浅析中法文化差异论文参考文献

only found one. hope that works~American table manners[edit] Table Layout * Bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right. * Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.[edit] General Behavior * Chew with your mouth closed. * Do not talk at an excessively loud volume. * Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table. * Never tilt back your chair while at the table, or at any other time. * Do not make unbecoming noises while eating. * Do not play with food or table utensils. * Do not single out or chastise someone who has shown poor table manners. * Do not put your elbows on the table or slouch. * Always ask the host or hostess to be excused before leaving the table. * Do not stare at anyone while he or she is eating. * Never talk on your phone at the table. If urgent, ask host or hostess to be excused, and go outside. Apologize when returned.[edit] Utensils * Do not eat food with your fingers unless you are eating foods customarily eaten with fingers, such as bread, french fries, chicken wings, pizza, etc. * The fork may be used either in the American (use the fork in your left hand while cutting; switch to right hand to pick up and eat a piece) or the Continental (fork remains in the left hand) fashion -- either is now acceptable. (See Fork etiquette) * The fork is used to convey any solid food to the mouth. * The knife blade should be placed on the edge of your plate when not in use. The blade should always face inward. * When you have finished eating soup, the spoon should be placed to the side of the saucer, not left in the bowl. * Keep your napkin on your lap. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to place their napkins on their laps until the host or hostess places his or her napkin on his or her lap * When eating barbecue or some other messy foods such as cracked crab, a 'bib' napkin may be provided for and used by adults. Usually these foods are also eaten by hand, and wet wipes or paper napkins should be used to clean the hands. * When using paper napkins, never ball them up or allow stains to show. * Use your silverware from the outside moving inward toward the main plate. (Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.)[edit] Dining * A prayer or 'blessing' may be customary in some families, and the guests should join in even if they are not religious or do not follow the same religion. Most prayers are made by the host before the meal is eaten. Instead or in addition, a 'toast' may be offered [1]. * Do not start eating until (a) every person is served or (b) those who have not been served request that you begin without waiting. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to begin until the hostess or host lifts a fork or spoon. * When a dish is presented 'family style', the food is served to one's plate and then passed on to the next person. put the food on your left, take some and pass to the person next to you. * When serving, serve from the left and pick up the dish from the right. Beverages are both served and removed from the right. * Eat soup noiselessly and with the side of the spoon. * Tea or coffee should never be poured into the saucer to cool but should be sipped from the cup. Alternatively, ice may be used to cool either. * Seasoning ones meal prior to tasting can be considered rude and may insult the chef.[edit] At the end of the meal * It is acceptable in most places to not finish all of the food on your plate. * When finished with your meal, place your knife and fork with handles at the 4 o'clock position and the tines of the fork down to signal to the server you are done. * Except in a public restaurant, do not ask to take some of your uneaten food away from the meal after it ends, especially when having a formal dinner.[edit] British table manners * The fork is held in your left hand and the knife is held in your right. * You should hold your knife with the handle in your palm and your fork in the other hand with the prongs pointing downwards. * If you’re eating a dessert, your fork (if you have one) should be held in the left hand and the spoon in the right. * When eating soup, you should hold your spoon in your right hand and tip the bowl away from you, scooping the soup in movements away from yourself. * It is not acceptable to use your fingers at the table to eat or push food onto your fork. You may, however, eat some foods such as fruit, sandwiches, hamburgers, crisps, chips or pizza with your fingers. * If there are a number of knives or forks, then you should start from the outside set working your way in as each course is served. * Drinks should always be to the right of your plate with the bread roll to the left. * When eating bread rolls, break off a piece before buttering. Use your knife only to butter the bread, not to cut it. * You should not start eating before your host does or instructs you to do so. At larger meals, it is considered okay to start eating once others have been served. * When you’re finished, place your knife and fork together at five o’clock with your fork on the left (tines facing up) and knife on the right, with the knife blade facing in. This signals that you are finished. * Your napkin should never be screwed up. Nor should it be folded neatly as that would suggest that your host might plan to use it again without washing it - just leave is neatly but loosely. * Never blow your nose on your napkin. Place it on your lap and use it to dab your mouth if you make a mess. * It is considered rude to answer the telephone at the table. If you need to take an urgent call, excuse yourself and go outside. * Always ask for permission from the host and excuse yourself if you need to leave the table. You should place your napkin on your seat until you return. * If you must leave the table or are resting, your fork should be at eight o’clock and your knife at four o’clock (with the blade inwards). Once an item of cutlery has been used, it should not touch the table again. * The food should be brought to your mouth on the fork; you should sit straight and not lean towards your plate. * Dishes should be served from the right, and taken away from the right. Unless the food is placed on your plate at the table, then it should arrive from the left. * Drinks should be served from the right. * Never lean across somebody else’s plate. If you need something to be passed, ask the person closest to it. If you have to pass something, only pass it if you are closest to it and pass it directly to them if you can. * Salt & pepper should be passed together. * Do not take food from a neighbour’s plate and don’t ask to do so. * You must not put your elbows on the table. * If pouring a drink for yourself, offer to pour a drink for your neighbours before serving yourself. * If extra food is on the table, ask others first if they would like it before taking it yourself. * When chewing food, close your mouth and only talk when you have swallowed it. * Swallow all food before eating more or having a drink. * Do not slurp your food or eat loudly. Burping or sneezing at the table should be avoided, too. * Never pick food out of your teeth with your fingernails. * Try to eat all the food you are served. * Glasses served in a wine glass or other stemmed-glass should be held at the stem. * Always remember “regular” manners. Remember to say "please" and "thank you".[edit] Chinese table mannersThese are mostly concerned with the use of chopsticks. Otherwise generally Chinese table manners are rather more informal, what would be considered rude in other cultures such as talking with the mouth full may be acceptable but better not to do so. * Chopsticks must always be held in the correct manner. It should be held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, * Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use improper etiquette. One explanation for the treatment of such usage as improper is that this can symbolise argument, as the chopsticks may collide between the left-handed and right-handed user. * When communal chopsticks are supplied with shared plates of food, it is considered impolite to use your own chopsticks to pick up the food from the shared plate or eat using the communal chopsticks. An exception to this rule is made in intimate family dinners where family members may not mind the use of one's own chopsticks to transfer food. * It is considered impolite to use the blunt end of the chopsticks to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl. Use the communal chopsticks instead. * Never wave your chopsticks around as if they were an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like drumsticks, or use them to move bowls or plates. * Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks. Do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients. After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish. * When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables. In informal use, small, difficult to pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists. * Chopsticks can be rested horizontally on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely. A chopstick rest can also be used to keep the points off the table. * Never stab chopsticks into a bowl of rice, leaving them standing upwards. Any stick-like object facing upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members. This is considered the ultimate faux pas on the dining table. * Chinese traditionally eat rice from a small bowl held in the left hand. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. Some Chinese find it offensive to scoop rice from the bowl using a spoon. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a fork or spoon. The thumb must always be above the edge of the bowl. * It is acceptable to transfer food to people who have a close relation with you (e.g. parents, grandparents, children or significant others) if you notice they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts (part of the Confucian tradition of respecting seniors). * Traditionally, it is polite for the youngest members of the table to address each and everyone of the elderly members of the table before a meal starts and literally tell them to "eat rice", which means "go ahead and start the meal", to show respect. * The host should always make sure the guests drinks are sufficiently full. One should not pour for ones self, but should (if thirsty) offer to pour for a neighbor. When your drink is being poured, you should say "thank you" and/or tap your fingers on the table to show appreciation. * When people wish to clink drinks together in the form of a cheer, it is important to observe that younger members should clink the edge of their drink below the edge of an elder to show respect. * When eating food that contains bones, it is customary that the bones be spit out onto the table to the right of the dining plate in a neat pile.

中华传统文化符合自然规律。西方文化多为违背自然法则，没有根基。

1、中国文化重人性，西方文化则重理智。

中国儒家思想的核心是“仁”，孔子曰“爱人”，孟子曰：“仁也者，人也”。所谓人就是指人际关系，中国讲究礼节，注重孝为仁之根本，注重“君君、臣臣、父父、子子”的不同等级秩序，要求臣忠于君，子孝于父母，弟尊敬兄长，等等，否则为“不仁”。

然而，西方的文化则偏重于理智、理性，认为理智应该而且能够控制情感，人应该控制自我的欲望，用理智和道德去追求幸福，理智的份量大于人情的份量。“我爱我师，我更爱真理”这一哲理名言充分体现了西方对理智的偏重远远大于对人情的重视。

2、中国人注重人与自然的和谐，强调“天人合一”，西方人强调“人为万物之灵”，自然不过是人的陪衬。

西方人在处理人与自然的关系时，往往注重个人和物质利益，强调对自然的索取和征服，认为人有能力而且必须征服自然以获取生存的条件。

而中国人从先秦时代就形成了“天人合一”的思想，强调在处理人与自然的关系时，注重人与自然的和谐，认为“天、地、人一统于道”，老子认为“人法地，地法天，天法道，道德自然”。

3、从语言角度看，汉语是非形态语，西方语言为形态语。

西方文字是由单个字母组成的流线性的文字，它以形统意，通过严密复杂的形态变化来表达意思。在句法上只要是主谓结构都是句子，也只有主谓结构才是句子。

而汉语是以象形文字为基础的方块字，方块字本身就包含了丰富的语意意思，汉语言是以意统形的，句子的句法、组织结构和语义根据所要表达的意境和内容来安排，而且在汉语中没有主语和谓语的句子是随处可见的，所以汉语组织以达意为主，不滞于形而以意统形。

西方流线性的语言和文字相应于西方人单向性的思维模式，他们强于分析、逻辑。中国文字是以象形文字为基础的，讲究整体性与立体性，体现了中国人立体的思维模式。

4、西方重物质，中国重精神。

在西方人眼里，物质的满足是相当重要的，从西方的殖民史可以看出，西方人对于物质的追逐简直不择手段，对物质的追逐，对感官刺激的寻求，一度使西方人感觉迷茫。相反，东方文化尤其是中国文化的核心是重精神，注重精神上的满足。

5、西方重个人主义，中国文化重集体主义。

西方自从18世纪欧洲启蒙运动以来，自由、人权、平等、博爱等思想深入人心，西方的精神强调个体的自由，注重个体的奋斗，个人的权利。私人的权利与财产神圣不可侵犯，甚至会为个人的私利而不顾国家之利益。

而中国文化重集体主义。从古至今，家国思想贯穿人心，一个与众人格格不入的人在中国是没有出路的。尤其是新中国成立后，集体主义更是深入人心。

中国人的行为注重的是以大局为重，不以自我的私利而去损害国家集体的利益，强调集体至上的原则，在个人利益与国家利益、集体利益发生冲突时，必要时要牺牲个人利益而维护国家、集体的利益。

摘 要：中西方文化差异甚大，在跨文化交际中我们不仅要准确把握语言本身的差异，也要认识到价值观、社会关系、社会礼仪之间的不同。应对这些差异，不能局限于外国人学习汉语，我们应该更加主动地去理解中西方文化，在沟通和交流中抱着理解的态度和灵活的方式去应对。 关键词：中西方 语言 价值观 社会 应对 随着中国和世界其他各国在政治、经济、文化上的交流的越来越频繁，全球学习汉语的浪潮在早已在各地刮起。国内也有越来越的学者关注并研究对外汉语这一学科，并从语音、词汇、语法多层面来分析对外汉语的特点。由于各民族文化的差异，学习汉语时往往会产生许多由跨文化、跨区域带来的障碍。而已有的研究大多是关于学习或者教授汉语时，我们应该如何对待这些中西方文化带来的差异，但是交际中的重视程度略有欠缺，面对文化差异，我们国人应该思考怎么做才更利于沟通、交流。 外国人学习汉语时，由于受到母语的影响，本民族固有的思维习惯和表达方式难以在短时间内转变。即使了解了汉语的表达方式和汉民族的文化背景，对于某些汉语水平一般的外国学生很难立刻准确地把握语言背后的文化内涵。所以，我们国人在和外国人用中文交流时，就更应该注意中西方语言本身和言谈的差异、价值观和道德标准的差异、社会关系的差异、社会礼仪的差异以及社会习俗的差异，从而在交际过程中交谈双方能够更精确地理解对方所要表达的内容。综合这些因素，我们应该注意以下几个方面： 一、中西方语言和言谈的差异 每种语言都各有特点，语言之间本身的差异，对我们的交际产生了巨大的影响。萨皮尔-沃尔夫假说认为，每种语言都有自己的结构，这些范畴使思想成型。虽然他们的观点是不符合唯物史观的，和现实社会生活相冲突，但是，我们也不能忽视每种语言所独具的特点。西方语言较发达的形式逻辑思维使其具有明显的形态标志和严密的句法规则,可以说是一种“形合”“法治”的语言,主张“以形统神”,注重语法的严密性。而汉语的孤立结构在天地自然理念的影响下被粗泛地归为“意合”语言、“人治”语言,讲求“以神统形”,“得意而忘言”,倾向于语义的表达。[1] 正因为语言内部的差异，导致我们的言谈也产生了很大的差异。在中国人见面时常听到：“老张，近来你又发福了”，因为汉语的“以神统形”，中国人喜欢用委婉的表达方式，“发福”表面上是“体型变胖”的意思，但是却暗含称赞对方生活状态很好的意思。但是西方语言强调逻辑思维，如果说“You are fat”，外国人会感到很尴尬，由胖可能直接推测出体型不美。 面对语言本身所带来的差异，我们中国人在同外国人交谈的时候，应该适当地调整自己的表达方式，以达到沟通中对彼此言语的更好的理解。尽量直抒胸臆、减少委婉的表达方式。 二、价值观的差异是核心 造成中西方文化差异的核心是价值观的差异。价值观的差异对我们的语言表达产生直接的导向作用。Clyde Kluckhohn认为:价值观是个人或群体所特有的一种显型或隐型地认为什么是可取的观念，这一观念影响人们从现有的种种行动模式、方式和目的种做出的选择。[2]同时，价值观和交际之间也存在着紧密的关系。一方面，价值观对人们的交际起决定作用，价值观支配着人们各种形式的交际。例如：自古以来，中国就十分重视社会关系的和谐，奉行东方文明的中庸之道，人们乐于追求美好事物和这种处事的价值观。所以中国人习惯含蓄委婉地表达自己的意图来与人交际，但是西方人在这一点上就和中国人有很大的区别。西方人更乐于直接表达个人观点，以达到最高程度的沟通，完成交际的目的。中华文化在长期的历史演变中，受特定的地域、政治、经济、哲学等方面的影响，中华文化价值观念中集体主义观念较强，儒家工作动力这一独特的文化价值的作用突出，文化中代表男性的品质突出，道德纪律标尺的作用也相对重要。 我们面对价值观上最根本的差异，首先，我们要能正确地认识了解西方的文化特点；其次，我们要能合理应对跨文化交际中的障碍。全球化的进度越发加快，我们应该尽力去了解异国文化的特点，这也逐渐呈现出必要性。我们在日常的学习生活中，要借助多种媒介，如网络、电视、书籍等来了解西方文化的不同之处，进而减少交际时发生障碍的可能性。并且应该抱着认识和理解的态度去看待他国文化，尊重他国文化，摆脱刻板印象。在我们遇到一些文化冲突的时候，民族中心主义会阻碍我们的交流与沟通，用自己民族的价值观为标尺去衡量其他文化是不可取的。 三、社会关系、社会礼仪的差异 在跨文化交际时，我们不仅要关注交流语言本身，还应该关注中西方社会关系和社会礼仪的差异。西方人有较强的平等意识,无论贫富,大家都会积极保护个人财产及安全，都会尊重他人和自己。然而在中国,传统的君臣、父子等等级观念在中国人的头脑中根深蒂固。权威的观念存在于父子关系中，师生关系中。父亲在儿子的眼中、教师在学生的眼中有着绝对的权威,家庭背景在人的成长中仍起着相当重要的作用。中国人见面喜欢问对方姓名、年龄、单位及收入等,而西方人会主动避免问起他人的年龄与收入等个人私事。西方文化中对女性的特殊照顾，男士为女士开门，扶女士下车,女士走内侧,男士走外侧以给女士提供保护; 餐桌前,男士要为女士拉开椅子,等女士站好了位置再把椅子送回女士的身后,请她就坐。 面对这些社会关系和社会礼仪的差异，我们应该反映到思维方式上是抽象和具体的差别, 反映到生活态度上则似乎可以理解为西方人更加实用,中国人多 少更偏重一些精神感受。[3]中西方的文化有着很多的差异,也存在着很多分歧,其中的很多习俗也产生了很多笑话。我们应该正视文化中的差异，从行为本身去思考我们应对的态度，甚至对优良的风俗习惯可以加以学习，这将有助于我们社会整体的进步，达到中西方交流的积极意义，推动人类文明的共同前进。 参考文献: [1] 袁小帆.在对外汉语教学中中西方文化差异的实践研究[J].科教导刊，2010(11) [2]胡文仲.跨文化交际学概论[M].外语教学与研究出版社，1999 [3]于连水 赵志明 许丽红.浅谈中西方文化差异的对比[J].商业现代化，2009(1) 作者简介：孙琪（1988.5-），四川成都人，西南交通大学艺术与传播学院中文系硕士研究生在读，主要研究语言学及应用语言学方向。

中西方文化差异二三事饮食观念欧洲人都说世界上有三大美食，每一个版本里都有中国和法国的，只有关于第三家却说法不一，有说是意大利的，也有说是土耳其、突尼斯或摩洛哥等国的。尽管相持不下，但大家都有个共识，饮食常能反映出不同民族的生活习惯和文化思维等方面的差异。一次在中餐馆举行宴会，饭店菜上得很慢，不知不觉中过去了近两个小时，但菜似乎才上了一半。临座的一位女士是第一次参加中餐宴会，忍不住问我，你们中国人请客都上这么多菜吗？我说，在中国还要多，通常是10道以上。她很惊讶，连说中国的宴会实在太丰富了，难怪中国的美食很有名。但过了一会儿，她又问我，有个现象很奇怪：中国人吃饭每次都上那么多菜，可为什么都长得那么瘦。而法国入每次菜很少，但为什么都比中国人胖呢？我一时语塞，但又觉得她问得多少有点道理，因为那天同桌的几个中国人都显得比较瘦弱，而几个法国人个个人高马大。想了想，和她讲了自己的一点想法：中国是个好客的民族，只有上了一桌子菜才觉得没怠慢客人。另外中国人有时候更注重形式，所以在中国的烹调里，菜的样式千变万化，具体到每一道菜又非常讲究色香味的搭配。而欧洲人似乎更实际一些，在菜的花色变化上下的工夫显然不如中国，但讲究的是其营养的搭配和保护。这是中、法饮食观念的重要差异，多少也反映出了中法文化性格的不同。 对色彩的认识每个人都有自己喜欢的颜色，一个国家和民族也一样，对不同颜色的喜好从整体上可以反映出一个民族或者国家的审美情趣与好恶倾向。有一次碰到欧盟委员会的一对教授夫妇，谈起上海APEC会议上各国领导人穿的中国民族服装，他们都说非常好看，但有一点不太明白，为什么亚洲领导人大多穿红色，而西方领导人则多选择了蓝色。我说颜色都是领导人自己选定的。大概亚洲国家有着相同的文化背景，红色在中国文化里，也可能在整个亚洲文化中都代表着幸运、财富和吉祥如意，所以亚洲领导人都不约而同地选择了红色。我反问他们，蓝色在西方文化里代表什么?他们说西方人认为，蓝色代表冷静和沉着。想了想，我又补充说东西方文化差异实在是太大了，比如说龙在中国是民族的象征，而在比利时的蒙斯市则有一个打龙节，龙被视作恶魔，被传说中的保护神圣·米歇尔杀掉了，因此特意搞打龙节来庆贺除灾弊感谢米歇尔。教授夫妇也非常认同东西方文化差异的巨大，并认可文化需要交流。思维方式中西方的文化差异还表现在诸多方面，但简单加以概括其实并不复杂：反映到思维方式上是抽象和具象的差别，反映到生活态度上则似乎可以理解为西方人更加实用，而中国人则多少更偏重一些精神感受。比如把法语单词和中文文字加以比较，这一点就很明显。中国文字造词多注重形象，而法文里更多地注重考虑的是实用价值。像中文里的名片，法文里直译就是访问用的卡片，而航空母舰在法文里叫载飞机的军舰等等，都是从实际用途出发来造词的。而像压照片用的玻璃板，我们也是从其使用价值角度来造的词，但法国人就更加直观了，直译就是“放在照片上面的”。反映到绘画上更是如此。大家都知道中国画的大开大阖、泼墨写意和欧洲油画讲究的人体比例和光学原理等完全是属于两个风马牛不相及的技术范畴，似乎很难有共同语言。欧洲人有时不太能够理解我们过于抽象的艺术表现手法，我们有时也会认为欧洲人的艺术技巧过于写实本分，缺乏灵气。看多了欧洲绘画史上被奉为经典的宗教题材画作，中国人有时在感叹其技法写实细腻的同时，也会感慨欧洲大师们想象力的贫乏：为了说明天使在飞，就非得给那些可爱的小精灵们加上一双翅膀。而我们的祖先不也画了几千年了吗，在那些美丽的仙女旁边加上几朵白云，她们不就飞起来了吗?多有意境，多有想象空间啊。 这就是文化的差异。但是，差异带来的并不总是分歧，它恰恰给文化艺术大师们留下了广阔的创作空间，如能从中找到一个准确的结合点，那不仅会给两个民族，而且也会给整个世界带来一种更具包涵意义的和谐与美丽，比如赵无极的画作就体现出了文化交融的无尽魅力。 希望对你有帮助