工业设计英语毕业论文范文

第17 卷第4 期 皮 革 科 学 与 工 程 Vol117 ,No142007 年8 月L EATHER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Aug1 2007Artical ID :1004 - 7964 (2007) 04 - 0003 - 06Received Date :20072052213 P. Mokrejs :Corresponding author. Phone N°: + 420 57 603 1230 ;Fax N°: + 420 57 603 1563 ;e2mail :mokrejs @f t . utb. c2Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning LiquorsP. Mok rejs1 3, D. J anacova2 ,M. Mladek1 , K. Kolomaz nik2 , F. L angmaier1 ,V . V asek2(1. Tomas B ata University , Faculty of Technology , Department of Protein and Leather , nam.TGM 275 , 762 72 Zlin, The Czech Republic ;2. Tomas B ata University , Faculty ofA p plied Inf ormatics , Institute of Processing Cont rol and A p plied Computer Science ,N ad S t ranemi 4511 , 760 05 Zlin, The Czech Republic)Abstract :Tannery belongs to typical indust rial branches which during t he technological processp roduce considerable quantities of liquid and solid wastes cont ributing to polluting t he environ2ment . The presented work describes dechromation of waste tanning liquor utilising chrome sludgep roduced t hrough enzymatic hydrolysis of chrome2tanned leat her wastes. The principle of dechro2mation consist s in sorption of chrome f rom waste liquor af ter tanning to chrome sludge. Recy2cling technology is characterised by an almost 99 % efficiency , simplicity and low investment re2quirement s.Key words :solid waste ;liquid waste ;chrome sludge ;waste tanning liquor ;chrome recoveryCLC number :X 794 Document code :A鞣制废液的循环技术摘 要:制革属于典型的工业分支,制革工业中会产生大量的污染环境的废液和废固。该论文利用铬鞣革废物的酶法水解用铬污泥除去鞣制废液中的铬。除去铬的原理是鞣后的铬污泥从废液中吸收铬。该循环技术回收率可达99 % ,操作简单、成本低廉。关键词:固体废弃物;液体废弃物;铬污泥;鞣制废液;铬回收1 INTRODUCTIONThe tanning indust ry p rocesses wastes of themeat indust ry , raw hides , and t ransforms t hemt hrough chemical , chemico2p hysical and mechani2cal processes into leather s. During t he technologi2cal process , solid and liquid wastes arise which ,particularly as a consequence of t he cont rover sialchrome t hey contain , burden the environment .Processing one met ric ton of raw hide produces ap2prox. 200 kg finished leat her . About 30 , 000 kgwastewaters arise through processing and moret han 70 % chrome passes into liquid and solidwastes [1 ] .In classic tanning , approx. 40 % chrome (t hestarting charge of 15 - 17 kg Cr / t ) remains inleat her , 26 % - 30 % chrome passes into solidwastes and 30 % - 34 % chrome remains in liquidwastes. In t he tanning of hides using technologicalprocedures ensuring high removal of chrome com2pounds by white hide , 54 % - 57 % chrome remains© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. leat her , 31 % - 38 % chrome passes into solidwastes and 5 % - 15 % remains in liquid wastes [2 ] .For modifying t he tanning process , organic acids ,e. g. are used , which cont ribute to improving theremoval of chrome ions.1. 1 Liquid wasteManufacture of chrome2tanned leat hers pro2duces 115 - 2 times quantities of wastewater s t hanmanufact ure of vegetable2tanned leat her s [3 ] . Los2ses of chrome compounds in waste tanning liquor smay be prevented in several ways. The simplestapproach is the direct recycling method consistingin re2using exhausted liquor in t he tanning process.The main shortcoming of t his method is a negativeeffect of salt s and other contaminating substanceson quality of finished leather . Af ter being recycledseveral times , wastewater has to be discharged intosewage [4 ] . Anot her potential met hod is indirectrecycling , in which chrome is obtained f rom ex2hausted sludge t hrough precipitation using a suit2able alkaline agent , e. g. sodium hydroxide , sodi2um carbonate , sodium hydrogen carbonate , mag2nesium oxide , calcium sulp hate , calcium hydroxide[5 ] . A f urt her met hod consist s in employing elabo2rate techniques , e. g. elect ro2dialysis , membraneseparation , ion exchangers , wit h which chromemay be separated f rom ot her salt s contained in ex2hausted sludge. Chrome thus obtained is character2ised by much higher p urity than that obtainedt hrough indirect recycling. Disadvantages are ahigh cost and limited po ssibilities of applying t hesedemanding technologies in tanning factories [ 4 ] .Unutilised chrome in liquid wastes , apartf rom significant economic losses for tanneries , al soposes great hazard for t he environment and forman. The most stable and most important oxida2tion state is Cr ( III) . Compounds of Cr (VI) occurin t he form of chromates and dichromates and ex2hibit quite st rong oxidative properties [6 ] .Chrome is found in liquid tanning wastes in it st rivalent form , there exist s , however , potentialdanger of it s oxidising to hexavalent compounds ,particularly when t reating groundwater s to drink2ing waters. Hexavalent compounds , when com2bined wit h calcium or magnesium ions , are st rong2ly carcinogenic[7 , 8 ] .An extensive research exploring negativeeffect s of tanning wastewaters f rom local tannerieson t he adjacent ecosystem was conducted in Indi2a[9 ] . Highest level s of chrome contained in soilwere found in t he vicinity of tanneries , at approx.60 g/ kg. Highest chrome accumulation was ob2served in cauliflower stalks (72 mg/ kg) in locali2ties near tanneries. In st udies investigating Cr ac2cumulation in fish organs it was found t hat mostchrome accumulates in t he liver (approx. 22 mg/kg) and least in muscles (approx. 1 mg/ kg) . Thepo ssible t ransfer of hazardous Cr doses into t hefood chain and consequently to human beings ist hus quite obvious.112 Sol id wasteTannery processing al so produces a considera2ble quantity of solid chrome2tanned wastes whichpresent a significant problem due to t heir chromecontent . The problem of solid wastes has beensolved so far by land filling which , of course , be2side ever increasing land filling co st s al so bringst he danger of chrome escaping into t he ecosystem.Due to t heir containing a sizeable proportion ofprotein material , solid tanned wastes started to beprocessed. Enzymatic hydrolysis has being em2ployed to considerable extent in latest year s , wit hit s particular advantages being mild reaction condi2tions and economic cost2effectiveness [10 , 11 ] . Themain product of enzymatic hydrolysis is collagenhydrolysate , whose application possibilities arebroad , e. g. as feed additive , nit rogenous fertili2ser , raw material for preparing adhesives , corro2sion inhibitor s , etc. The remaining waste productaf ter enzymatic hydrolysis (chrome sludge) has notyet found lucrative application. It s employment ,due to chrome content , has not been much adoptedfor preparing combined tanning bat hs.Subject of the presented work is potential use4 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. t he waste product af ter enzymatic hydrolysis ofchrome2tanned solid wastes (chrome sludge) for i2solating chrome compounds f rom waste tanningliquor s.2 MATERIALS AND METHODSSolid was determined according to ISO 4684[12 ] , ash according to ISO 4047 : 1998[13 ] , nit rogenaccording to ISO 5397 : 1984 [14 ] , Cr2 O3 accordingto ISO 5398 [ 15 ] , Cr according to ISO 9174 : 1998[16 ] and Mg according to ASTM D511203 [ 17 ] .Chrome sludge is a waste product of enzymatichydrolysis of chrome2tanned solid waste and it scomposition is given in Tab. 1. Typical composi2tion of chrome2tanned solid waste is given in Tab.2.Tab11 Composition of chrome sludge1)表1 铬污泥成份Parameter ValueTS/ % 1614Ash/ % 3410N / % 114Cr2O3 / % 1215MgO / % 1115 1) based on total solidsTab12 Composition of chrome2tanned solid waste1)表2 铬鞣革固体废弃物成份Parameter ValueTS/ % 6911Ash/ % 1019N/ % 2011Cr2O3 / % 415 1) based on total solidsTab13 Composition of waste tanning liquor表3 鞣制废液成份Parameter ValueTS/ % 718Ash/ %1) 8713N/ %1) 018Cr/ (mg/ kg) 1 ,769Mg/ (mg/ kg) 693p H 412colour blue2green 1) based on total solidsWaste tanning liquor was obtained f rom tan2ning of cowhides and it s composition is presentedin Tab. 3.The experimental part was divided into twopart s. The fir st part contained five selected massratio s of chrome sludge ∶ waste liquor and threevarious dechromation times , see Table 4. Practicaldechromation was performed under laboratory con2ditions by stirring chrome sludge with waste tan2ning liquor at room temperat ure in accordance wit ht he scheme shown in Fig. 1. Af ter dechromation ,t he heterogeneous mixt ure was cent rif uged. A partof supernatant was analysed for Cr content . Theinvestigated object in view was quantity of residualchrome in waste tanning liquor af ter dechromation.The second part of test s followed up result s ofwaste liquor dechromation efficiency in t he first ex2perimental part . The mass ratio of chrome sludge∶waste liquor producing greatest dechromation ef2ficiency was selected and a series of test s per2formed to t he p urpo se of st udying dechromation re2action kinetics.Fig1 1 Scheme of dechromation of waste tanning liquor图1 鞣制废液的脱铬流程3 RESULTSTest s and dechromation result s at variousmass ratios of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor and va2rious dechromation times are shown in Tab14.Tab15 t hen shows dechromation result s at mass ra2tio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1 ∶1 and va2rious dechromation times. Each test was performedt hreefold and arit hmetic mean calculated , standarddeviation ranged wit hin ±5 %.第4 期 P. Mokrejs ,et al :Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning Liquors 5© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. Dechromation results of waste tanning liquor at mass ratios of Cr sludge/ waste liq. and dechromation times表4 铬污泥与废液不同质量比以及不同脱铬时间条件下鞣制废液的脱铬结果TestNo.Batch( g)sludge :liquort/ minIn2processpHCr liq. /( mg/ kg)Eff iciency/ %1 7114 ∶50 30 6134 - 7108 807 54142 90 190 89123 180 116 93154 20183 ∶50 30 6195 - 7148 146 91175 90 58 96176 180 33 98117 35171 ∶50 30 7121 - 7168 53 97108 90 33 98119 180 36 981010 50 ∶50 30 7130 - 7190 24 981711 90 23 981712 180 17 991013 70 ∶50 30 7148 - 8102 41 971714 90 32 981215 180 79 9516 1) Starting content of chrome in waste tanning liquor = 1769 mg/ kgTab1 5 Dechromation results of waste tanning liquor andtimes1)表5 铬污泥与废液质量比为1 ∶1 不同脱铬时间条件下鞣制废液的脱铬结果TestNo.t/ minIn processpHCr liq./ ( mg/ kg)Eff iciency/ %1 4 7120 - 7133 438 75122 8 7127 - 7145 351 80123 12 7151 - 7189 299 83114 16 7176 - 7194 230 87105 20 7180 - 7191 206 88146 24 7181 - 7194 200 88177 28 7181 - 7196 139 92118 32 7182 - 7199 43 97169 36 7188 - 8103 32 981210 40 7190 - 8104 19 981911 60 7186 - 8106 28 981412 80 7187 - 8107 22 981813 100 7180 - 8111 35 9810 1) Starting content of chrome in waste tanning liquor =1769 mg/ kg ;mass ratio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1∶1Figure 2 shows column plot s representing re2sidual chrome content in waste tanning liquor af tert he dechromation procedure at various chromesludge ∶waste liquor ratios and various dechroma2tion times. With a mass ratio of 1 ∶7 af ter 30 mindechromation , a drop of chrome in liquor exceeding50 % was found , af ter 180 min the dechromationefficiency was greatest . Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶214 ,t he tendency of chrome content in liquor to de2crease wit h time was at it s greatest , residualchrome content in liquor coming down to 3314 ppmwhich represent s dechromation efficiency exceeding98 %. Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶114 t he tendency ofchrome decrease is similar , when t he greatest dropof chrome content in liquor was already recordedaf ter 90 min of dechromation ( to 3312 mg/ kg) .Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶1 , lowest level s of residualchrome in liquor were already at tained in 30 min ofdechromation app rox. 24 mg/ kg , representing al2most 99 % dechromation efficiency. A f urt her in2crease in dechromation times produced but negli2gibly decreased chrome content in liquor . Wit h aratio of 114 ∶1 , t he greatest drop of chrome con2tent in liquor was recorded af ter 90 min dechroma2tion. Fig13 shows dechromation kinetics of wastetanning liquor at mass ratio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1 ∶1 and various dechromationtimes. From result s it is obvious t hat af ter 40 min6 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. chrome content in waste tanning liq2uor decreased to approx. 20 mg/ kg , which com2pared wit h starting content of chrome in waste tan2ning liquor ( 1769 mg/ kg) signifies almost 99 %chrome removal efficiency. Further increases indechromation time did not show in markedly in2creased chrome removal efficiency , and values ofresidual chrome content in slurry fluct uated be2tween 20 and 35 mg/ kg.4 DISCUSSIONDuring past decades , a t ransfer occurred of anotable part of tanning plant s f rom economicallyadvanced west European count ries to developingcount ries and to count ries of t he Asian continent .In latest year s , however , t he environmental loadproduced by t hese plant s became unsustainable andintensive negotiations on resolving t he mat ter gotunder way. When rest ructuring existing and con2st ructing new tanning plant s , issues coming partic2ularly under consideration are solid and liquidwastes containing chrome. Contamination ofgroundwater s wit h liquid wastes containing chromeis obvious. Release of chrome f rom solid wastes第4 期 P. Mokrejs ,et al :Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning Liquors 7© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. proceed particularly t hrough elution by rainwith great hazard of groundwater contamination.The danger of Cr ( III) oxidising to Cr (VI) was al2ready mentioned in t he fir st part of this cont ribu2tion.Test result s showed t he solid waste product ,chrome sludge , may be successf ully employed to i2solate chrome f rom waste tanning liquors , and t hatwith an efficiency of app rox. 99 %. The advanta2ges of recycling technology may primarily comprisesimplicity and low demand for investment cost s ,which make it ideally applicable when recyclingwaste tanning liquor s especially in tanning plant sin t he developing world.Utilisation of chrome2enriched sludge remainsan open issue. A feasible alternative is it s combus2tion and separation of chrome , which may be used ,e. g. in pigment manufacture. A particular compli2cation is presented by accompanying magnesium ,which is undesirable for t hese applications. Isola2ting magnesium f rom chrome sludge will be subjectof a following research. Employment of chrome2enriched sludge for p reparing f resh tanning bathsal so remains an open issue.5 CONCLUSIONRecycling technology developed for removingchrome f rom waste tanning liquors wit h applicationof waste chrome sludge achieves almost 99 % effi2ciency. Dechromed waste liquor represent s a mini2mal load on t he environment . Chrome2enrichedsludge , following isolation of ot her accompanyingelement s (especially magnesium and calcium) com2plicating it s f urther processing , could serve to pre2pare pigment s. Result s of experimental measure2ment s and an elaborated mat hematical model of re2cycling technology will serve to propose an algo2rit hm of enclosed dechromation cycle cont rol whichwill be t he subject of pilot2plant test s.Acknowledgements : The aut hors would like tot hank to The Minist ry of Education of The CzechRep ublic for financial support to t his work execu2ted under MSM Grant No : 7088352102.References :[1 ] Process technology for recovery and recycling of chromi2um f rom leather waste and sludge , BLC , EV5VO542(1994 1996) .[2 ] Ludvik J . Chrome balance in leather processing [ J ] .UNIDO , US/ RAS/ 92/ 120/ 11 - 51 (2000) .[3 ] Mladek M ,et al . Leather indust ry waste t reatment [M] .State Technical Literature Publishing , Prague ( 1971) :261 - 265.[4 ] Rajamani S. A system for recovery and reuse of chromi2um f rom spent tanning liquor using magnesium oxide andsulphuric acid[J ] . UNIDO (2003) .[ 5 ] Covington A D , Sykes R L , Barlow J R , et al. A practi2cal chrome recovery system using magnesium oxide[J ] . JSoc Leather Technol Chem ,1985 , (69) :166 - 174.[6 ]Cotton F , Wilkinson G. Advanced Inorganic Chemist ry( A Comprehensive Text ) [ M ] . Academia , Prague(1973) . 788 - 803.[7 ] Hartford W H. Proceedings Chromium Symposium [J ] .Indust rial Health , Foundation , Pitt sburg (1989) .[8 ]Vijayalakshm R . A Study of the interaction of Cr ( III)complexes and their selective binding with B2DNA. Amolecular modelling approach[J ] . J Biom St ruc Dynam ,2002 (19) :1063 - 1072.[9 ] Chattopadhyay B. The environmental impact of wastechromium of tannery agglomerates in the east Calcuttawetland ecosystem[J ] . J Soc Leather Technol Chem ,2000(84) :94 - 100.[ 10 ] Cabeza L F. Isolation of protein product s f rom chromi2um2containing leather waste using two consecutive en2zymes and purification of final chromium product : Pilotplant studies [ J ] . J Soc Leather Technol Chem , 1999(83) :14 - 19.[11 ] Langmaier F. Product s of enzymatic decomposition ofchrome2tanned leather waste [J ] . J Soc Leather TechnolChem , 1999 (83) :187 - 195.[12 ] ISO 4684 , Determination of volatile matter.[ 13 ] ISO 4047 : 1998 , Determination of sulphated total ashand sulphated water insoluble ash.[14 ] ISO 5397 : 1984 , Determination of nit rogen and hidesubstance.[15 ] ISO 5398 , Determination of chromic oxide.[16 ] ISO 9174 :1998 , Water quality 2 Determination of chro2mium 2 Atomic absorption spect romet ric methods.[17 ]ASTM D511 - 03 , Standard test methods for calciumand magnesium in water.8 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved.

写好毕业论文的关键 (一)论文写作——材料、观点和文字材料是写好论文的基础，观点是论文的灵魂，文字是论文的外在表现。材料和观点是论文的内容，文字是论文的形式。形式是表现内容的，内容要通过形式来表现。三者的完美结合是内容和形式的统一。材料来源于实验。设计的好坏直接影响材料获得的效率与质量。整篇论文是由若干工作单元组成的，每一工作单元又是由每次实验材料积累起来的。因此要善待每天的实验。每天工作时都要考虑到这一数据在将来论文中的可能位置，对每一张影像记录都要认真收集保存。材料要真实可靠，数据要充足。有了异常，要及时分析处理，要保证所得结果可信，排除假象。一篇论文总要有新现象、新处理、新效果、新观点。观点应明确，客观辩证。不要、也不能回避不同观点。从论文定题到结论，处处有观点，所以观点是论文的灵魂，是贯穿始终的。讨论观点时不要强词夺理，不要自圆其说，力戒片面性、主观性、随意性。要和国内外文献上的观点相比较，也要和自己实验室过去的观点相比较。在比较中分析异同，提高认识。也不要怕观点错误，不要怕改正错误。要百家争鸣，通过争鸣，认识真理。论文的文字要自然流畅，“言而无文，行之不远”。但也不要华丽雕琢，目的是“文以载道”。论文叙述要合乎逻辑，层次分明，朴素真实，分寸恰当。(二)论文写作——准备和动笔论文写得好坏，关键在于准备。会写论文的人，一般总是三步过程。论文写前深思熟虑，全局在胸;充分打好论文腹稿，提起笔来，一气呵成;写出论文初稿后，放一段时间，反复吟读，千锤百炼。不会写论文的人相反。肚子里空洞洞，脑子里乱烘烘，笔头上千斤重。他们拿起笔来就写，写几下就停。写写停停，停停写写。忽儿找材料，忽儿查数据，忽儿补实验。忽儿撕掉一页，忽儿抄上几句。忽儿哀声叹气，搔头摸耳，咬笔杆，踱方步。这两种人的差别在于准备状况的不同，这是很多初写论文的人意识不到的。写论文的良好准备应该有三个阶段。1.论文写作——近期(写时)准备是指实验结束后到着手写作论文前一段时间的准备。应该收齐材料，处理好数据，制备好图表，完成统计处理。然后打好论文腹稿，列出 论文提纲，明确基本观点和主要结论。与指导者和合作者讨论，取得共识。深思熟虑后，一气呵成。其中“打腹稿”是写论文的关键阶段。这时应将所有工作和数据通盘考虑，全局在胸。这就像战斗打响前的运筹帷帽一样，是作者脑力劳动最紧张的时刻。2.论文写作——中期(做时)准备会写论文的人不是做完实验后才开始考虑写论文的，而是在研究工作的全过程中都考虑着写论文。论文“题目”和“引言”是论证时各种思考的凝炼。“材料和方法”是在找方法、建方法时形成的，写论文时只要如实叙述就可以了。“实验结果”是在实验设计、实验操作、阶段归纳、资料整理等过程中不断积累、整理而来的。“讨论”是综合平时的思考，同周围人员经常讨论商量，查阅和分析文献等过程后最后归纳而成的，是将平时思考过的众多问题集中几个主要观点以讨论的形式表达出来。“结论”则只须将最终结果归纳一下就可以了。所以会写论文的人，是在做研究的整个过程中不断地自然形成着最后的论文。这整个过程就是论文的中期准备。可见，中期准备以论文题目之始为始，以题目之终为终。题目结束之日，也就是论文中期准备完成之时。3.论文写作——远期(学时)准备如果只是着力于做好论文近期准备和中期准备，往往还不能写出上乘的论文，这就要看论文作者的远期准备，也就是学习阶段的基础准备了。这种准备是指对研究动态的掌握，专业基础的积累和逻辑思维、文字表达、分析综合等各方面能力的总体水平。这决不是一朝一夕所能企及，而是终生积累训练而就的。这就是为什么要强调“读书破万卷，下笔如有神”，“尔果欲学诗，功夫在诗外”了。这些平时积累的功夫，决定着作者 论文的写作水平，而论文写作水平又影响着论文的传播。这种能力不是临用时提得高的，而是要作者从年轻时就下苦功的。(三)论文写作——审稿与修改一气呵成写好论文稿件后，是要反复修改、千锤百炼的。不仅自己应该反复锤炼，还应请有关人员提意见，最后还要通过编辑部请相关专家审阅。 论文修改时凡是属于写作规格和篇幅方面的问题应按刊物规定的要求修改。作为论文作者，自己辛勤努力取得的实验数据当然十分珍惜，总希望在论文中尽量表达。但 论文审稿者旁观者清，往往提出一些合并或删除的意见。这时作者应该冷静考虑，该列入论文的列入，不必列入的不要列入。写论文只有“删繁就简三秋树”，才能“领导标新”地开出“二月花”。论文审稿者也常会对所论观点提出意见。这是需要认真推敲决定是否采纳修改的。论文作者毕竟对自己的工作己有过长期实践和思考，逐渐形成了观点。应该说这些观点是有相当根据的。只要言之有理，述之有据，可以对审稿人的意见进行解释，保留自己的观点。但有时 论文作者自己局处一隅，想法越来越钻牛角尖。论文审稿人从更高的角度宏观审视，一针见血地指出论文立论和观点中的问题，这种情况也是有的。这时论文作者就应该认真思考意见的实质，调整思路，反复推敲，决定取舍。既不固执己见，也不曲意迎合。抱着探讨真理的态度，相互交流，共同提高。论文通过审稿，有些意见不大，稍事修改即可发表。有些要有较大的改动才能发表。有的论文甚至认为基本事实不可靠或基本观点有误而无法发表。论文作者应冷静分析这些意见，妥善处理。一切都应坚持科学的、实事求是的态度。如果自己确认结果和观点无误，那么可以在 论文退稿后改投他刊。同一时候是不能一稿二投的。

分给我吧，亲爱的。

论文整体框架基本上就是你设计改良的过程，围绕你的设计展开，就可以了。前言摘要关键词：英文摘要第1章 概述 选题目的意义，设计的思路框架；（1-2页即可）第2章 电冰箱的设计分析（重点） 1.设计综述 2.产品分析：优缺点，产品工作原理等 3.消费者分析 4.市场分析 5技术分析等等第3章 电冰箱设计定位（重点） 1.综合分析 2.提出改良方向，功能造型等第4章设计方案的展开 1.概念草图 2.设计展示效果图 3.模型第5章结束语 设计体会心的；方向新的趋势见解等等 （1-2页即可）以上仅是一个基本框架，你可以根据你的认识来进行修改，基本思路应该是这样的，把你的设计从最开始的分析到最后的表现都一一展示出来，应该就OK了

毕业论文的写作要求、流程与写作技巧广义来说，凡属论述科学技术内容的作品，都称作科学著述，如原始论著（论文）、简报、综合报告、进展报告、文献综述、述评、专著、汇编、教科书和科普读物等。但其中只有原始论著及其简报是原始的、主要的、第一性的、涉及到创造发明等知识产权的。其它的当然也很重要，但都是加工的、发展的、为特定应用目的和对象而撰写的。下面仅就论文的撰写谈一些体会。在讨论论文写作时也不准备谈有关稿件撰写的各种规定及细则。主要谈的是论文写作中容易发生的问题和经验，是论文写作道德和书写内容的规范问题。一、论文写作的要求下面按论文的结构顺序依次叙述。(一)论文——题目科学论文都有题目，不能“无题”。论文题目一般20字左右。题目大小应与内容符合，尽量不设副题，不用第1报、第2报之类。论文题目都用直叙口气，不用惊叹号或问号，也不能将科学论文题目写成广告语或新闻报道用语。(二)论文——署名科学论文应该署真名和真实的工作单位。主要体现责任、成果归属并便于后人追踪研究。严格意义上的论文作者是指对选题、论证、查阅文献、方案设计、建立方法、实验操作、整理资料、归纳总结、撰写成文等全过程负责的人，应该是能解答论文的有关问题者。现在往往把参加工作的人全部列上，那就应该以贡献大小依次排列。论文署名应征得本人同意。学术指导人根据实际情况既可以列为论文作者，也可以一般致谢。行政领导人一般不署名。(三)论文——引言 是论文引人入胜之言，很重要，要写好。一段好的论文引言常能使读者明白你这份工作的发展历程和在这一研究方向中的位置。要写出论文立题依据、基础、背景、研究目的。要复习必要的文献、写明问题的发展。文字要简练。(四)论文——材料和方法 按规定如实写出实验对象、器材、动物和试剂及其规格，写出实验方法、指标、判断标准等，写出实验设计、分组、统计方法等。这些按杂志 对论文投稿规定办即可。(五)论文——实验结果 应高度归纳，精心分析，合乎逻辑地铺述。应该去粗取精，去伪存真，但不能因不符合自己的意图而主观取舍，更不能弄虚作假。只有在技术不熟练或仪器不稳定时期所得的数据、在技术故障或操作错误时所得的数据和不符合实验条件时所得的数据才能废弃不用。而且必须在发现问题当时就在原始记录上注明原因，不能在总结处理时因不合常态而任意剔除。废弃这类数据时应将在同样条件下、同一时期的实验数据一并废弃，不能只废弃不合己意者。实验结果的整理应紧扣主题，删繁就简，有些数据不一定适合于这一篇论文，可留作它用，不要硬行拼凑到一篇论文中。论文行文应尽量采用专业术语。能用表的不要用图，可以不用图表的最好不要用图表，以免多占篇幅，增加排版困难。文、表、图互不重复。实验中的偶然现象和意外变故等特殊情况应作必要的交代，不要随意丢弃。(六)论文——讨论 是论文中比较重要，也是比较难写的一部分。应统观全局，抓住主要的有争议问题，从感性认识提高到理性认识进行论说。要对实验结果作出分析、推理，而不要重复叙述实验结果。应着重对国内外相关文献中的结果与观点作出讨论，表明自己的观点，尤其不应回避相对立的观点。 论文的讨论中可以提出假设，提出本题的发展设想，但分寸应该恰当，不能写成“科幻”或“畅想”。(七)论文——结语或结论 论文的结语应写出明确可靠的结果，写出确凿的结论。论文的文字应简洁，可逐条写出。不要用“小结”之类含糊其辞的词。(八)论文——参考义献 这是论文中很重要、也是存在问题较多的一部分。列出论文参考文献的目的是让读者了解论文研究命题的来龙去脉，便于查找，同时也是尊重前人劳动，对自己的工作有准确的定位。因此这里既有技术问题，也有科学道德问题。一篇论文中几乎自始至终都有需要引用参考文献之处。如论文引言中应引上对本题最重要、最直接有关的文献;在方法中应引上所采用或借鉴的方法；在结果中有时要引上与文献对比的资料；在讨论中更应引上与 论文有关的各种支持的或有矛盾的结果或观点等。一切粗心大意，不查文献；故意不引，自鸣创新；贬低别人，抬高自己；避重就轻，故作姿态的做法都是错误的。而这种现象现在在很多论文中还是时有所见的，这应该看成是利研工作者的大忌。其中，不查文献、漏掉重要文献、故意不引别人文献或有意贬损别人工作等错误是比较明显、容易发现的。有些做法则比较隐蔽，如将该引在引言中的，把它引到讨论中。这就将原本是你论文的基础或先导，放到和你论文平起平坐的位置。又如 科研工作总是逐渐深人发展的，你的工作总是在前人工作基石出上发展起来做成的。正确的写法应是，某年某人对本题做出了什么结果，某年某人在这基础上又做出了什么结果，现在我在他们基础上完成了这一研究。这是实事求是的态度，这样表述丝毫无损于你的贡献。有些论文作者却不这样表述，而是说，某年某人做过本题没有做成，某年某人又做过本题仍没有做成，现在我做成了。这就不是实事求是的态度。这样有时可以糊弄一些不明真相的外行人，但只需内行人一戳，纸老虎就破，结果弄巧成拙，丧失信誉。这种现象在现实生活中还是不少见的。(九)论文——致谢 论文的指导者、技术协助者、提供特殊试剂或器材者、经费资助者和提出过重要建议者都属于致谢对象。论文致谢应该是真诚的、实在的，不要庸俗化。不要泛泛地致谢、不要只谢教授不谢旁人。写论文致谢前应征得被致谢者的同意，不能拉大旗作虎皮。(十)论文——摘要或提要：以200字左右简要地概括论文全文。常放篇首。论文摘要需精心撰写，有吸引力。要让读者看了论文摘要就像看到了论文的缩影，或者看了论文摘要就想继续看论文的有关部分。此外，还应给出几个关键词，关键词应写出真正关键的学术词汇，不要硬凑一般性用词。