zhou Fohai, Wang Jingwei’s second-in-command, had a pair; and so, therefore, did they.
As was mentioned in 2.2.2, in the second round of the translation process, the translator aims at being a media of communication between the original writer and the target readers. In this novel, the native language of the target readers is English, so it is almost impossible for them to fully aware of the social context that the original author (with her source language of Chinese) intends to convey to her target readers who are familiar with China’s history. Julia, as a target language speaker, attempts to assess the cognitive environment and the understanding ability of the target readers and then compensate certain information that makes the reader getting maximal contextual effect with the least effort.
As what example 3 has presented, most of the readers who speak English as their native language would not understand “汪政府”and “重庆” if Julia only uses transliteration, like “Wang’s government” and “Chongqing”. The reader lacks the background knowledge of Chinese history, thus they are not able to form such images in the mind. However, those images are essential in comprehending Eileen Zhang’s story and her writing purpose. When Julia adds the explanation of Wang’s name—Jingwei and uses “puppet” to modify “government”, the readers could fully form a picture of the nature of Wang’s government and learn the historical person called Wang Jingwei. The reason why Julia adds “the Chinese Nationalist regime’s wartime capital” to interpret “Chongqing” is that, at that time when the story took place Chongqing served as the Chinese Nationalist regime’s wartime capital, not only as a common city. The information compensated enriches the target readers’ knowledge of Chinese social and historical background, which bridges the discrepancies between the target readers and the original author. In this way, as the original readers, the target readers are supposed to reconstruct the relevance between the wartime situation in Chongqing Province, Mr. Yi’s identity, and Wang Jiazhi’s special mission.
In the fourth example, “周佛海” is transliterated and interpreted as “Wang Jingwei’s second-in-command”. Because of the different social background of the target readers and the original author, it is meaningless for them to catch the name “Zhou Fohai” if it is not fully explained. Using Zhou’s position in Wang’s government to explain “周佛海”, Julia not only achieves the purpose of introducing the person—Zhou, but also set up some connection between Zhou and our hero Mr. Yi, who is also in a high position in Wang’s government. This information helps the target readers to speculate the reason why Wang Jiazhi and her classmates would choose him to assassinate.
Example 5
“昨天我们到蜀腴去—麦太太没去过。” 易太太……黑斗篷之一。
‘We went to Shuyu, that Szechuanese restaurant, yesterday,’ Yi taitai…the first black cape.
With the same scale to weigh her translation, the translation of “Shuyu” in this
sentence is open-ended. The notion of “蜀腴” is more complex than that. “蜀” is the abbreviation for Szechuan Province, while “腴” originally means “plump” and here refers to local restaurant in the context. The two layers of meaning together lay a solid foundation for the following talks about spicy food, such as tofu. However, the translator ignores the meaning of “腴”, which is less relevant in the context.
3.3 Information Omission
During the translation process, some semantic information can not transfer the communicative intention smoothly. Usually, there are two kinds of situation. In one situation, the translator voluntarily decrease the content of communication and in the other, the translator has no choice but to omit some information. The following are the details.
3.3.1 Voluntary Omission
Redundant information increases the effort of information processing of the target readers. In translating a novel, if every detail is explained fully, the theme of the novel may be shaded or even lost. Considering this, Julia Lovell adopts a strategy of omission to tackle this problem.
Example 6
“是哪个说的？那回易先生过生日，不是就说麻姑献寿嚜!” 马太太说。
The translator omits the whole sentence in the novel.
The preceding passage of this sentence describes a lot about how Yi Taitai makes fun of Liao Taitai and everybody laughs. Therefore, the readers are easy enough to get the information the original author tries to convey. The detail of Mr. Yi’s birthday seems trivial to add or to omit. In order to be in accordance with the principle of relevance, the author tries not to add unnecessary burden to the readers understanding.
Example 7
据说是民国初年精通英文的那位名学者说的，……?”
Somewhere in the first decade or two of the twentieth century, a well-known Chinese scholar was supposed to have added ….
In the Chinese version, Eileen Zhang transfers more than one piece of information. First, the time when the intellectual lived; second, his amazing ability of English; third, he was a famous intellectual. To the Chinese readers, if they combine the information together, they may infer who this scholar exactly was and then find the irony here Eileen Zhang shows to him and his absurd theory of love between man and woman. And finally, the readers can form their own opinions about this problem and resonate with Wang Jiazhi’s view.
In the English translation, however, the translator mentions the information of a famous scholar, which means that Julia Lovell does not make any effort to imply the readers who this scholar really is. In fact, even did she add the information the same as I listed above, the target readers may probably have no idea about this person, let alone to reach certain contextual effect. The only effect is to make much more efforts when the readers process the information.
Examples of voluntary omission are too many to list one by one in this novel, such as some details like “据说也是主贵的”, “又不是鸽子蛋, ‘钻石’嚜, 也是石头” and so forth.
3.3.2 Passive Omission
In another case, the translator has no choice but to omit some semantic information. For in Eileen Zhang’s novel, there are inevitably some words or phrases related with culture, which are a big challenge for the translator.
Example 8
到了这购物的天堂，总不能入宝山空手回。
Yi Taitai had no intention of wasting the golden purchasing opportunity…in a commercial paradise.
Example 9
她说老都老了，还吃我的豆腐。
“I am too old a piece of tofu for you to swallow,” she replied.
Example 10
回到他家里，又是风声鹤唳，一夕数惊。
At the house, she had to be constantly on her guard.
Above are three typical examples in the translation of the English novel Se, Jie. In the first example, the cultural phrase “入宝山空手回” is used to describe Hong Kong as a huge purchasing paradise. Though “wasting the golden purchasing opportunity” explains the same meaning, it loses Chinese flavor and somehow lessens the writing ability of Eileen Zhang. But, still, it is relevant enough for the communicative intention.
In the ninth example, in Chinese language“吃我的豆腐” does not simply mean swallow the tofu, but also means taking advantage of woman(especially physically). While in English, “swallow a piece of tofu” does not have such a homonymous meaning. So, the target readers will probably just get the information of eating something, for the author gives up another layer of meaning.
In example 10, there are two Chinese idioms: “风声鹤唳” and “一夕数惊”, which strongly impressed the readers that danger is approaching Wang Jiazhi and they can feel the anxiety and the horror around Jiazhi. Again, in English, there are no corresponding phrases of these Chinese idioms. The translator has to find another
way to reach the communicative purpose.
3.4 Clarification of Implicature
Due to difference of linguistic structures between English and Chinese language, the translator has to put some implied words or sentences explicitly. This way of translation inevitably reduces the faithfulness of some detailed words or sentences, yet serves the communicative purpose of the novel as a whole.
Example 11
《色，戒》
Lust, Caution
The title of this novel is quite interesting for most readers. Lust is seductive, yet dangerous. The author implies a caution against lust. While in Chinese, 《色，戒》 carriess various meanings, depending on the perception and imagination of different readers. “色” could be a kind of eagerness for sex, which Wang Jiazhi doubts about its effect of making someone fall in love with another person. Thus, people have to get rid of feeling like this. Or it might mean “color” as well, and “戒” might refer to the ring, which is a fuse for the explosion in this story. With too many possible connotations and associations, the exact meaning Eileen Zhang intends to convey is vague and fluid. Furthermore, no equivalent words can be found in English. Therefore, the translator gives up some of the explanations and chooses one of the understandings, which she thinks the most relevant.
Example 12
……只觉得他们俩在灯下单独相对，……
…Only intensified her sense of being entirely alone with her lover.
In this example, the original author uses the pronoun “他们俩” to define the vague relationship between Mr. Yi and Wang Jiazhi. It is so hard to define their relationship, mistress and her patron in Yi’s eyes, or the betrayed bait and the fish in Wang’s former scheme? Eileen Zhang has not given an explicit answer, while the readers could get their own understanding between lines. However, in the English translation, Julia clarifies their relationship as “lovers”, which means a more open relationship between a man and a woman. Through the whole novel, Eileen Zhang does not use words or phrases to clearly point out their relationship. We Chinese readers are accustomed to this vague expression, however, the target readers of Julia may prefer a more explicit description. If Julia only uses the word “they”, the target readers may encounter too much burden in understanding, thus get confused about their relationship; moreover they can not get enough information from the whole novel to support their inference.
4．Conclusion
This thesis discusses various differences and similarities between Chinese version and English version of the novel.
The similarity lies in the theme of the novel. Julia has not changed the idea Eileen Zhang tries to convey. That is, an analysis of the human nature–love. The differences lie in the ways author and translator conveys themselves. Due to the discrepancies of culture, linguistic structure, and social background, differences are inevitable. The translator has to face them, employ feasible strategies to compensate, omit, or illustrate, and finally achieve effects in the most relevant way according to her own understanding and assumption. Therefore, it is unnecessary for a translator to be “invisible” in her work. The target readers need the translator’s effort to bridge the gap between the original author and them. Hence, the translated novel is totally different of Chinese or of English version whenever it comes to the style, diction or other aspects. Nevertheless, the translator does keep some, definitely not all, Chinese elements by using the strategy of Reservation.
To sum up, the discrepancies between the original novel and the translated novel are inevitable due to different target readers. The differences result from the translator’s efforts to better achieve the communicative intention. The above discussion of the English novel Se,Jie from RT is by no means comprehensive but it can serve our purpose to study translation from a new perspective. The purpose of this paper is to fully illustrate the English translation of the novel Se,Jie and provide our fellow researchers of English translation and linguistics with another reference.
Acknowledgements
My deepest gratitude goes first to my supervisor Yan Shuang, who has constantly encouraged and guided me through all the stages of the writing of this thesis. Without her illuminating and consistent instructions, I could not have finished this thesis.
I am also greatly indebted to many other professors and teachers in the English Department: Professor Wang Jingsheng, Associate Professor Yang Xue, Han Xiaoya, Feng Shaozhong, who have instructed and helped me a lot in the past four years.
My greatest personal debt is to my parents, grandparents, aunt and uncle for their loving consideration and great confidence in me all through these years.
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