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半导体物理学的迅速发展及随之而来的晶体管的发明，使科学家们早在50年代就设想发明半导体激光器，60年代早期，很多小组竞相进行这方面的研究。在理论分析方面，以莫斯科列别捷夫物理研究所的尼古拉·巴索夫的工作最为杰出。在1962年7月召开的固体器件研究国际会议上，美国麻省理工学院林肯实验室的两名学者克耶斯（Keyes）和奎斯特（Quist）报告了砷化镓材料的光发射现象，这引起通用电气研究实验室工程师哈尔（Hall）的极大兴趣，在会后回家的火车上他写下了有关数据。回到家后，哈尔立即制定了研制半导体激光器的计划，并与其他研究人员一道，经数周奋斗，他们的计划获得成功。像晶体二极管一样，半导体激光器也以材料的p-n结特性为敞弗搬煌植号邦铜鲍扩基础，且外观亦与前者类似，因此，半导体激光器常被称为二极管激光器或激光二极管。早期的激光二极管有很多实际限制，例如，只能在77K低温下以微秒脉冲工作，过了8年多时间，才由贝尔实验室和列宁格勒（现在的圣彼得堡）约飞（Ioffe）物理研究所制造出能在室温下工作的连续器件。而足够可靠的半导体激光器则直到70年代中期才出现。半导体激光器体积非常小，最小的只有米粒那样大。工作波长依赖于激光材料，一般为0.6～1.55微米，由于多种应用的需要，更短波长的器件在发展中。据报导，以Ⅱ～Ⅳ价元素的化合物，如ZnSe为工作物质的激光器，低温下已得到0.46微米的输出，而波长0.50～0.51微米的室温连续器件输出功率已达10毫瓦以上。但迄今尚未实现商品化。光纤通信是半导体激光可预见的最重要的应用领域，一方面是世界范围的远距离海底光纤通信，另一方面则是各种地区网。后者包括高速计算机网、航空电子系统、卫生通讯网、高清晰度闭路电视网等。但就目前而言，激光唱机是这类器件的最大市场。其他应用包括高速打印、自由空间光通信、固体激光泵浦源、激光指示，及各种医疗应用等。晶体管利用一种称为半导体的材料的特殊性能。电流由运动的电子承载。普通的金属，如铜是电的好导体，因为它们的电子没有紧密的和原子核相连，很容易被一个正电荷吸引。其它的物体，例如橡胶，是绝缘体 --电的不良导体--因为它们的电子不能自由运动。半导体，正如它们的名字暗示的那样，处于两者之间，它们通常情况下象绝缘体，但是在某种条件下会导电。
请参考百度百科词条“半导体器件” 晶体二极管晶体二极管的基本结构是由一块 P型半导体和一块N型半导体结合在一起形成一个 PN结。在PN结的交界面处，由于P型半导体中的空穴和N型半导体中的电子要相互向对方扩散而形成一个具有空间电荷的偶极层。这偶极层阻止了空穴和电子的继续扩散而使PN结达到平衡状态。当PN结的P端（P型半导体那边）接电源的正极而另一端接负极时，空穴和电子都向偶极层流动而使偶极层变薄，电流很快上升。如果把电源的方向反过来接，则空穴和电子都背离偶极层流动而使偶极层变厚，同时电流被限制在一个很小的饱和值内(称反向饱和电流)。因此，PN结具有单向导电性。此外，PN结的偶极层还起一个电容的作用，这电容随着外加电压的变化而变化。在偶极层内部电场很强。当外加反向电压达到一定阈值时，偶极层内部会发生雪崩击穿而使电流突然增加几个数量级。利用PN结的这些特性在各种应用领域内制成的二极管有：整流二极管、检波二极管、变频二极管、变容二极管、开关二极管、稳压二极管（曾讷二极管）、崩越二极管（碰撞雪崩渡越二极管）和俘越二极管（俘获等离子体雪崩渡越时间二极管）等。此外，还有利用PN结特殊效应的隧道二极管，以及没有PN结的肖脱基二极管和耿氏二极管等。双极型晶体管它是由两个PN结构成，其中一个PN结称为发射结，另一个称为集电结。两个结之间的一薄层半导体材料称为基区。接在发射结一端和集电结一端的两个电极分别称为发射极和集电极。接在基区上的电极称为基极。在应用时，发射结处于正向偏置，集电极处于反向偏置。通过发射结的电流使大量的少数载流子注入到基区里，这些少数载流子靠扩散迁移到集电结而形成集电极电流，只有极少量的少数载流子在基区内复合而形成基极电流。集电极电流与基极电流之比称为共发射极电流放大系数?。在共发射极电路中，微小的基极电流变化可以控制很大的集电极电流变化，这就是双极型晶体管的电流放大效应。双极型晶体管可分为NPN型和PNP型两类。场效应晶体管它依靠一块薄层半导体受横向电场影响而改变其电阻（简称场效应），使具有放大信号的功能。这薄层半导体的两端接两个电极称为源和漏。控制横向电场的电极称为栅。根据栅的结构,场效应晶体管可以分为三种：①结型场效应管(用PN结构成栅极)；②MOS场效应管（用金属-氧化物－半导体构成栅极,见金属－绝缘体－半导体系统）；③MES场效应管（用金属与半导体接触构成栅极）;其中MOS场效应管使用最广泛。尤其在大规模集成电路的发展中,MOS大规模集成电路具有特殊的优越性。MES场效应管一般用在GaAs微波晶体管上。在MOS器件的基础上,最近又发展出一种电荷耦合器件 (CCD)，它是以半导体表面附近存储的电荷作为信息，控制表面附近的势阱使电荷在表面附近向某一方向转移。这种器件通常可以用作延迟线和存储器等；配上光电二极管列阵，可用作摄像管。集成电路把晶体二极管、三极管以及电阻电容都制作在同一块硅芯片上，称为集成电路。一块硅芯片上集成的元件数小于 100个的称为小规模集成电路，从 100个元件到1000 个元件的称为中规模集成电路，从1000 个元件到100000 个元件的称为大规模集成电路，100000 个元件以上的称为超大规模集成电路。集成电路是当前发展计算机所必需的基础电子器件。许多工业先进国家都十分重视集成电路工业的发展。近十年来集成电路的集成度以每年增加一倍的速度在增长。目前每个芯片上集成256千位的MOS随机存储器已研制成功，正在向1兆位 MOS随机存储器探索。
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First, semiconductor laser based on the theory Although some literature that the author created in their respective semiconductor lasers in the important role played by, but the fact is no one on semiconductor laser to the emergence of a complete theoretical basis, nor an early worker for the realization of the study and solve the semiconductor laser All the technology issues. Therefore, it can be that the semiconductor laser is the emergence and development of many co-workers on the crystallization of wisdom. As early as in September 1953, the U.S. Feng. Newman (John Von Neumann) in his unpublished papers a manuscript in the first exposition in the semiconductor produced by stimulated emission of possibility that can be injected to the PN junction Are in the minority in mind to achieve stimulated emission; calculated according to the two brilliant transition zone between the radiation rate. Bading concluded Feng 'Newman on the basic theory of semiconductor laser after that. Through various means (for example, to inject a small number of PN junction carrier) disturbance belt electronic price band Hole and the balance of concentration, according to which non-minority-carrier in the compound and a photon. The rate of its radiation can be like amplifiers, with the same frequency of electromagnetic radiation. It should be said to be laser (Liser) the earliest concept of this than Gordon (Corden) and the Andean soup (Towes) reported by the quantum of microwave amplifiers (Maser) to the concept as early as 2001. Ecsle Normale Superieure and Pierre Aigrain in 1956 had encouraged the U.S. radio company [RCA] Pankove start manufacturing the semiconductor laser. June 1958 in Brussels of an international conference on the statement, first published in the semiconductor be coherent light of the views, but it was not until 1964 he published articles on the theory of semiconductor lasers and experimental work. Soviet Lebedev Physical Institute Basov (Basov), and so on the outstanding contribution of semiconductor lasers, he is the first time in 1958 published an article in the semiconductor raised in the realization of negative-state (that is, population inversion) on the theory . In 1961 they published the first carrier will be injected into the semiconductor PN junction to achieve the "injection laser" exposition and demonstration in the tunnel diodes as high as in Jane and the PN junction to achieve population inversion (which is Produced by stimulated emission of the necessary conditions for) the possibility, but also that active high-density areas around the most active carrier of the border areas on both sides of the refractive index of a difference, creating optical waveguide effect. After these theories to the emergence of semiconductor laser has played a positive role in promoting, Basuo Fu therefore be Nobel Prize. However, in 1963, published by the Basuo Fu, and so on semiconductor laser experiment with the theory of the article is more active semiconductor materials for Ge. And La Vieques (Lax) in 1959 made direct bandgap semiconductor (such as GaAs, InP, etc.) than the indirect bandgap semiconductor (such as Ge, Si, etc.) is more suited to produce stimulated emission of material. This important thesis for the accuracy of which appear later confirmed by the semiconductor laser. 1960 Bell Labs of Wembley (Boyle) and Thomson put forward in parallel with the semiconductor and as a cleavage-feedback resonator, the strengthening of the laser is essential. Laser optical resonator is an integral part. 1961 Bernard (Bernard) and Dulafuge (DM raffo "rg)-use fee. Derived the concept of energy meters in the semiconductor active than in the medium to achieve population inversion conditions on the condition that the following year The success of semiconductor laser research has played an important guiding role of theory. To sum up, in theory, that should be in the semiconductor laser direct bandgap semiconductor PN junction, with the injection-carrier method by Bernard Dulafuge a condition under the control of population inversion, from electronics and Hole compound generated by the laser radiation in the optical resonant cavity oscillation be enlarged and, finally have a coherent laser output.
First, semiconductor laser based on the theoryAlthough some literature that the author created in their respective semiconductor lasers in the important role played by, but the fact is no one on semiconductor laser to the emergence of a complete theoretical basis, nor an early worker for the realization of the study and solve the semiconductor laser All the technology issues. Therefore, it can be that the semiconductor laser is the emergence and development of many co-workers on the crystallization of wisdom.As early as in September 1953, the U.S. Feng. Newman (John Von Neumann) in his unpublished papers a manuscript in the first exposition in the semiconductor produced by stimulated emission of possibility that can be injected to the PN junction Are in the minority in mind to achieve stimulated emission; calculated according to the two brilliant transition zone between the radiation rate. Bading concluded Feng 'Newman on the basic theory of semiconductor laser after that. Through various means (for example, to inject a small number of PN junction carrier) disturbance belt electronic price band Hole and the balance of concentration, according to which non-minority-carrier in the compound and a photon. The rate of its radiation can be like amplifiers, with the same frequency of electromagnetic radiation. It should be said to be laser (Liser) the earliest concept of this than Gordon (Corden) and the Andean soup (Towes) reported by the quantum of microwave amplifiers (Maser) to the concept as early as 2001.Ecsle Normale Superieure and Pierre Aigrain in 1956 had encouraged the U.S. radio company [RCA] Pankove start manufacturing the semiconductor laser. June 1958 in Brussels of an international conference on the statement, first published in the semiconductor be coherent light of the views, but it was not until 1964 he published articles on the theory of semiconductor lasers and experimental work. Soviet Lebedev Physical Institute Basov (Basov), and so on the outstanding contribution of semiconductor lasers, he is the first time in 1958 published an article in the semiconductor raised in the realization of negative-state (that is, population inversion) on the theory . In 1961 they published the first carrier will be injected into the semiconductor PN junction to achieve the "injection laser" exposition and demonstration in the tunnel diodes as high as in Jane and the PN junction to achieve population inversion (which is Produced by stimulated emission of the necessary conditions for) the possibility, but also that active high-density areas around the most active carrier of the border areas on both sides of the refractive index of a difference, creating optical waveguide effect. After these theories to the emergence of semiconductor laser has played a positive role in promoting, Basuo Fu therefore be Nobel Prize. However, in 1963, published by the Basuo Fu, and so on semiconductor laser experiment with the theory of the article is more active semiconductor materials for Ge. And La Vieques (Lax) in 1959 made direct bandgap semiconductor (such as GaAs, InP, etc.) than the indirect bandgap semiconductor (such as Ge, Si, etc.) is more suited to produce stimulated emission of material. This important thesis for the accuracy of which appear later confirmed by the semiconductor laser.1960 Bell Labs of Wembley (Boyle) and Thomson put forward in parallel with the semiconductor and as a cleavage-feedback resonator, the strengthening of the laser is essential. Laser optical resonator is an integral part.1961 Bernard (Bernard) and Dulafuge (DM raffo "rg)-use fee. Derived the concept of energy meters in the semiconductor active than in the medium to achieve population inversion conditions on the condition that the following year The success of semiconductor laser research has played an important guiding role of theory.To sum up, in theory, that should be in the semiconductor laser direct bandgap semiconductor PN junction, with the injection-carrier method by Bernard Dulafuge a condition under the control of population inversion, from electronics and Hole compound generated by the laser radiation in the optical resonant cavity oscillation be enlarged and, finally have a coherent laser output.
希望能帮到你：Power semiconductor devices and power electronics World's first semiconductor rectifier and the transistor is, when no power semiconductor or microelectronics semiconductor division. In 1958, China began the first research topic Thyristor (originally known as PNPN device). In similar time, the study of integrated circuits began gradually. From semiconductor devices to the two direction. The former became the basis for power electronics, while the latter led to the development and micro-electronics and information electronics. According to the system, power system devices are classified to the machinery, integrated circuits, electronic systems are included. As the semiconductor leader in the electronic systems, coupled with the semiconductor integrated circuits is the main body, which after a long-term evolution of integrated circuits in a number of occasions, has become almost synonymous with semiconductor devices only. At the end of the sixties and early seventies, the country has set off a "SCR" hot. The boom continued a long time, great influence, and therefore still believe that the domestic power of semiconductors is the main SCR. The late seventies, the development of a thyristor family. And called the name of a standardized "thyristor." As the technology to regulate the power switch, so the wear and tear on a small device, so as the energy trump card. Its application is to cover all fields. China was first mooted in 1979, the establishment of Power Electronics Society, IEEE slightly earlier than the establishment of the United States Institute of Power Electronics (Power Electronics Society). Power Electronics Society of China was founded, as a result of the importance of professional development is very rapid. However, because the focal point was the relationship, it does not like the United States become an independent professional institutes, and was subsequently set up part of the China Electrotechnical Society. The translation and definition of Power Electronics for Power Electronics (the original idea was also known as the Power Electronics), and the popularity of power electronics played a role. Mechanical, electrical, electronic and other departments are very concerned about its development. Related to the power semiconductor devices has also been known as the power electronic devices. However, this name is very difficult to find abroad, but the corresponding terms. "Electricity" in reference to electronic access to universal, but also left a number of sequels. People mistakenly believe that only high-power direction is the "power" of the main electronic devices, and the difficulty of the rapid development of the MOSFET as a "power electronics" of the other main. From that point, I would like to use power semiconductor devices as the subject of this article, and power electronic devices can be used to express a broader sense to include other non-semiconductor, including a variety of power electronic devices. The development of power semiconductor devices in three stages The development of power semiconductor devices can be divided into three stages. The first stage is 60 to the seventies, when the various types of thyristors and power transistors Darlington significant development, or what might be called the era of bipolar. Its clients are mainly for industrial applications, including power systems, such as locomotive traction. The second stage is 80 to the nineties, due to the rise of the power MOSFET to power electronics into a new area. Modern 4C booming industry: the Communication, Computer, Consumer, Car (communication, computer, consumer electronics, automobiles) to provide a new vitality. Before and after the twenty-first century, the development of power semiconductor devices have entered the third phase, that is, and integrated circuit combined with a growing stage, Figure 1 and Figure II made to the above description of a simple sum. Of course, first of all need to focus on that here is this: when the continuous development of power semiconductor devices, the previous stage has not been the dominant product from the stage of history. For example, SCR is still an important product. China has in recent years the introduction of ultra-high-power thyristor, thyristor-controlled technology, such as China's major power transmission project, providing a key device. Recently, in considering the introduction of IGCT technology. In this regard it should be said that has gradually moved towards the world. This is our country going on the many major infrastructure. Although the view from the United States, the production of high-power thyristors have been less and less on the economic development of the two countries are not identical. I draw in Figure 2 in power semiconductor devices in both directions in the development. The left side of the bipolar nature of the direction toward the integration of ultra-high-power and direction. The right direction is unipolar, it is more established and integrated circuits of the inseparable relationship between closely.
Power semiconductor devices and power electronics World's first semiconductor rectifier and the transistor is, when no power semiconductor or microelectronics semiconductor division. In 1958, China began the first research topic Thyristor (originally known as PNPN device). In similar time, the study of integrated circuits began gradually. From semiconductor devices to the two direction. The former became the basis for power electronics, while the latter led to the development and micro-electronics and information electronics. According to the system, power system devices are classified to the machinery, integrated circuits, electronic systems are included. As the semiconductor leader in the electronic systems, coupled with the semiconductor integrated circuits is the main body, which after a long-term evolution of integrated circuits in a number of occasions, has become almost synonymous with semiconductor devices only. At the end of the sixties and early seventies, the country has set off a "SCR" hot. The boom continued a long time, great influence, and therefore still believe that the domestic power of semiconductors is the main SCR. The late seventies, the development of a thyristor family. And called the name of a standardized "thyristor." As the technology to regulate the power switch, so the wear and tear on a small device, so as the energy trump card. Its application is to cover all fields. China was first mooted in 1979, the establishment of Power Electronics Society, IEEE slightly earlier than the establishment of the United States Institute of Power Electronics (Power Electronics Society). Power Electronics Society of China was founded, as a result of the importance of professional development is very rapid. However, because the focal point was the relationship, it does not like the United States become an independent professional institutes, and was subsequently set up part of the China Electrotechnical Society. The translation and definition of Power Electronics for Power Electronics (the original idea was also known as the Power Electronics), and the popularity of power electronics played a role. Mechanical, electrical, electronic and other departments are very concerned about its development. Related to the power semiconductor devices has also been known as the power electronic devices. However, this name is very difficult to find abroad, but the corresponding terms. "Electricity" in reference to electronic access to universal, but also left a number of sequels. People mistakenly believe that only high-power direction is the "power" of the main electronic devices, and the difficulty of the rapid development of the MOSFET as a "power electronics" of the other main. From that point, I would like to use power semiconductor devices as the subject of this article, and power electronic devices can be used to express a broader sense to include other non-semiconductor, including a variety of power electronic devices. The development of power semiconductor devices in three stages The development of power semiconductor devices can be divided into three stages. The first stage is 60 to the seventies, when the various types of thyristors and power transistors Darlington significant development, or what might be called the era of bipolar. Its clients are mainly for industrial applications, including power systems, such as locomotive traction. The second stage is 80 to the nineties, due to the rise of the power MOSFET to power electronics into a new area. Modern 4C booming industry: the Communication, Computer, Consumer, Car (communication, computer, consumer electronics, automobiles) to provide a new vitality. Before and after the twenty-first century, the development of power semiconductor devices have entered the third phase, that is, and integrated circuit combined with a growing stage, Figure 1 and Figure II made to the above description of a simple sum. Of course, first of all need to focus on that here is this: when the continuous development of power semiconductor devices, the previous stage has not been the dominant product from the stage of history. For example, SCR is still an important product. China has in recent years the introduction of ultra-high-power thyristor, thyristor-controlled technology, such as China's major power transmission project, providing a key device. Recently, in considering the introduction of IGCT technology. In this regard it should be said that has gradually moved towards the world. This is our country going on the many major infrastructure. Although the view from the United States, the production of high-power thyristors have been less and less on the economic development of the two countries are not identical. I draw in Figure 2 in power semiconductor devices in both directions in the development. The left side of the bipolar nature of the direction toward the integration of ultra-high-power and direction. The right direction is unipolar, it is more established and integrated circuits of the inseparable relationship between closely.
题目： 新型扳手星期天，我和哥哥一起去换自行车外胎，让店主帮他换，修理的工人拿来一个，工具包里放着许多扳手，又从中找出M8、M6、M5、M4的扳。应为自行车结构复杂所以用扳手松紧螺丝非常麻烦，白来白去，弄了半天，还是有几颗上的不紧，看得我们都着急。修理工人只好又费力的加工了一番，终于完成了，可是他已经满头大汗了。我见后，思考着有没有一种改变扳手的使用原理，使它更方便，而又能配有多样的扳头呢？我又查了许多关于扳手的知识，忽然，一个发明的火花闪过我的脑海：如果做出一种多用扳手，在活动手柄和扶手上旋转多种规格的扳头可以选择，可以旋转和垂直使用，多好呢！这种半首的制作方法很简单，找4个所需要的扳头，用铁环固定在活动手柄和扶手上。四种扳头就可以自由旋转，手柄可以垂直放置了。这样，旋转速度快而且省时，又可以水平放置，使用时扭力又大，多方便啊！这个作品的用法也很简单：垂直放置，当放进螺丝钉或放松开螺丝钉旋出时，这时用力不大，可以转动活动手柄垂直放置，一手夹住扶手，一手可以快速旋转，这时用力最小，可以在顷刻之间快速旋转下螺丝钉；水平放置，用力不变的情况，力聚改变——加长，可以使扭力工具增大，用于夹紧或夹紧后用力松开螺丝钉的一刻；还有四种规格可以选择，不需要更换，只需要旋转至所需要的规格即可。四种规格连在一个整体上，不容易丢失。这种扳手出来后，只要轻轻松松的就解决辛苦的上下螺丝麻烦了。希望大家能够在生活中多思考，多长一双发现创新的眼睛，相信将来你也可以创造出一些有帮助人们的想法。(这是以前自己修改的一片科技小论文，希望能帮上你。）
我今年近7O岁了，可以说半导体陪伴着我们长大，从小就爱听，听少儿节目，听老电影，听新闻，听小说，印象最深的是（欧阳海之歌）等等许多许多，收获很大，获得了知识，享受了快乐，直到现在我还是爱听半导体，现在主要听小品，相声，养生知识等等，因为半导体听起来方便，也不费眼晴，挺好的！
半导体射线探测器最初约年研究核射线在晶体上作用, 表明射线的存在引起导电现象。但是, 由于测得的幅度小、存在极化现象以及缺乏合适的材料, 很长时间以来阻碍用晶体作为粒子探测器。就在这个时期, 气体探测器象电离室、正比计数器、盖革计数器广泛地发展起来。年, 范· 希尔顿首先较实际地讨论了“ 传导计数器” 。在晶体上沉积两个电极, 构成一种固体电离室。为分离人射粒子产生的载流子, 须外加电压。许多人试验了各种各样的晶体。范· 希尔顿和霍夫施塔特研究了这类探测器的主要性质, 产生一对电子一空穴对需要的平均能量, 对射线作用的响应以及电荷收集时间。并看出这类探测器有一系列优点由于有高的阻止能力, 人射粒子的射程小硅能吸收质子, 而质子在空气中射程为, 产生一对载流子需要的能量比气体小十倍, 在产生载流子的数目上有小的统计涨落, 又比气体计数器响应快。但是, 尽管霍夫施塔特作了许多实验,使用这种探侧器仍受一些限制, 像内极化效应能减小外加电场和捕捉载流子, 造成电荷收集上的偏差。为了避免捕捉载流子, 需外加一个足够强的电场。结果, 在扩散一结, 或金属半导体接触处形成一空间电荷区。该区称为耗尽层。它具有不捕捉载流子的性质。因而, 核射线人射到该区后, 产生电子一空穴载流子对, 能自由地、迅速向电极移动, 最终被收集。测得的脉冲高度正比于射线在耗尽层里的能量损失。要制成具有这种耗尽层器件是在年以后, 这与制成很纯、长寿命的半导体材料有关。麦克· 凯在贝尔电话实验室, 拉克· 霍罗威茨在普杜厄大学首先发展了这类探测器。年, 麦克· 凯用反偏锗二极管探测“ 。的粒子, 并研究所产生的脉冲高度随所加偏压而变。不久以后, 拉克· 霍罗威茨及其同事者测量一尸结二极管对。的粒子, “ , 的刀粒子的反应。麦克· 凯进行了类似的实验, 得到计数率达, 以及产生一对空穴一电子对需要的能量为土。。麦克· 凯还观察到,加于硅、锗一结二极管的偏压接近击穿电压时, 用一粒子轰击, 有载流子倍增现象。在普杜厄大学, 西蒙注意到用粒子轰击金一锗二极管时产生的脉冲。在此基础上, 迈耶证实脉冲幅度正比于人射粒子的能量, 用有效面积为二“ 的探测器, 测。的粒子, 得到的分辨率为。艾拉佩蒂安茨研究了一结二极管的性质, 载维斯首先制备了金一硅面垒型探测器。年以后, 许多人做了大量工作, 发表了广泛的著作。沃尔特等人讨论金一锗面垒型探测器的制备和性质, 制成有效面积为“ 的探测器, 并用探测器, 工作在,测洲的粒子, 分辨率为。迈耶完成一系列锗、硅面垒型探测器的实验用粒子轰击。年, 联合国和欧洲的一些实验室,制备和研究这类探测器。在华盛顿、加丁林堡、阿什维尔会议上发表一些成果。如一结和面垒探测器的电学性质, 表面状态的影响, 减少漏电流, 脉冲上升时间以及核物理应用等等。这种探测器的发展还与相连的电子器件有很大关系。因为, 要避免探测器的输出脉冲高度随所加偏压而变, 需一种带电容反馈的电荷灵敏放大器。加之, 探测器输出信号幅度很小, 必需使用低噪声前置放大器, 以提高信噪比。为一一满足上述两个条件, 一般用电子管或晶体管握尔曼放大器, 线幅贡献为。在使用场效应晶体管后, 进一步改善了分辨率。为了扩大这种探测器的应用, 需增大有效体积如吸收电子需厚硅。采用一般工艺限制有效厚度, 用高阻硅、高反偏压获得有效厚度约, 远远满足不了要求。因此, 年, 佩尔提出一种新方法, 大大推动这种探测器的发展。即在型半导体里用施主杂质补偿受主杂质, 能获得一种电阻率很高的材料虽然不是本征半导体。因为铿容易电离, 铿离子又有高的迁移率, 就选铿作为施主杂质。制备的工艺过程大致如下先把铿扩散到型硅表面, 构成一结构, 加上反向偏压, 并升温, 锉离一子向区漂移, 形成一一结构, 有效厚度可达。这种探测器很适于作转换电子分光器, 和多道幅度分析器组合, 可研究短寿命发射, 但对卜射线的效率低, 因硅的原子序数低。为克服这一点, 采用锉漂移入锗的方法锗的原子序数为。年, 弗莱克首先用型锗口,按照佩尔方法, 制成半导体探测器,铿漂移长度为, 测‘“ 、的的射线, 得到半峰值宽度为直到年以前, 所有的探测器都是平面型, 有效体积受铿通过晶体截面积到“和补偿厚度的限制获得补偿厚度约, 漂移时间要个月, 因此, 有效体积大于到” 是困难的。为克服这种缺点, 进一步发展了同轴型探测器。年, 制成高分辨率大体积同轴探测器。之后, 随着电子工业的发展而迅速发展。有效体积一般可达几十“ , 最大可达一百多“ , 很适于一、一射线的探测。年以后广泛地用于各个部门。最近几年, 半导体探测器在理论研究和实际应用上都有很大发展。
试想过你的生活缺少了数字是什么概念吗？那将是一个混乱的世界，无论是你的手机号码、你的身份证号码、还是你家的门牌号，这些全部都是用数字表达的！电子游戏、电子邮件、数码音乐、数码照片、多媒体光盘、网络会议、远程教学、网上购物、电子银行和电子货币……几乎一切的东西都可以用0和1来表示。电脑和互联网的出现让人们有了更大的想象和施展的空间，我们的生活就在这简单的“0”“1”之间变得丰富起来、灵活起来、愉悦起来，音像制品、手机、摄像机、数码相机、MP3、袖珍播放机、DVD播放机、PDA、多媒体、多功能游戏机、ISDN等新潮电子产品逐渐被人们所认识和接受，数字化被我们随身携带着，从而拥有了更加多变的视听新感受，音乐和感觉在数字化生活中静静流淌……数字生活已成为信息化时代的特征，它改变着人类生活的方方面面，在此背后，隐藏着新材料的巨大功勋，新材料是数字生活的“幕后英雄”。计算机是数字生活中的重要设备，计算机的核心部件是中央处理器（CPU）和存储器（RAM），它们是以大规模集成电路为基础建造起来的，而这些集成电路都是由半导体材料做成的，Si片是第一代半导体材料，集成电路中采用的Si片必须要有大的直径、高的晶体完整性、高的几何精度和高的洁净度。为了使集成电路具有高效率、低能耗、高速度的性能，相继发展了GaAs、InP等第二代半导体单晶材料。SiC、GaN、ZnSe、金刚石等第三代宽禁带半导体材料、SiGe/Si、SOI（Silicon On Insulator）等新型硅基材料、超晶格量子阱材料可制作高温（300~500°C）、高频、高功率、抗辐射以及蓝绿光、紫外光的发光器件和探测器件，从而大幅度地提高原有硅集成电路的性能，是未来半导体材料的重要发展方向。人机交换，常常需要将各种形式的信息，如文字、数据、图形、图像和活动图像显示出来。静止信息的显示手段最常用的如打印机、复印机、传真机和扫描仪等，一般称为信息的输出和输入设备。为提高分辨率以及输入和输出的速度，需要发展高灵敏度和稳定的感光材料，例如激光打印机和复印机上的感光鼓材料，目前使用的是无机的硒合金和有机的酞菁染料。显示活动图像信息的主要部件是阴极射线管（CRT），广泛地应用在计算机终端显示器和平面电视上，CRT目前采用的电致发光材料，大都使用稀土掺杂（Tb3+、Sn3+、Eu3+等）和过渡元素掺杂（Mn2+）的硫化物（ZnS、CdS等）和氧化物（Y2O3、YAlO3）等无机材料。为了减小CRT庞大的体积，信息显示的趋势是高分辨率、大显示容量、平板化、薄型化和大型化，为此主要采用了液晶显示技术（LCD）、场致发射显示技术（FED）、等离子体显示技术（PDP）和发光二极管显示技术（LED）等平板显示技术，广泛应用在高清晰度电视（HDTV）、电视电话、计算机（台式或可移动式）显示器、汽车用及个人数字化终端显示等应用目标上，CRT不再是一支独秀，而是形成与各种平板显示器百花争艳的局面。在液晶显示技术中采用的液晶材料早已在手表、计算器、笔记本电脑、摄像机中得到应用，液晶材料较早使用的是苯基环己烷类、环己基环己烷类、吡啶类等向列相和手征相材料，后来发展了铁电型（FE）液晶，响应时间在微秒级，但铁电液晶的稳定性差，只能用分支法（side-chain）来改进。目前趋向开发反铁电液晶，因为它们的稳定性较高。液晶显示材料在大屏幕显示中有一定的困难，目前作为大屏幕显示的主要候选对象为等离子体显示器（PDP）和发光二极管（LED）。PDP所用的荧光粉为掺稀土的钡铝氧化物。用类金刚石材料作冷阴极和稀土离子掺杂的氧化物作发光材料，推动场发射显示（FED）的发展。制作高亮度发光二极管的半导体材料主要为发红、橙、黄色的GaAs基和GaP基外延材料、发蓝光的GaN基和ZnSe基外延材料等。由于因特网和多媒体技术的迅速发展，人类要处理、传输和存储超高信息容量达太（兆兆）数字位（Tb，1012bits），超高速信息流每秒达太位（Tb/s），可以说人类已经进入了太位信息时代。现代的信息存储方式多种多样，以计算机系统存储为例，存储方式分为随机内存储、在线外存储、离线外存储和脱机存储。随机内存储器要求集成度高、数据存取速度快，因此一直以大规模集成的微电子技术为基础的半导体动态随机存储器（DRAM）为主，256兆位的随机动态存储器的晶体管超过2亿个。外存储大都采用磁记录方式，磁存储介质的主要形式为磁带、磁泡、软磁盘和硬磁盘。磁存储密度的提高主要依赖于磁介质材料的改进，相继采用了磁性氧化物（如g-Fe2O3、CrO2、金属磁粉等）、铁氧体系、超细磁性氧化物粉末、化学电镀钴镍合金或真空溅射蒸镀Co基合金连续磁性薄膜介质等材料，磁存储的信息存储量从而有了很大的提高。固体（闪）存储器（flash memory）是不挥发可擦写的存储器，是基于半导体二极管的集成电路，比较紧凑和坚固，可以在内存与外存间插入使用。记录磁头铁芯材料一般用饱和磁感大的软磁材料，如80Ni-20Fe、Co-Zr-Nb、Fe-Ta-C、45Ni-55Fe、Fe-Ni-N、Fe-Si、Fe-Si-Ni、67Co-10Ni-23Fe等。近年来发展起来的巨磁阻（GMR）材料，在一定的磁场下电阻急剧减小，一般减小幅度比通常磁性金属与合金的磁电阻数值约高10余倍。GMR一般由自由层/导电层/钉扎层/反强磁性层构成，其中自由层可为Ni-Fe、Ni-Fe/Co、Co-Fe等强磁体材料，在其两端安置有Co-Cr-Pt等永磁体薄膜，导电层为数nm的铜薄膜，钉扎层为数nm的软磁Co合金，磁化固定层用5～40nm的Ni-O、Ni-Mn、Mn-In、Fe-Cr-Pt、Cr-Mn-Pt、Fe-Mn等反强磁体，并加Ru/Co层的积层自由结构。采用GMR效应的读出磁头，将磁盘记录密度一下子提高了近二十倍，因此巨磁阻效应的研究对发展磁存储有着非常重要的意义。声视领域内激光唱片和激光唱机的兴起，得益于光存储技术的巨大发展，光盘存贮是通过调制激光束以光点的形式把信息编码记录在光学圆盘镀膜介质中。与磁存储技术相比，光盘存储技术具有存储容量大、存储寿命长；非接触式读/写和擦，光头不会磨损或划伤盘面，因此光盘系统可靠，可以自由更换；经多次读写载噪比（CNR）不降低。光盘存储技术经过CD（Compact Disk）、DVD（Digital Versatile Disk）发展到将来的高密度DVD（HD-DVD）、超高密度DVD（SHD-DVD）过程中，存储介质材料是关键，一次写入的光盘材料以烧蚀型（Tc合金薄膜，Se-Tc非晶薄膜等）和相变型（Te-Ge-Sb非晶薄膜、AgInTeSb系薄膜、掺杂的ZnO薄膜、推拉型偶氮染料、亚酞菁染料）为主，可擦重写光盘材料以磁光型（GdCo、TeFe非晶薄膜、BiMnSiAl薄膜、稀土掺杂的石榴石系YIG、Co-Pt多层薄膜）为主。光盘存储的密度取决于激光管的波长，DVD盘使用的InGaAlP红色激光管（波长650nm）时，直径12cm的盘每面存储为4.7千兆字节（GB），而使用ZnSe（波长515nm）可达12GB，将来采用GaN激光管（波长410nm），存储密度可达18GB。要读写光盘里的信息，必须采用高功率半导体激光器，所用的激光二极管采用化合物半导体GaAs、GaN等材料。激光器除了在光盘存储应用之外，在光通信中的作用也是众所周知的。由于有了低阈值、低功耗、长寿命及快响应的半导体激光器，使光纤通信成为现实。光通讯就是由电信号通过半导体激光器变为光信号，而后通过光导纤维作长距离传输，最后再由光信号变为电信号为人接收。光纤所传输的光信号是由激光器发出的，常用的为半导体激光器，所用材料为GaAs、GaAlAs、GaInAsP、InGaAlP、GaSb等。在接受端所用的光探测器也为半导体材料。缺少光导纤维，光通信也只能是“纸上谈兵”。低损耗的光学纤维是光纤通信的关键材料，目前所用的光学纤维传感材料主要有低损耗石英玻璃、氟化物玻璃和Ga2S3为基础的硫化物玻璃和塑料光纤等，1公斤石英为主的光纤可代替成吨的铜铝电缆。光纤通信的出现是信息传输的一场革命，信息容量大、重量轻、占用空间小、抗电磁干扰、串话少、保密性强，是光纤通信的优点。光纤通信的高速发展为现代信息高速公路的建设和开通起到了至关重要的作用。除了有线传播外，信息的传播还采用无线的方式。在无线传播中最引人注目的发展是移动电话。移动电话的用户愈多，所使用的频率愈高，现在正向千兆周的频率过渡，电话机的微波发射与接收亦是靠半导体晶体管来实现，其中部分Si晶体管正在被GaAs晶体管所取代。在手机中广泛采用的高频声表面波SAW（Surface Acoustic Wave）及体声波BAW（Bulk Surface Acoustic Wave）器件中的压电材料为a-SiO2、LiNbO3、LiTaO3、Li2B4O7、KNbO3、La3Ga5SiO14等压电晶体及ZnO/Al2O3和SiO2/ZnO/DLC/Si等高声速薄膜材料,采用的微波介质陶瓷材料则集中在BaO-TiO2体系、BaO-Ln2O3-TiO2（Ln=La,Pr,Nd,Sm,Eu,Gd）体系、复合钙钛矿A（B1/3B￠2/3）O3体系（A=Ba,Sr；B=Mg,Zn,Co,Ni,Mn；B￠=Nb,Ta）和铅基复合钙钛矿体系等材料上。随着智能化仪器仪表对高精度热敏器件需求的日益扩大，以及手持电话、掌上电脑PDA、笔记本电脑和其它便携式信息及通信设备的迅速普及，进一步带动了温度传感器和热敏电阻的大量需求，负温度系数（NTC）热敏电阻是由Co、Mn、Ni、Cu、Fe、Al等金属氧化物混合烧结而成，其阻值随温度的升高呈指数型下降，阻值-温度系数一般在百分之几，这一卓越的灵敏度使其能够探测极小的温度变化。正温度系数（PTC）热敏电阻一般都是由BaTiO3材料添加少量的稀土元素经高温烧结的敏感陶瓷制成的，这种材料在温度上升到居里温度点时，其阻值会以指数形式陡然增加，通常阻值-温度变化率在20~40%之间。前者大量使用在镍镉、镍氢及锂电池的快速充电、液晶显示器（LCD）图像对比度调节、蜂窝式电话和移动通信系统中大量采用使用的温度补偿型晶体振荡器等中，来进行温度补偿，以保证器件性能稳定；此外还在计算机中的微电机、照相机镜头聚焦电机、打印机的打印头、软盘的伺服控制器和袖珍播放机的驱动器等中，发现它的身影。后者可以用于过流保护、发热器、彩电和监视器的消磁、袖珍压缩机电机的启动延迟、防止笔记本电脑常效应管（FET）的热击穿等。为了保证信息运行的通畅，还有许多材料在默默地作着贡献，例如，用于制作绿色电池的材料有：镍氢电池的正、负极材料用MH合金和Ni(OH)2材料、锂离子电池的正、负极用LiCoO2、LiMn2O4和MCMB碳材料等电极材料；移动电话、PC机以及诸如数码相机、MD播放机/录音机、DVD设备和游戏机等数字音/视频设备等中钽电容器所用材料；现代永磁材料Fe14Nd2B在制造永磁电极、磁性轴承、耳机及微波装置等方面有十分重要的用途；印刷电路板（PCB）及超薄高、低介电损耗的新型覆铜板（CCL）用材料；环氧模塑料、氧化铝和氮化铝陶瓷是半导体和集成电路芯片的封装材料；集成电路用关键结构与工艺辅助材料（高纯试剂、特种气体、塑封料、引线框架材料等），不一而足，这些在浩瀚的材料世界里星光灿烂的新材料，正在数字生活里发挥着不可或缺的作用。随着科技的发展，大规模集成电路将迎来深亚微米（0.1mm）硅微电子技术时代，小于0.1mm的线条就属于纳米范畴，它的线宽就已与电子的德布罗意数相近，电子在器件内部的输运散射也将呈现量子化特性，因而器件的设计将面临一系列来自器件工作原理和工艺技术的棘手问题，导致常说的硅微电子技术的“极限”。由于光子的速度比电子速度快得多，光的频率比无线电的频率高得多，为提高传输速度和载波密度，信息的载体由电子到光子是必然趋势。目前已经发展了许多种激光晶体和光电子材料，如Nd:YAG、Nd:YLF、Ho:YAG、Er:YAG、Ho:Cr:Tm:YAG、Er:YAG、Ho:Cr:Tm:YLF、Ti:Al2O3、YVO4、Nd:YVO4、Ti:Al2O3、KDP、KTP、BBO、BGO、LBO、LiNbO3、K(Ta,Nb)O3、Fe:KnBO3、BaTiO3、LAP等，所有这些材料将为以光通信、光存储、光电显示为主的光电子技术产业作出贡献。随着信息材料由电子材料、微电子材料、光电子材料向光子材料发展，将会出现单电子存储器、纳米芯片、量子计算机、全光数字计算机、超导电脑、化学电脑、生物电脑和神经电脑等纳米电脑，将会极大地影响着人类的数字生活。本世纪以来，以数字化通信（Digital Communication）、数字化交换（Digital Switching）、数字化处理（Digital Processing）技术为主的数字化生活（Digital Life）正在向我们招手，一步步地向我们走来——清晨，MP3音箱播放出悦耳的晨曲，催我们按时起床；上班途中，打开随身携带的笔记本电脑，进行新一天的工作安排；上班以后，通过互联网召开网络会议、开展远程教学和实时办公；在下班之前，我们远程启动家里的空调和湿度调节器，保证家中室温适宜；下班途中，打开手机，悠然自在观看精彩的影视节目；进家门前，我们接收网上订购的货物；回到家中，和有线电视台进行互动，观看和下载喜欢的影视节目和歌曲，制作多媒体，也可进入社区互联网，上网浏览新闻了解天气……这一切看上去是不是很奇妙？似乎遥不可及。其实它正在和将要发生在我们身边，随着新一代家用电脑和互联网的出现，如此美好数字生活将成为现实。当享受数字生活的同时，饮水思源，请不要忘记为此作出巨大贡献的功臣——绚丽多彩的新材料世界！
你，是搞物理的？？？？我是吉林大学通信工程的学生，倒是知道些，，不过我很好奇，，你对半导体很感兴趣啊？？？那东西在生活中的很多电器中都有用到，难道你没听过收音机？？？那东西是电流从一边流向另一边是，几乎是通路，而反过来则会形成很大电阻，你的？明白？
你的卡，电脑。收音机。电视即等都用到
半导体物理迅速发展及随晶体管发明使科家早50代设想发明半导体激光器60代早期组竞相进行面研究理论析面莫斯科列别捷夫物理研究所尼古拉·巴索夫工作杰19627月召固体器件研究际议美麻省理工院林肯实验室两名者克耶斯（Keyes）奎斯特（Quist）报告砷化镓材料光发射现象引起通用电气研究实验室工程师哈尔（Hall）极兴趣家火车写关数据家哈尔立即制定研制半导体激光器计划并与其研究员道经数周奋斗计划获功像晶体二极管半导体激光器材料p-n结特性敞弗搬煌植号邦铜鲍扩基础且外观亦与前者类似半导体激光器称二极管激光器或激光二极管早期激光二极管实际限制例能77K低温微秒脉冲工作8间才由贝尔实验室列宁格勒（现圣彼堡）约飞（Ioffe）物理研究所制造能室温工作连续器件足够靠半导体激光器则直70代期才现半导体激光器体积非米粒工作波依赖于激光材料般0.6～1.55微米由于种应用需要更短波器件发展据报导Ⅱ～Ⅳ价元素化合物ZnSe工作物质激光器低温已0.46微米输波0.50～0.51微米室温连续器件输功率已达10毫瓦迄今尚未实现商品化光纤通信半导体激光预见重要应用领域面世界范围远距离海底光纤通信另面则各种区网者包括高速计算机网、航空电系统、卫通讯网、高清晰度闭路电视网等目前言激光唱机类器件市场其应用包括高速打印、自由空间光通信、固体激光泵浦源、激光指示及各种医疗应用等晶体管利用种称半导体材料特殊性能电流由运电承载普通金属铜电导体电没紧密原核相连容易电荷吸引其物体例橡胶绝缘体 --电良导体--电能自由运半导体名字暗示处于两者间通情况象绝缘体某种条件导电
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