流行病学英文论文

So what are the risks of smoking? Here's what tobacco's critics say: CANCER The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says cigarette smoking is responsible for 151,322 cancer deaths annually in the United States. Most of those--116,920--are from lung cancer. The CDC says men who smoke are 22 times more likely to die from lung cancer than non-smokers. Women who smoke are 12 times more likely to die from the disease. Statistical studies have long shown that people who don't smoke live longer than people who do and scientists have seen statistically the correlation between smoking and incidences of lung cancer since the 1950s. But a study earlier this year by Gerd Pfeifer of the Beckman Research Institute pinpointed specific carcinogens in cigarette smoke that target parts of a gene already known to be prominent in some cancers. Pfeifer wrote in Science that cigarette smoke causes changes in the gene p53, which protects against cancer when normal but promotes cancer growth when mutated . Another study, published by the American Cancer Society, said that low-tar cigarettes offered no relief from the potential of cancer, and in fact were responsible for a type of cancer that reaches deeper into lung tissue. Other cancers are also affected by cigarette smoke. An American Cancer Society researcher reported earlier this year that smoking increased men's risk of dying of prostate cancer, while other studies have linked tobacco use to increased risk of other cancers, including throat, breast and bowel cancer. 那么吸烟究竟有什么危害呢?还是听听烟草批评家们的说法： 癌症 疾病防治中心说，吸烟是导致美国每年151322位癌症患者死亡的罪魁祸首。这些死亡者中的大多数——116990人是死于肺癌。疾病防治中心认为，男性烟民死于肺癌的可能性是非吸烟者的22倍。女性烟民死于肺癌的可能性是非吸烟者的12倍。 统计数据研究早就表明，不吸烟的人比烟民长寿，而且自20世纪50年代以来，科学家们通过统计资料，已经发现了吸烟和肺癌发病率之间的相互关系。 而今年早些时候，贝克曼研究所的格尔德·普法伊费尔所作的一项研究确切地指出了卷烟烟雾中固有的致癌物，这些致癌物袭击的目标是一种基因的某些部分，人们已经发现，这种基因在一些癌症中很突出。 普法伊费尔在《科学》杂志上写道，吸烟使p53基因发生改变，这种基因在正常情况下起着防癌的作用，但在发生突变时，就会加快癌症的发展。 美国癌症协会发表的另一份研究报告说，尼古丁含量低的卷烟并不能减少患癌症的可能性，它们实际上是引起一种进入到肺组织深层的癌症的罪魁祸首。 而其他的癌症也受吸烟的影响。今年年初，美国癌症协会的一份研究报告表明，吸烟使男性死于前列腺癌的危险增加了，而其他的一些研究把吸烟同患上其他癌症（包括喉癌、乳腺癌和结肠癌）的危险的增加联系到了一起。 CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES [13] Smoking also has been linked time and again to cardiovascular diseases. Among these, the biggest killer is heart disease: according to the CDC, smoking triples the risk of dying from heart disease among middle-aged men and women. [14] Studies also show an increased risk of death from stroke, aneurysms, high blood pressure, and other cardiovascular illnesses. RESPIRATORY DISEASES [15] Smoking is cited as a risk for dying of pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, or emphysema. The CDC says people who smoke increase their risk of death from bronchitis and emphysema by nearly 10 times. OTHER ILLNESSES [16] A report recently published in the American Journal of Epidemiology suggested that smoking increased the risk of developing non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) by more than three times. [17] Studies have pointed to smoking as a risk in vision loss among older people, mental impairment later in life, Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia. EFFECT ON PREGNANCY [18] Pregnant women who smoke can pass nicotine and carbon monoxide to their baby through the placenta. Research indicates this can prevent the baby from getting the oxygen and nutrients it needs to grow--potentially leading to fetal injury, premature birth, or low birth weight. According to the American Lung Association, smoking during pregnancy accounts for an estimated 20 to 30 percent of low birthweight babies, up to 14 percent of premature deliveries, and about 10 percent of all infant deaths. 心血管疾病 [13]吸烟还被一再地和心血管疾病联系在一起，其中最大的杀手是心脏病。根据疾病防治中心的说法，吸烟使中年男女烟民死于心脏病的危险增至3倍。 [14]研究还表明，死于中风、动脉瘤、高血压和其他心血管疾病的危险也有所增加。 呼吸系统疾病 [15]吸烟被引证为导致死于肺炎、慢性气管炎或肺气肿的一种隐患。疾病防治中心说，吸烟的人死于支气管炎和肺气肿的危险比不吸烟的人高出将近10倍。 其他疾病 [16]美国《流行病学杂志》最近发表的一份报告表明，吸烟使人们患非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病的危险增加了3倍多。 [17]研究指出，吸烟有导致老年人中的失明、晚年大脑损伤、早老性痴呆病和其他类型的痴呆病的危险。 吸烟对妊娠的影响 [18]抽烟的怀孕女性会通过胎盘把尼古丁和一氧化碳传给胎儿。研究表明，这会妨碍胎儿获得发育所需要的氧气和营养物质，这可能对胎儿造成伤害，引起早产或胎儿体重不足。根据美国肺器官协会的说法，估计有20％至30％的体重不足的婴儿，多达14％的早产以及约10％的婴儿死亡都是由于女性在孕期吸烟引起的。吸烟的母亲还有可能通过喂母乳把尼古丁传给婴儿。 SECONDHAND SMOKE [19] The studies didn't just point to the ill effects of smoking on those who smoke--non-smokers, too, are apparently affected by the smoke from their friends, family members and strangers who light up in their presence. [20] A steady stream of reports documented the statistical risks of contracting cancer or suffering from heart disease, even if you've never put a cigarette to your lips. [21] The American Heart Association last fall released a seven-year study showing that never-smoking spouses of smokers have more than a 20 percent greater chance of death from coronary heart disease than those who have never smoked who live with non-smokers. That study gave more impetus to the drive to make workplaces and other public areas smoke-free. [22] The effects of smoking are hard on the children of smokers as well, the studies say. Dr. Claude Hanet of the St. Luc University Hospital in Brussels, Belgium, said earlier this year that a baby born to a smoking mother "should be considered an ex-smoker", [23] Hanet's study cautioned that cigarette smoke was more detrimental with decreasing age. [24] And a University of Birmingham, England, study, published in the British Journal of Cancer showed a possible link between fathers who smoked and an increased incidence of cancels in their children, while studies in the . showed a possible link between smoking and DNA damage. 被动吸烟 [19)研究不光指出了吸烟给烟民自己造成的危害，还指出了非吸烟者显然也会受到他们吸烟的朋友、家人或在他们面前吸烟的陌生人的伤害。 [20]持续不断的报告通过统计数字证明，即使你从来就没有吸过烟，也有患癌症或心脏病的危险。 [21]去年秋季，美国心脏协会发表丁一份历时7年的研究报告，该报告指出，烟民的配偶虽然从不吸烟，但是和那些与非吸烟者生活的配偶相比，他们死于冠心病的危险要高出20％。这项调查进一步推动了在工作场所和公共场所禁烟活动的开展。 [22]调查还表明，烟民的孩子也深受吸烟之害。今年年初，比利时布鲁塞尔圣·卢卡大学医院的克劳德·哈内特博士说，吸烟的母亲生下的孩于“应被看作是有吸烟史的人”。 [23]哈内特的研究提请人们注意：年龄越小，吸烟的危害越大。 [24]《英国癌症杂志》发表的一份英格兰伯明翰大学的报告显示，吸烟的父亲与其孩子患癌症比率的增加可能有联系；同时美国的研究则显示吸烟和脱氧核糖核酸受损可能有关系。 SECONDHAND SMOKE ADDICTION [25] Of all the diseases associated with smoking, addiction is perhaps the one that receives the least attention. But President Clinton declared nicotine an addictive drug last August. In March, the Liggett Group, makers of Chesterfield and Lark brand cigarettes, admitted that cigarettes were addictive and cause cancer and agreed to pay about $750 million total to 22 states that had filed suit to force tobacco companies to pay for Medicaid for smoking-related illnesses. [26] Scott Harshbarger, the Massachusetts attorney general and president of the National Association of Attorneys General, told reporters that the Liggett deal "will produce information that indicates major tobacco companies were fully aware that the product they were selling is addictive, that the product they were selling had great impact on public health". [27] Other tobacco companies are clearly none too keen on the Liggett deal. For them, nicotine remains what they call a harmless flavor enhancement. 烟瘾 [25]在所有和吸烟有关的疾病中，也许人们最容易忽略的就是吸烟上瘾。然而，去年8月，克林顿总统宣布尼古丁为使人上瘾的麻醉药物。今年（指2000--编者注）3月，生产切斯特菲尔德和云雀牌香烟的利格特集团承认吸烟使人上瘾并会引发癌症，并且同意向22个州支付总额为7．5亿美元的赔偿金，这22个州提起了诉讼，要求烟草公司向治疗与吸烟有关的疾病的医疗补助制度进行赔偿。 [26]马萨诸塞州首席检察官、全美首席检察官协会会长斯哥特·哈什伯杰对记者说，对利格特集团的处理“将带来这样一个信息，那就是，大烟草公司充分意识到了他们出售的产品会使人上瘾，他们出售的产品对大众的健康影响极大”。 [27]很显然，其他烟草公司中没有一家对利格特集团的处理感兴趣。对他们来说，尼古丁仍然是他们所称的无害的提味剂。 回记得采纳啊

China realize and research strategy of measles elimination goal of maintaining摘 要 目的 探索我国麻疹发病的流行病学特征，分析麻疹发生和流行的主要影响因素，总结实现消除麻疹目标的成功经验，为制定实现并维持消除麻疹目标策略提供参考依据。方法 通过文献复习并结合工作实践，进行综述。结果 目前我国麻疹疫情普遍呈现局部高发和高度散发状态；发病年龄出现0岁小年龄组和15岁以上大年龄组发病明显增多的双向移位现象；无免疫史和免疫史不详的散居儿童及流动人口是麻疹病例高发人群；医院内感染成为主要传染因素之一。结论 全面实施以提高含麻疹成分疫苗及时、全程接种率，加强麻疹病例监测工作，预防医院内感染和适时开展重点人群麻疹疫苗补充免疫及应急免疫等综合性防控策略是最终消除麻疹的关键。Abstract Objective To explore the epidemiological characteristics of measles in China, and the main factors affecting the analysis of measles epidemic occurred, summarize the successful experience of measles elimination goal, for the achievement and maintenance of eliminate measles strategy to provide the reference for the. Methods through literature review and connecting with the work practice, review. Results at present, the measles epidemic generally local high and highly sporadic; age of onset of bidirectional shift phenomenon little 0 year old age group and over 15 year age group the incidence increased significantly; no / unknown history of immunity in children and the floating population is high risk population of measles cases in Hospital; infection has become one of the main infectious factors. Conclusions improving measles containing vaccine timely, full course vaccination rate, strengthen measles surveillance, prevention of nosocomial infection and timely carry out the key crowd measles supplementary immunization and emergency immunization and comprehensive prevention and control strategies is the ultimate elimination of measles in the key.关键词 麻疹；流行病学特征；消除；策略Keywords measles; epidemiological characteristics; elimination; strategy

瑞典的放射线保护研究学会的一项行动电话的研究还没有发现行动电话用法的癌的危险增加的 " 一致的证据 " 。研究不一致在是否当他们变得逐渐流行时，行动电话的使用增加癌的危险之上。政治的学会问约翰 D. Boice 二世博士和约瑟 K. McLaughlin 博士，马里兰，美国，估定在主题上公开 epidemiological 研究。1996 以来，检讨审查九项研究哪一包含因素，像是使用和脑瘤位置的电话、期间和频率的类型。" 没有一致的证据为脑癌 （或者其他表格）的危险增加被观察 " ，科学家在检讨说，星期三发表。代理商承认民众关于议题的担心而且说许多研究是打与行动电话用法相连的任何可能的致癌效果是不可或缺的被运行而且继续追踪的 stillbeing。"你不能说某事没有危险是，但是至少我们能为行动电话的使用和癌之间的原因的协会说没有科学的证据， " Lars 说－－－－Erik Pauison，与代理商的一个放射线专家。检讨根据瑞典的科学家 Lennart Hardell 选出研究，这说旧的形成类比行动电话的长期使用者至少是 30% 更有可能的超过非 usersto 发展脑瘤。新的数传电话被研究的种类送的放射线比较旧的类比模型少。研究最近在巨蟹座预防的欧洲日记中被公开的 Hardell，被学习的 1,617位病人用脑瘤而且在没有肿瘤下把他们与相似大小一群人们作比较。这检讨说有相似的调查结果的 Hardeli 的研究和一些美国研究是" 非情报的，或因为追踪太短，癌的数量太小的，或因为研究方法的严重限制． "它用美国的三项研究和芬兰和丹麦的研究对比了那些，哪 Paulson 说用了更可靠的抽取样品方法而且以医生报告，而非与病人的面谈为基础。那些研究发现”一张一致的照片．．．．那似乎免除，藉由一个确定的合理程度，行动电话和癌之间的直接、不可避免的协会，”代理商说。

甲研究所研究由瑞典手机辐射保护研究没有发现任何“手机使用一致的证据，癌症从”增加风险。研究是否有不同的移动电话的使用增加了癌症的风险，因为他们已经越来越受欢迎。政府学院的博士问小约翰D博士和约瑟夫博伊斯光麦克劳克林，马里兰，美国，评估这个问题发表的流行病学研究。检讨类型看作是自1996年9项研究，其中包括等因素的电话，时间和地点使用频率和脑肿瘤。“没有一致的证据是观察形式）患脑癌的风险增加（或其他，”科学家说，在审查，星期三公布。该机构承认，公众对这个问题关注并表示，许多研究是stillbeing完成，并继续采取后续行动usage需要对任何可能的致癌作用与手机移动。“你绝不能说是没有什么风险，但至少我们可以说，没有科学的证据手机和癌症之间的因果关联的使用电池，说：“拉尔斯----埃里克Pauison，一个专家，该机构辐射。检讨挑出说，研究由瑞典科学家约翰松哈德尔，这是老式的模拟长期使用手机至少有30％以上的非usersto脑肿瘤的可能发展。较新的数字手机发送这类辐射较少，比旧型号的模拟研究。哈德尔，防止其研究结果发表在最近的欧洲癌症杂志，研究脑肿瘤1617例，并与他们相比，肿瘤的大小组没有一个类似的人。这份报告指出Hardeli的研究，并与类似的调查结果一些美国的研究，是“非知识性，或者是因为后续的时间太短，癌症数目太少，或方法，因为在研究的严重限制。”这对比研究那些有三个在美国和病人的研究在芬兰和丹麦，其中保尔森说，使用更可靠的取样方法和与被采访的基础上，而不是医疗报告。这些研究发现“一致的图片....这似乎摆脱一个与合理程度的确定性，手机和癌症之间的直接的和必然的关联，“该机构说。

关于吸烟危害的英语文章很多很多，就看你会不会使用搜索了 很早的时候我就是找不到关于吸烟危害的英语文章，但现在我找到了很多很多，其中包括：烟草控制框架公约及其实施准则的英文版，国外宣传吸烟危害的网页，二手烟，三手烟，部分文章我已经存放于我的网易无烟博客公开供大家阅览，部分重要的网页我已经存放于收藏，但更多的，比如美国的《关于暴露于烟草烟雾的健康影响——2006年卫生总监报告》，由于文件太大，我还没有发布，需要的话可以给我留言哦 下边的文章转载于我的博客，供参考： Third Hand Smoke - A Great Reason to Quit 无烟外语资料 2009-11-20 14:11 阅读0 评论0 字号： 大 大 中 中 小 小 来源： 时间：Thursday November 19, 2009 Today is the Great American Smokeout, and if you are a smoker, that's probably nothing new to you. Among my friends and acquaintances, few of them smoke anymore, but those who do, wish they didn't. Some have tried to quit a dozen times or more. Their hearts are willing, but their addiction owns too much of their lives. One interview I did this week for my radio show was about smoking as a public health challenge. Part of the discussion centered on third-hand smoke, a new concept to many smokers. First hand smoke is the smoke one inhales directly from a cigarette (or pipe or cigar or....) Second hand smoke is the smoke one inhales when someone else is smoking. For example, when you walk past a group of smokers outside a building. It's still smoke, full of all the toxins and substances that create lung cancer, exacerbate asthma or create other lung and breathing problems. Experts tell us that 10 - 15% of lung cancer is caused by second-hand smoke. The perils of exposure to third hand smoke are just now being understood. Early in 2009, the term "third hand smoke" was coined to point out that spending time near a smoker, or in a room where someone has been smoking, creates health problems, too. For example, a mother or father smokes, then picks up the baby. The baby's health is negatively affected by the toxins left behind on the parents' clothing or in their hair. Even if the smoker goes outdoors to smoke, away from the child, those chemicals remain to affect the baby. If someone has smoked in a room you spend time in, you will be affected by the toxins that remain in the drapes, the carpet, the furniture -- even things like books or newspapers or pocketbooks or toys -- anything that is exposed to the smoke but doesn't get washed before we come near it. Even worse, because there is less room, is the third-hand exposure in a car -- the upholstery, the carpet on the floor, the fabric ceiling. For those of us who do not smoke, the minute we smell smoke on someone else -- a family member or a co-worker -- we have been exposed to third hand smoke. I'm not going to suggest to smokers that they quit for their own well-being. That's up to them and they've heard it from every nag in their lives. But a smart patient understands that sometimes we must make choices not just for ourselves, but for the people around us, too. We must protect our herd. Second AND third hand smoke seem like a great reasons to quit.

我已经帮前边的网友给过了,给你参考. It has been estimated that smokers have made up half of the population in And the smokers are being younger and younger, even ineluding some middle school students Nowadays more and more people have realized smoking can do harm to people'shealth However, some people still enjoy smoking Why? Because some of them think it is a kind of fashion, some think it is of great fun and others, think that smoking can refresh themselves In fact, smoking is a bad habit It can cause a lot of diseases Meanwhile smoking is a waste of money Besides, careless smokers may cause dangerous fires Smoking is harmful and it is not only bad for smokers themselves, but also bad for non-smokers Therefore, I hope all the smokers can give up smoking for themselves and also for the people around them 据估计，在中国吸烟者约占总人口的一半，而且烟民的年龄越来越年轻，甚至一些中学生也在抽烟。 如今越来越多的人们已经认识到吸烟有害人体健康，但他们仍然乐此不疲。为什么?一些人认为抽烟是一种时髦，另外一些人认为抽烟很有趣，还有一些人认为吸烟可以提神。 事实上，吸烟是一种不好的习惯，它能导致很多疾病。同时，吸烟很浪费金钱。除此而外，粗心的烟民还可能引起火灾。 吸烟对人们的身体百害而无一利。它不仅有害吸烟者本人，而且对不吸烟者也会造成损害。 因此，我希望吸烟者为自己和身边的人们而戒烟。 It is said that there are about half of people in are smokingMany young boys and girls have the habit of smoking, though they are middle school students As we all know, smoking does great harm to human beings More and more people have e to realize how serious this problem is But they are never bored with it Some people think it is a kind of fashion, some think it is of great fun and others think that smoking can refresh themselves Smoking causes many illnesses A lot of people always cough because of smoking The most serious illness caused by smoking is lung cancer Meanwhile smoking is a waste of money Besides, careless smokers may cause dangerous fires In order to keep healthy, we should get rid of the bad habit of smoking Please stop smoking at once 据说，中国有一半人在吸烟。许多男孩和女孩都有吸烟的习惯，尽管他们还是中学生。 众所周知，吸烟对人身体是有害的。越来越多的人们认识到这个问题的严重性，但他们仍然乐此不疲。一些人认为抽烟是一种时髦，一些人认为抽烟很有趣，还有一些人认为吸烟可以提神。 吸烟能导致很多疾病。由于吸烟，一些人一直在咳嗽。肺癌是吸烟导致的最严重的疾病。同时，吸烟很浪费金钱。除此而外，粗心的烟民还可能引起火灾。 为了保证人们的身体健康，我们应当改掉吸烟的坏习惯。请立即停止吸烟吧