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A standard form contract (sometimes referred to as an adhesion contract or boilerplate contract) is a contract between two parties that does not allow for negotiation, take it or leave It is often a contract that is entered into between unequal bargaining partners, such as when an individual is given a contract by the salesperson of a multinational The customer in no position to negotiate the standard terms of such contracts and the company's representative often does not have the autonomy to do While adhesion contracts, in and of themselves, are not illegal per se, there exists a very real possibility for There is some debate on a theoretical level whether, and to what extent, courts should enforce standard form On one hand, they undeniably fulfill an important efficiency role in Standard form contracting reduces transaction costs substantially by precluding the need for buyers and sellers of goods and services to negotiate the many details of a sale contract each time the product is On the other hand, there is the potential for inefficient, and even unjust, terms to be accepted by those signing these Such terms might be seen as unjust if they allow the seller to avoid all liability or unilaterally modify terms or terminate the These terms often come in the form of, but are not limited to, forum selection clauses and mandatory arbitration clauses, which can limit or foreclose a party's access to the courts; and also liquidated damages clauses, which set a limit to the amount that can be recovered or require a party to pay a specific They might be inefficient if they place the risk of a negative outcome, such as defective manufacturing, on the buyer who is not in the best position to take There are a number of reasons why such terms might be acceptedStandard form contracts are rarely readLengthy boilerplate terms are often in fine print and written in complicated legal language which often seems The prospect of a buyer finding any useful information from reading such terms is correspondingly Even if such information is discovered, the consumer is in no position to bargain as the contract is presented on a “take it or leave it” Coupled with the often large amount of time needed to read the terms, the expected payoff from reading the contract is low and few people would be expected to read Sometimes a standard form contract may literally be dispensed from a vending machine to drivers sitting in line to enter a parking garage, which means that stopping to read the contract risks provoking road Access to the full terms may be difficult or impossible before acceptanceOften the document being signed is not the full contract; the purchaser is told that the rest of the terms are in another This reduces the likelihood of the terms being read and in some situations, such as software license agreements, can only be read after they have been notionally accepted by purchasing the good and opening the These contracts are typically not enforced, since common law dictates that all terms of a contract must be disclosed before the contract is Boilerplate terms are not salientThe most important terms to purchasers of a good are generally the price and the quality, which are generally understood before the contract of adhesion is Terms relating to events which have very small probabilities of occurring or which refer to particular statutes or legal rules do not seem important to the This further lowers the chance of such terms being read and also means they are likely to be ignored even if they are There may be social pressure to signStandard form contracts are signed at a point when the main details of the transaction have either been negotiated or Social pressure to conclude the bargain at that point may come from a number of The salesperson may imply that the purchaser is being unreasonable if they read or question the terms, saying that they are "just something the lawyers want us to do" or that they are wasting their time reading If the purchaser is at the front of a queue (for example at an airport car rental desk) there is additional pressure to sign Finally, if there has been negotiation over price or particular details, then concessions given by the salesperson may be seen as a gift which socially obliges the purchaser to respond by being co-operative and concluding the Standard form contracts may exploit unequal power relationsIf the good which is being sold using a contract of adhesion is one which is essential or very important for the purchaser to buy (such as a rental property or a needed medical item) then the purchaser might feel they have no choice but to accept the This problem may be mitigated if there are many suppliers of the good who can potentially offer different terms (see below)Some contend that in a competitive market, consumers have the ability to shop around for the supplier who offers them the most favorable terms and are consequently able to avoid However, in the case of credit card contracts, for example, the consumer while having the ability to shop around may still have access to only form contracts with like terms and no opportunity for Also, as noted, many people do not read or understand the terms so there might be very little incentive for a firm to offer favorable conditions as they would gain only a small amount of business from doing Even if this is the case, it is argued by some that only a small percentage of buyers need to actively read standard form contracts for it to be worthwhile for firms to offer better terms if that group is able to influence a larger number of people by affecting the firm’s Another factor which might mitigate the effects of competition on the content of contracts of adhesion is that, in practice, standard form contracts are usually drafted by lawyers instructed to construct them so as to minimize the firm’s liability, not necessarily to implement managers' competitive Sometimes the contracts are written by an industry body and distributed to firms in that industry, increasing homogeneity of the contracts and reducing consumer's ability to shop Common law statusAs a general rule, the common law treats standard form contracts as any other Signature or some other objective manifestation of intent to be legally bound will bind the signor to the contract whether or not they read or understood the The reality of standard form contracting, however, means that many common law jurisdictions have developed special rules with respect to In general, courts will interpret standard form contracts contra proferentem (literally 'against the proffering person') but specific treatment varies between Contracts of adhesionContract of adhesion on timekeeping ticket dispensed by vending machine at parking lot entranceThe concept of the contract of adhesion originated in French civil law, but for example, it did not enter American jurisprudence until the Harvard Law Review published an influential article by Edwin W Patterson in It was subsequently adopted by the majority of American courts, especially after the Supreme Court of California endorsed adhesion analysis in For a contract to be treated as a contract of adhesion, it must be presented on a standard form on a ‘take it or leave it’ basis, and give one party no ability to negotiate because of their unequal bargaining The special scrutiny given to contracts of adhesion can be performed in a number of ways:If the term was outside of the reasonable expectations of the person who did not write the contract, and if the parties were contracting on an unequal basis, then it will not be The reasonable expectation is assessed objectively, looking at the prominence of the term, the purpose of the term and the circumstances surrounding acceptance of the Section 211 of the American Law Institute's Restatement (Second) of Contracts, which has persuasive though non-binding force in courts, provides:Where the other party has reason to believe that the party manifesting such assent would not do so if he knew that the writing contained a particular term, the term is not part of the This is a subjective test focusing on the mind of the seller and has been adopted by only a few state The doctrine of unconscionability is a fact-specific doctrine arising from equitable Unconscionability in standard form contracts usually arises where there is an "absence of meaningful choice on the part of one party due to one-sided contract provisions, together with terms which are so oppressive that no reasonable person would make them and no fair and honest person would accept "
A Dynamic Approach to Accounts Receivable: a Study of Spanish SMEsPedro J García-Teruel, Pedro Martínez-SolanoArticle first published online: 10 OCT 2008DOI: 1111/1468-036Xx已发送至你邮箱，请及时采纳！！
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建议你使用google直接搜索英文的关键字，可以直接找到英文版的。 另外可以查找香港类似的网站或报道，一般会带有中英两个版本， 就不会出现翻译的问题。再者国内的一些大型官方网站也都附带了英文的界面。
字面直译1800-2000英文单词能翻译三千字左右文我试翻译候觉文简洁英文繁琐种见误解
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Published in 1847, WUTHERING HEIGHTS was not well received by the reading public, many of whom condemned it as sordid, vulgar, and unnatural--and author Emily Bronte went to her grave in 1848 believing that her only novel was a It was not until 1850, when WUTHERING HEIGHTS received a second printing with an introduction by Emily's sister Charlotte, that it attracted a wide And from that point the reputation of the book has never looked Today it is widely recognized as one of the great novels of English Even so, WUTHERING HEIGHTS continues to divide It is not a pretty love story; rather, it is swirling tale of largely unlikeable people caught up in obsessive love that turns to dark It is cruel, violent, dark and brooding, and many people find it extremely And yet--it possesses a grandeur of language and design, a sense of tremendous pity and great loss that sets it apart from virtually every other novel The novel is told in the form of an extended After a visit to his strange landlord, a newcomer to the area desires to know the history of the family--which he receives from Nelly Deans, a servant who introduces us to the Earnshaw family who once resided in the house known as Wuthering H It was once a cheerful place, but Old Earnshaw adopted a "Gipsy" child who he named H And Catherine, daughter of the house, found in him the perfect companion: wild, rude, and as proud and cruel as But although Catherine loves him, even recognizes him as her soulmate, she cannot lower herself to marry so far below her social She instead marries another, and in so doing sets in motion an obsession that will destroy them WUTHERING HEIGHTS is a bit difficult to "get into;" the opening chapters are so dark in their portrait of the end result of this obsessive love that they are somewhat off- But they feed into the flow of the work in a remarkable way, setting the stage for one of the most remarkable structures in all of literature, a story that circles upon itself in a series of repetitions as it plays out across two Catherine and Heathcliff are equally remarkable, both vicious and cruel, and yet never able to shed their impossible love no matter how brutally one may wound the As the novel coils further into alcoholism, seduction, and one of the most elaborately imagined plans of revenge it gathers into a ghostly tone: Heathcliff, driven to madness by a woman who is not there but who seems reflected in every part of his world--dragging her corpse from the grave, hearing her calling to him from the moors, escalating his brutality not for the sake of brutality but so that her memory will never fade, so that she may never leave his mind until death Yes, this is madness, insanity, and there is no peace this side of the grave or even Many people in the world are trying to find a perfect Some of these may marry and not know what their new husband or wife is This kind of situation often leads to separation or Other situations may develop between two friends that stem from jealousy, desire for revenge, uncaring parents, Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights displays several characteristics of destructive Three of these are uncaring parents, marriage without knowing the person, and Uncaring or unsympathizing parents are shown throughout this story to be an element of destructive Because Heathcliff gained all the attention from M Earnshaw, Hindley became disassociated from his This separation continued until after M Earnshaw had Another example is between Hindley and H Hindley became such a drunk and a gambler that he could not properly care for young H This led to a separation between Hareton and his father as One primary example of an uncaring parent is shown between Heathcliff and his son LHeathcliff did not even want his son for anything except enacting a part of his This is shown by Linton's fear of Heathcliff and Heathcliff's enmity toward his Linton even says " my father threatened me, and I dread him - I dread him!"(244) to express his feeling about HThe hostility and separation between father and son in this book shows that uncaring parents can cause serious damage in relationships with their This element of destructive behavior may stem from an unhappy marriage in which the husbands or wives don't know each This had happened between Isabella and H Isabella did not really know Heathcliff when she married him, but after she had married him she saw that Heathcliff was not a gentleman at To declare her feelings she wrote "Is Heathcliff a man? If so, is he mad? And if not, is he a devil? I shan't tell my reasons for making this inquiry; but I beseech you to explain, if you can, what I have married "(125) Another example of this is when Catherine married Edgar L Although she had been happy at the beginning of the marriage, she thought having parties all the time was going to be Yet, after a while, she became She also realized that she loved Heathcliff more than Edgar and would always love HThis enlightenment created separation between Edgar and Catherine during the final hours of Cathy's An additional marriage which was made that was doomed was the one between Catherine and L Because this was a forced marriage, Cathy had not yet learned all she could about LBecause she did not know until after the marriage that Linton was selfish and inconsiderate, she became distressed and grew isolated in the These three failed marriages described in this novel show that knowing the person you will marry is very While these marriages took place, jealousy also took a hold in some One example of this is when M Earnshaw starts to favor Heathcliff over his own son, H Because of this, Hindley becomes jealous of young Heathcliff and sets out to make Heathcliff's life a Hindley's jealousy becomes evident when he says ," be damned you beggarly interloper! and wheedle my father out of all he has; only afterwards show him what you are, imp of S"(35) Jealousy was also found very notably in the relationship between Heathcliff and Edgar L The jealousy between them is expressed when Heathcliff and Edgar start a hostile conversation after Cathy's homecoming at Christmas near the beginning of the As the story progresses these two become bitter enemies who will not speak to one Another relationship which jealousy ruined is the one between Hareton and L These two become jealous of each other over Cathy's This relationship ends as Hareton and Linton hating each These relationships show that jealousy can ruin a relationship very The housekeeper Ellen Dean, or we can call her Nelly, tells most of the She witnesses the life of the three-generations in the two She is a good storyteller but we mustn’t believe all of what she She always thinks and considers things in a simple She couldn’t understand the deep love between Catherine and H She thinks it is a kind of She is a limited In a certain way, this helps readers to understand Heathcliff better because he has no chance to defend An outsider will see the whole thing more However, we should pay more attention not to be affect by her opinions and try to find the truth between the As a main character Catherine is a She is attracted by Linton but doesn’t love She knows that clearly but she marries Linton without listening to the call of her Many critics believe that what makes her marry Linton is only his high social status and I think this comment is In fact, she folly thinks to marry Linton will help Heathcliff “to rise and place him out of my brother’s ” Her decision ruins herself, Heathcliff and the two She has to endure serious suffering because she knows clearly she love Heathcliff whole-heartedly but can’t become his She confesses to Nelly her own thoughts: “…I am Heathcliff—he’s always, always in my mind—not as a pleasure, any more than I am always a pleasure to myself—but as my own being…” She loves Heathcliff because he is more like her than His existence is natural to her for they are the same in They could understand each other without Talking about Heathcliff, he is an evil person but I admire him because his love and hate is Everyone has a devil in his The one in Heathcliff’s heart is especially In spite of this, I believe and can read between the lines that Amily Bronte also has her favor to H She wants to tell us evil and love are deeply planted in everyone’s heart and it is human
内容摘要：本文运用GARCH模型分析了实际汇率对我国外商直接投资（FDI）的影响，结果表明实际汇率对我国FDI流入有正效应，即实际汇率上升（人民币贬值）会增加FDI流入；而实际汇率不确定性增大对我国FDI流入有比较显著的负效应，即实际汇率不确定性提高会导致FDI流入减少。虽然这两种效应都比较弱，但在人民币汇率制度改革之后，重要的是确保汇率在合适的范围内波动，减少不确定性，以免对FDI的流入产生负面的影响。 关键词：实际汇率 外商直接投资（FDI） 不确定性 广义自回归异方差（GARCH） 一、序言 我国FDI增长迅速，国内外许多学者致力于该领域的研究，在FDI如何影响我国的国内生产总值、劳动就业、实际工资和技术进步等等方面积累了大量的研究文献。同时，也有许多文献研究什么因素会影响我国FDI流入，这其中汇率、工资、地理位置以及聚集效应是研究中的重点（Pan，2003等）。不过在我们能够掌握到的文献中，研究汇率波动性对我国FDI的影响较少，而这正是本文研究的重点。目前，我国已经开始实行以市场供求为基础、参考一篮子货币、有管理浮动的汇率制度，但人民币仍然面临各方很大的升值压力，因此这一研究的意义在于：人民币汇率波动性增大可能会减少我国的FDI，保持汇率的相对稳定就显得相当重要。 一般来说，汇率通过两种方式影响FDI。一是成本效应，东道国货币贬值使得FDI的成本减小，从而FDI增加；二是替代效应，从输出国的角度来看，出口和FDI是两种可以选择的策略，东道国货币贬值使得FDI能比出口获得更多的利益，因此FDI增加。这一方面的研究大多认同东道国货币贬值可以吸引更多的FDI流入。例如，Goldberg和K(1998)发现日本、美国流入东亚各国的直接投资与它们之间的双边汇率存在显著的相关关系。Xing和 Wang（2004）在两国竞争同一FDI输出国的假设下，从理论上证明了货币相对FDI输出国升值的国家吸收的FDI将会减少，而相对贬值的国家吸收的FDI将会增加。不过也有学者认为这一效应不显著， 比如Pan（2003）认为汇率不是解释中国FDI流入的一个显著变量，Dewenter（1995）对美国的研究也发现汇率与FDI之间的关系不显著。 另一方面，汇率波动性对FDI的影响同样也没有一个一致的结论。比较多的实证研究支持这样一个观点：汇率波动性增大使得出口相对FDI来说能够获得更多利益，从而FDI减少。Amuedo-Doranes和Pozo（1999）研究了1976-1998年美国汇率波动对FDI流入的影响，发现FDI与GNP比率、实际汇率与汇率波动性之间存在长期关系，而且短期内汇率波动性增大会减少美国的FDI流入。Barrell，Gottschalk和Hall（2004）通过理论分析和实证检验发现欧元区和英国的汇率不确定性增大对FDI有负的影响，同样也支持了以上结论。 就我们所掌握的资料中，国内这方面的研究文献很少，因此，本文借鉴Amuedo-Doranes和Pozo（1996）用GARCH模型研究美国汇率波动的方法来分析我国汇率波动对FDI的影响，可以为以后的研究者提供一些实证方法上的借鉴。 本文以下第二部分说明数据的来源，同时分析本文所用到的数据，第三部分实证分析汇率与FDI之间的关系，最后是结论和相应的政策建议。 二、数据来源与分析 四、结论和政策含义 本文的研究结果表明，实际汇率上升（人民币贬值）会增加FDI流入；而实际汇率不确定性增加会导致FDI流入减少。相比较而言，前一种效应不显著而后一种效应较显著，但是两种效应都不强。 值得注意的是，以上结论是建立在钉住美元的汇率制度的基础之上，但改革以后的汇率波动幅度将会比之前要来得大，汇率波动对FDI的影响将会较为明显。据商务部的统计数据，今年以来外资投资企业数量与实际利用外资金额均出现下降：1-5月份，全国新批设立外商投资企业16473家，同比下降75%；实际使用外资金额66亿美元，同比下降79%。这一趋势除了与各地的招商引资优惠条件减弱、宏观调控抑制过热行业投资以及美元利率不断调高，吸引了大量美资回流和分流了国际资本等因素有关之外，人民币汇率的升值趋势和波动不确定性也是一个重要的原因。因此，本文所得结论的政策含义在于：在人民币汇率制度改革之后，保持人民币汇率的基本稳定是保持中国经济稳定从而保持一个稳定的投资和贸易环境的需要，这对增强国外投资者信心，并使中国的经济得以持续高速增长具有重要的意义。 参考文献： 1、Amuedo-Doranes, C and Pozo, S（1999）："Foreign exchange rates and foreign direct investment in the United S", The International Trade Journal，322- 2、Barrell ,R , Gottschalk , SD and SG Hall（2004）："Foreign Direct Investment and Exchange Rate Uncertainty in Imperfectly Competitive I"，Tanaka Business School Discussion Papers: TBS/DP04/ 3、Dewenter, KL (1995): "Do Exchange Rate Changes Drive Foreign Direct Investment?", Journal of Business, 68, issue 3, 405- 4、Goldberg, L S and Klein, M(1998): "Foreign Direct Investment, Trade and Real Exchange Rate Linkages in Developing C", published in Managing Capital Flows and Exchange Rates: Perspectives from the Pacific Basin, editor Reuven Glick (Cambridge University Press 1998) 73- 5、Pan,Y(2003)："The inflow of foreign direct investment to China：the impact of country-specific ", Journal of business research,56,829- 6、Xing, YQ and Wang, GH（2004）："Exchange Rate and Competition for FDI" International University of Japan，working
浅谈青少年犯罪的原因及对策如何预防青少年犯罪目前，人们将青少年犯罪、吸毒和环境污染并称为“三大公害”。青少年犯罪已成为一个不容忽视的社会问题，如何预防和减少青少年犯罪就显得尤为重要。 一、青少年违法犯罪的特点和原因 （一）青少年犯罪的特点：从司法实践来看，青少年犯罪大体有以下特点：一是违法犯罪趋于低龄化。十四五岁就违法犯罪，有的甚至做出大案要案。二是犯罪类型越来越多，以侵财性犯罪为主，如盗窃、抢劫、敲诈等。此外伤害、杀人、绑架、强奸等恶性案件也时有发生。三是是犯罪动机简单，没有明确作案目的，一般没有事先预谋，多属一时感情冲动，有的出于好奇，自我表现和要求偏激，常有一定的盲目性和随意性。 （二）青少年犯罪的原因。青少年犯罪问题，是个非常复杂的社会问题，它产生原因也是多方面的。既有主观方面的原因，也有客观方面的原因，即有学校方面的原因，更有社会和家庭方面的原因。 1、从客观上讲。家庭、社会、学校对于青少年的负面影响成为其违法犯罪的动因。 （1）家庭因素。缺乏良好的家庭教育是青少年走上违法犯罪的主要原因。有的家庭不合，父母离异，在得不到父爱、母爱基本温暖的情况下，幼小的心灵被人为地扭曲，报复社会，而走上犯罪道路；有的家庭对独生子女教育不当，还过分溺爱，平日里百依百顺，有求必应，形成孩子任性、霸道的坏性格，一旦受挫折或受批评就难以接受；有的家长以打骂代替教育，方法简单粗暴，孩子犯一点小错，或学习成绩不好，就不敢回家，在外流浪，甚至离家出走，碰上坏人教唆，极易走上犯罪道路；一些个体工商户，从早到晚一心赚钱，忙于商场，没有时间教育孩子，关心孩子的学习，放任自流，在没有约束的情况下，孩子在外结交狐朋狗友，小偷小摸，滋事斗殴，沾上恶习，走上违法犯罪道路；还有的家长望子成龙心切，期望值太高，平时成绩不是前三名不能过关，升学非上重点不可，逼得太紧，压力过大，负担过重，当孩子力不从心，“达标”无望时，极易走向反面，做出丧失理智或意外的犯罪行为。 （2）社会因素。社会中的消极因素是青少年走上违法犯罪的催化剂。不健康的社会文化，对涉世不深、抗诱惑力不强的青少年的危害是很深的。一些影视中播放的犯罪过程和人物语言的腐朽观点，不健康的书刊杂志、电子游戏中的大量宣扬暴力、色情的东西，强烈刺激着缺乏辨别判断能力，充满好奇、处于发育期青少年的感官，吞噬着他们纯洁的心灵。加之到处可见的美发厅、按摩院，疏于管理的网吧、录像厅不按照规定，随意让青少年进入，严重毒害、腐蚀着青少年的心灵，诱发青少年犯罪。青少年无经济来源，当囊中羞涩，以抵挡不住诱惑时，就有可能由内向外，从小偷小摸到公开敲诈抢劫，甚至杀人谋财，走上违法犯罪的道路。 （3）学校因素。青少年犯罪除了家庭和社会的原因外，学校教育也起着非常重要的作用。一方面由于家庭和社会的负面影响，严重抵消了学校正面教育的效果。学校正面教育十次不及家庭和社会负面教育一次，另一方面，学校教育本身仍需要改进和加强。主要是教育思想和教育理念，还没有完成从应试教育到素质教育的真正过渡。由于我国教育体制和高考这个指挥棒的作用，各个学校不同程度的存在片面追求升学率的倾向。教师、学生和家长都无法从应试教育中解脱出来。少数教师对后进学生缺乏爱心，教育方法简单，鼓励表扬少，批评指责多。有时造成后进学生校门、家门两难进的局面。“破罐子破摔”，他们在校外寻找“知己”，极易走上犯罪道路。 2、除了客观方面，青少年的主观内在因素才是决定因素。 青少年正处于身心发育阶段，在生理、心理上尚不完全成熟，社会经验少，缺乏对事物的判断能力和鉴别能力，尤其在心理和情绪上变化复杂，极不稳定。他们精力旺盛，天性好动，但理性认识薄弱，逞强好胜，偏激任性。他们生理上早熟，心理上滞后，极易造成心理上，感情上逆反。加之青少年法律意识淡薄，有的不学法、不懂法，在各种因素的“夹击”下，形成了许多错误的价值观，表现为混乱，颠倒的“是非观”、贪婪的“幸福观”、称王称霸的“英雄观”、低级庸俗的“趣味观”等等，导致青少年走上犯罪道路。 二、预防青少年犯罪的对策。 预防青少年犯罪，是一个事关民族前途命运的重大社会问题，应该引起各级部门的高度重视，引起全社会的共同关注。重点还是需要从家庭、社会和学校三方面做起。 1、要提高家长素质，改进家庭教育。家庭是社会的细胞，是青少年生活、学习的摇篮，家长是子女的第一任教师，从某种意义上讲，家长的素质，影响了子女的素质，良好的家庭教育，对预防青少年违法犯罪具有十分重要的作用。家庭要创造健康向上的生活环境，给青少年儿童以潜移默化的良性熏陶，引导青少年把课余时间的旺盛精力投入到有益的正当活动中去。家长也要学习青少年心理学、教育学、法律知识，提高自身素质和法制意识，培养高雅的兴趣爱好，注重言传身教，与子女建立平等、民主、相互尊重、充满善意的关系，创建良好的家庭氛围，认真履行对未成年人的监护职责和抚养义务，学校和社会也要制订切实可行的计划措施来提高家长的素质，比如学校或社区开办“家长学校”，或有关部门和家长签订责任状等形式，明确家庭、父母对子女的教育责任。 2、学校教育必须坚持德育为首的原则。把德育教育落实到学生教育的每一环节上，落实到教师的工作实际中，学校所有教职工都是德育工作者，要真正履行德育教育职责。学校不仅要关心品学兼优的尖子生，同时还要给后进生更多的关爱。在具体工作中必须从以下几方面做起：一是学校的法制教育必须长期化、制度化。二是加强学生的道德教育。青少年的违法犯罪往往是从不遵守道德规范和社会公德开始的，学校要抓住青少年品德、个性、世界观、人生观形成的关键时期，加强思想道德和社会公德教育，使他们树立正确的世界观、人生观，树立远大的理想和志向，形成良好的道德风尚和高尚的道德情操。三是努力提高教师的法律素质，决不允许出现体罚学生的现象，使每一个教师都真正担负起教书育人的重任。 3、要动员全社会的力量，为青少年健康成长创造良好的社会环境。有关部门要建立预防青少年违法犯罪的联席会议制度，研究制定青少年法制教育计划，指导学校法制副校长队伍建设，加大青少年法制教育力度。同时要加强对学校周边环境的治理，学校附近的游戏厅、录像室、网吧等不健康场所，要坚决关闭，其它青少年娱乐场所要从严管理，规范运作。 青少年违法犯罪，是我们最不愿看到，却又无法回避的社会现实。它不仅直接危害着年轻一代的健康成长，而且严重影响着社会的稳定。加强青少年普法教育，遏制青少年违法犯罪，推进依法治国方略，维护社会稳定的责任重于泰山，是整个社会的共同责任，需要我们每一个人共同努力！ ——保护性预防。保护性预防是指国家或社会各方面的力量以保护青少年健康成长为目的而采取的各种措施，这些措施主要包括：应加强有关青少年保护的立法工作；为青少年健康成长提供良好的物质条件；防止青少年沾染不良习惯，禁止侵蚀青少年思想品德信息的传播；打击教唆、引诱、胁迫青少年犯罪的犯罪活动，这也是保护预防青少年违法犯罪的重要环节。 ——堵塞性预防。堵塞性预防是指通过堵塞各方面工作的漏洞，减少和消除实施犯罪的条件，达到犯罪预防的措施。主要包括：加强学校、家庭对青少年的教育，教育青少年树立正确的人生观、世界观；加强人口流动量大且人口密集区域与僻静、空旷地段的管理；加强对流动人口的管理；加强职业道德教育可有效防止涉世之初青年的职务经济等犯罪。 ——控制性预防。控制性预防是指各种针对有明显犯罪倾向或轻微违法犯罪行为的人采取的帮助、教育、挽救措施。主要包括：成立帮教小组；送工读学校教育；加强少年法庭的工作；回访考察。 ——改造性预防。改造性预防指政法机关以生产劳动为主要手段，通过思想政治教育、文化技术教育，使有违法犯罪的人改邪归正，成为遵纪守法的劳动者。在劳动改造时，应结合青少年犯罪的特点与原因，要重点进行思想教育，以彻底从思想上使失足青少年得以改造，真正成为自食其力遵纪守法的劳动者。
一般字数控制在4000-6000字左右，大约8-15页； 以评述为主，不可罗列文献； 基本格式通常包括题目、作者、摘要、关键词、前言、正文、结语和参考文献等几个部分； 中文参考15-20篇，英文参考20篇左右，文献要新，50％-80％最好为3年内的文献。还应该注意： 综述首先是选题。这时应该和导师好好讨论，选的题目当然要有新意而且要和将要做的课题相关。很多时候在开题之前写综述，就是为了较全面的了解你所要做的领域的知识背景和动态，因此即使不是为了发表也有必要写一写。如果要发表的话，就要注意一下有没有人做过，是否前沿，以及要投稿的杂志的性质和风格了。 其次是查资料和阅读资料。先从中文的查起，中文资料同样的内容重复的很多，而且比较散和相对滞后，但一是可以对所要研究对象的历史背景有个了解，二是知道国内“大腕”们观点和对某些词称呼（因为毕竟大多数人要写中文综述并要在国内期刊发表），三是了解综述的行文和结构。所以中文资料是要查的，但重点是查英文资料。 再次，在查找策略上可以先大面积撒网，粗读后获得一个大体概念，形成思路后再划分为一些小目标，逐个查找。可以根据搜索结果的条数看出关键词设置的质量，粗查的时候我觉得100条左右比较合适，细查时最好就是十几篇到几十篇。
文献综述是对某一方面的专题搜集大量情报资料后经综合分析而写成的一种学术论文， 它是科学文献的一种。 格式与写法 文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，特别是阳性结果，而文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，在根据提纲进行撰写工。 前言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念及定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。 主题部分，是综述的主体，其写法多样，没有固定的格式。可按年代顺序综述，也可按不同的问题进行综述，还可按不同的观点进行比较综述，不管用那一种格式综述，都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较，阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向，以及对这些问题的评述，主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。 总结部分，与研究性论文的小结有些类似，将全文主题进行扼要总结，对所综述的主题有研究的作者，最好能提出自己的见解。 参考文献虽然放在文末，但却是文献综述的重要组成部分。因为它不仅表示对被引用文献作者的尊重及引用文献的依据，而且为读者深入探讨有关问题提供了文献查找线索。因此，应认真对待。参考文献的编排应条目清楚，查找方便，内容准确无误。关于参考文献的使用方法，录著项目及格式与研究论文相同，不再重复。
浅谈青少年犯罪的原因及对策如何预防青少年犯罪目前，人们将青少年犯罪、吸毒和环境污染并称为“三大公害”。青少年犯罪已成为一个不容忽视的社会问题，如何预防和减少青少年犯罪就显得尤为重要。 一、青少年违法犯罪的特点和原因 （一）青少年犯罪的特点：从司法实践来看，青少年犯罪大体有以下特点：一是违法犯罪趋于低龄化。十四五岁就违法犯罪，有的甚至做出大案要案。二是犯罪类型越来越多，以侵财性犯罪为主，如盗窃、抢劫、敲诈等。此外伤害、杀人、绑架、强奸等恶性案件也时有发生。三是是犯罪动机简单，没有明确作案目的，一般没有事先预谋，多属一时感情冲动，有的出于好奇，自我表现和要求偏激，常有一定的盲目性和随意性。 （二）青少年犯罪的原因。青少年犯罪问题，是个非常复杂的社会问题，它产生原因也是多方面的。既有主观方面的原因，也有客观方面的原因，即有学校方面的原因，更有社会和家庭方面的原因。 1、从客观上讲。家庭、社会、学校对于青少年的负面影响成为其违法犯罪的动因。 （1）家庭因素。缺乏良好的家庭教育是青少年走上违法犯罪的主要原因。有的家庭不合，父母离异，在得不到父爱、母爱基本温暖的情况下，幼小的心灵被人为地扭曲，报复社会，而走上犯罪道路；有的家庭对独生子女教育不当，还过分溺爱，平日里百依百顺，有求必应，形成孩子任性、霸道的坏性格，一旦受挫折或受批评就难以接受；有的家长以打骂代替教育，方法简单粗暴，孩子犯一点小错，或学习成绩不好，就不敢回家，在外流浪，甚至离家出走，碰上坏人教唆，极易走上犯罪道路；一些个体工商户，从早到晚一心赚钱，忙于商场，没有时间教育孩子，关心孩子的学习，放任自流，在没有约束的情况下，孩子在外结交狐朋狗友，小偷小摸，滋事斗殴，沾上恶习，走上违法犯罪道路；还有的家长望子成龙心切，期望值太高，平时成绩不是前三名不能过关，升学非上重点不可，逼得太紧，压力过大，负担过重，当孩子力不从心，“达标”无望时，极易走向反面，做出丧失理智或意外的犯罪行为。 （2）社会因素。社会中的消极因素是青少年走上违法犯罪的催化剂。不健康的社会文化，对涉世不深、抗诱惑力不强的青少年的危害是很深的。一些影视中播放的犯罪过程和人物语言的腐朽观点，不健康的书刊杂志、电子游戏中的大量宣扬暴力、色情的东西，强烈刺激着缺乏辨别判断能力，充满好奇、处于发育期青少年的感官，吞噬着他们纯洁的心灵。加之到处可见的美发厅、按摩院，疏于管理的网吧、录像厅不按照规定，随意让青少年进入，严重毒害、腐蚀着青少年的心灵，诱发青少年犯罪。青少年无经济来源，当囊中羞涩，以抵挡不住诱惑时，就有可能由内向外，从小偷小摸到公开敲诈抢劫，甚至杀人谋财，走上违法犯罪的道路。 （3）学校因素。青少年犯罪除了家庭和社会的原因外，学校教育也起着非常重要的作用。一方面由于家庭和社会的负面影响，严重抵消了学校正面教育的效果。学校正面教育十次不及家庭和社会负面教育一次，另一方面，学校教育本身仍需要改进和加强。主要是教育思想和教育理念，还没有完成从应试教育到素质教育的真正过渡。由于我国教育体制和高考这个指挥棒的作用，各个学校不同程度的存在片面追求升学率的倾向。教师、学生和家长都无法从应试教育中解脱出来。少数教师对后进学生缺乏爱心，教育方法简单，鼓励表扬少，批评指责多。有时造成后进学生校门、家门两难进的局面。“破罐子破摔”，他们在校外寻找“知己”，极易走上犯罪道路。 2、除了客观方面，青少年的主观内在因素才是决定因素。 青少年正处于身心发育阶段，在生理、心理上尚不完全成熟，社会经验少，缺乏对事物的判断能力和鉴别能力，尤其在心理和情绪上变化复杂，极不稳定。他们精力旺盛，天性好动，但理性认识薄弱，逞强好胜，偏激任性。他们生理上早熟，心理上滞后，极易造成心理上，感情上逆反。加之青少年法律意识淡薄，有的不学法、不懂法，在各种因素的“夹击”下，形成了许多错误的价值观，表现为混乱，颠倒的“是非观”、贪婪的“幸福观”、称王称霸的“英雄观”、低级庸俗的“趣味观”等等，导致青少年走上犯罪道路。 二、预防青少年犯罪的对策。 预防青少年犯罪，是一个事关民族前途命运的重大社会问题，应该引起各级部门的高度重视，引起全社会的共同关注。重点还是需要从家庭、社会和学校三方面做起。 1、要提高家长素质，改进家庭教育。家庭是社会的细胞，是青少年生活、学习的摇篮，家长是子女的第一任教师，从某种意义上讲，家长的素质，影响了子女的素质，良好的家庭教育，对预防青少年违法犯罪具有十分重要的作用。家庭要创造健康向上的生活环境，给青少年儿童以潜移默化的良性熏陶，引导青少年把课余时间的旺盛精力投入到有益的正当活动中去。家长也要学习青少年心理学、教育学、法律知识，提高自身素质和法制意识，培养高雅的兴趣爱好，注重言传身教，与子女建立平等、民主、相互尊重、充满善意的关系，创建良好的家庭氛围，认真履行对未成年人的监护职责和抚养义务，学校和社会也要制订切实可行的计划措施来提高家长的素质，比如学校或社区开办“家长学校”，或有关部门和家长签订责任状等形式，明确家庭、父母对子女的教育责任。 2、学校教育必须坚持德育为首的原则。把德育教育落实到学生教育的每一环节上，落实到教师的工作实际中，学校所有教职工都是德育工作者，要真正履行德育教育职责。学校不仅要关心品学兼优的尖子生，同时还要给后进生更多的关爱。在具体工作中必须从以下几方面做起：一是学校的法制教育必须长期化、制度化。二是加强学生的道德教育。青少年的违法犯罪往往是从不遵守道德规范和社会公德开始的，学校要抓住青少年品德、个性、世界观、人生观形成的关键时期，加强思想道德和社会公德教育，使他们树立正确的世界观、人生观，树立远大的理想和志向，形成良好的道德风尚和高尚的道德情操。三是努力提高教师的法律素质，决不允许出现体罚学生的现象，使每一个教师都真正担负起教书育人的重任。 3、要动员全社会的力量，为青少年健康成长创造良好的社会环境。有关部门要建立预防青少年违法犯罪的联席会议制度，研究制定青少年法制教育计划，指导学校法制副校长队伍建设，加大青少年法制教育力度。同时要加强对学校周边环境的治理，学校附近的游戏厅、录像室、网吧等不健康场所，要坚决关闭，其它青少年娱乐场所要从严管理，规范运作。 青少年违法犯罪，是我们最不愿看到，却又无法回避的社会现实。它不仅直接危害着年轻一代的健康成长，而且严重影响着社会的稳定。加强青少年普法教育，遏制青少年违法犯罪，推进依法治国方略，维护社会稳定的责任重于泰山，是整个社会的共同责任，需要我们每一个人共同努力！ ——保护性预防。保护性预防是指国家或社会各方面的力量以保护青少年健康成长为目的而采取的各种措施，这些措施主要包括：应加强有关青少年保护的立法工作；为青少年健康成长提供良好的物质条件；防止青少年沾染不良习惯，禁止侵蚀青少年思想品德信息的传播；打击教唆、引诱、胁迫青少年犯罪的犯罪活动，这也是保护预防青少年违法犯罪的重要环节。 ——堵塞性预防。堵塞性预防是指通过堵塞各方面工作的漏洞，减少和消除实施犯罪的条件，达到犯罪预防的措施。主要包括：加强学校、家庭对青少年的教育，教育青少年树立正确的人生观、世界观；加强人口流动量大且人口密集区域与僻静、空旷地段的管理；加强对流动人口的管理；加强职业道德教育可有效防止涉世之初青年的职务经济等犯罪。 ——控制性预防。控制性预防是指各种针对有明显犯罪倾向或轻微违法犯罪行为的人采取的帮助、教育、挽救措施。主要包括：成立帮教小组；送工读学校教育；加强少年法庭的工作；回访考察。 ——改造性预防。改造性预防指政法机关以生产劳动为主要手段，通过思想政治教育、文化技术教育，使有违法犯罪的人改邪归正，成为遵纪守法的劳动者。在劳动改造时，应结合青少年犯罪的特点与原因，要重点进行思想教育，以彻底从思想上使失足青少年得以改造，真正成为自食其力遵纪守法的劳动者。
告诉你两个字：搜索如：文献综述%B1%CF%D2%B5%C2%DB%CE%C4+%CF%C2%D4%D8&sr=&z=&cl=3&f=8&tn=baidu&wd=%CE%C4%CF%D7%D7%DB%CA%F6&ct=0有大量的资料。英文文献，一般去学校图书馆（网上）检索，实在不行，去Google搜索。这儿有一篇文章可供参考：《如何搜索英文文献》%5Fxerox%5F/blog/item/html
文献综述是对某一方面的专题搜集大量情报资料后经综合分析而写成的一种学术论文， 它是科学文献的一种。 格式与写法 文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，特别是阳性结果，而文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，在根据提纲进行撰写工。 前言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念及定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。 主题部分，是综述的主体，其写法多样，没有固定的格式。可按年代顺序综述，也可按不同的问题进行综述，还可按不同的观点进行比较综述，不管用那一种格式综述，都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较，阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向，以及对这些问题的评述，主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。 总结部分，与研究性论文的小结有些类似，将全文主题进行扼要总结，对所综述的主题有研究的作者，最好能提出自己的见解。 参考文献虽然放在文末，但却是文献综述的重要组成部分。因为它不仅表示对被引用文献作者的尊重及引用文献的依据，而且为读者深入探讨有关问题提供了文献查找线索。因此，应认真对待。参考文献的编排应条目清楚，查找方便，内容准确无误。关于参考文献的使用方法，录著项目及格式与研究论文相同，不再重复。
文学太宽泛了，你必须一点点的把你的论文论述的观点缩小，不然你写什么都不知道。 去图书馆找所有与 汤姆叔叔的小屋 相关的所有英文资料，甚至是原文读本序言之类，也有你可以借鉴的句子。 去电子阅览室，搜索所有与 汤姆叔叔的小屋 相关的论文评论，找到你觉得有用的拷下来。 到网上搜索下相关词条，如wiki百科的英文相关词条 最好浏览一遍原文，看不懂的话中英文对照本也行。~ 实例，首先是开头，小说介绍性文字：Uncle Tom’s Cabin, appeared in book form in 1852, is one of the most unusual books of American Edmund Wilson wrote in an important reassessment in 1962 that Stowe’s work is comparable to that of Dickens and Zola (as readers in her own day recognized); and the novel has often been read in Europe, both in the original and in numerous translations, as the masterpiece of social realism George Sand, George Eliot, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Hugo, and Heine found it to be (Wilson, 1962:3-58) （可以写个一两段）然后，就你找到的文献，归类一下，分别说说他们讲了什么论点（顺便记下人名，书名，年份，页数）最后，说说你将在自己论文里阐述的观点，The paper will mainly focus on 。。。