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论文框架由以下几部分组成：1、介绍简要地总结论文主题，说明为什么这个主题有价值，也许还可以概述一下你的主要结果。2、背景信息(可选)简短地介绍背景信息是必要的，特别是当你的论文涉及两个或多个传统领域时。3、新技术回顾这部分回顾了与论文相关的研究现状。 4、研究问题或问题陈述工程论文倾向于提到一个需要解决的“问题”，而其他学科则是用一个需要回答的“问题”来表述。在这两种情况下，有三个主要部分： 对你的论文所要解决的问题的简明陈述;研究这个问题的原因; 阐述为什么值得研究这个问题。5、描述你如何解决问题或回答问题 论文的这一部分形式更加自由，可以有一个或几个部分和子部分。 6、结论 结论部分通常涵盖三件事，并且每一件事都应该有一个单独的小节： 结论;对成果的总结;未来的研究。7、参考文献 参考文献的列表与第3部分中给出的技术现状综述紧密相关。所有的参考文献都必须在论文正文中提及。参考书目可能包括论文中没有直接引用的作品。8、附录 一般来说，太过具体的材料不适合在论文主体中出现，但可供考官仔细阅读，以充分说服他们。
自己有资料吗，有写作思路吗。可以提前准备。
【摘要】发展现状及其在农业领域的应用，简要阐述发展农业电子商务，对于促进农业的产业化建设的重大意义。并通过对比发达国家和国内发达地区农业领域电子商务应用的现状和特点，对加快我区农业电子商务的发展提出几点建议。 关键词 电子商务 农业 产业化建设 电子商务及其在农业领域的应用 20世纪90年代以来，随着计算机互联网技术的迅速发展和普及，世界各国相继开始建设国家基础信息网络，全球互联网用户数大幅度增加，网上资源日益丰富，电子商务和网络经济也随之应运而生，并且受到越来越多的国家、行业和企业的关注与参与，逐步进入高速发展阶段。 1电子商务的概念及发展现况 何谓电子商务？目前还没有一个精确的定义。但简单地说，电子商务就是指商务活动的各参与方之间以电子方式在网上完成产品或服务的销售、购买和电子支付 等业务交易的过程。电子商务通常缩写为EC（Electronic Commerce），是一种全新的商务活动模式，它充分利用互联网的易用性、广域性和 互通性，实现了快速可靠的网络化商务信息交流和业务交易。 电子商务根据其对参与交易方定位的不同，可以分为B to B（B2B，企业对企业）和B to C（B2C，企业对消费者）两种模式。而电子商务网站根据功能设置的不同，可以分为电子市场（E-marketplace）网站、电子销售（E-distributor）网站、电子购买（E- procurement）网站三类。其中，电子市场网站的设计是站在中立的立场，因此在进行核心技术研发时，既要考虑到购买方的不同特点和需求，也要考虑到销售方的利益；电子销售商网站的主要服务对象是销售商，因此它在功能设计时，主要考虑的是消除或替代现存的销售链的某些环节。而电子购买网站的主要服务对象是买主，其目的是通过网站聚集网上买主，通过大宗购买降低价格。 据统计，截至2001年，全球正在运行的电子商务网站有25000个。其中，B2B模式占的比重较大，2000年已达到60%，预计未来将上升到近80%。电子商务交易总价值1998年为80多亿美元，2000年达到近6000亿美元，预计2003至2004年间将达到5万亿美元。 2电子商务在农业领域的应用 据估计，截至2001年，全球正在运行的农业和食品领域的电子商务网站有1000～1500个，占同期全球电子商务网站总数的4～6%，其中发展最快的国家和地区是美国和欧洲。 美国是互联网技术的发源地，也是目前世界上互联网应用最普及的国家。2001年，美国农业资源管理研究中心对216万多家美国农场互联网应用情况的调查表明，美国农民在网上的主要活动是信息收集、财务管理、网上采购和农产品销售等，这几乎涵盖了农业电子商务网站的主要功能。2000年，美国农场的网上 交易额为65亿美元，占农场全部交易额的33%。其中网上购买额为78亿美元，购买的主要产品是机械设备，农业生产资料和饲料等，特别是生产 资料的网上购买量已占总购买量的35%；网上销售额87亿美元，其中66%为畜产品，34%为农产品。据预测，到2005年，美国农业领域的网上交易 额将占到整个网上交易额的14%。 美国较著名的农业电子商务网站如“农场投标网”，注册用户近10万，其中10%是美国以外的用 户。又如“XS农业网”，其经营范围主要涉及种子、农业生产工具以及化肥农药等产品，该网站1999年成立之初就有1万名农场主成为注册用户。 欧洲是继美国之后农业电子商务发展最快的地区，欧洲比较著名的农业电子商务网站是农场在线，它是英国最主要的B2B模式电子商务网站之一，目前已有注册农民18000人。调查表明，该网站60～70%的用户平均每天登陆一次，占用系统时间7～8分 钟，平均每月总下载量达到150万页。 3 国外农业电子商务发展的特点 1、通过计算机和互联网的不断普及，促进农业电子商务的快速发展。 据统计，目前整个北美大陆的互联网用户普及率为2%。而据美国农业资源管理研究中心的调查，2000年美国农场的计算机普及率为55%，Internet接入率达到24%。与此同时，欧洲互联网用户的普及率也达到34%，其中的一些国家如瑞典、英国和法国还分别达到2%、6% 和6%。这表明计算机和互联网的全面普及，是发达国家和地区农业电子商务快速发展的基础和保证。 2、电信资费不断下降，保障农业电子商务的广泛应用 据经合组织（OECD）测算，目前发达国家的电话费水平仅为60年前的5%。与此相应的是，近年来互联网的平均通讯费也不断下降，仅1999年10月到2000年3月，每月20小时的网络平均使用费就下降了15%，而每月40小时的网络平均使用费也下降了17%。而且一些国家还计划进一步下调网络使用费，这就为互联网和电子商务的不断普及提供了条件。 3、农业电子商务网站的日趋专业化，为农业生产提供全程服务。 目前发达国家的农业电子商务正向着专业化方向发展，已有网站根据其市场和用户定位的不同，可以分别电子市场和信息咨询两大主要类型。前者的目标是实现 农业商品交易的电子化，后者则以实现市场信息的网络化传播为主要目的。不同类型的农业电子商务的功能和技术优势也各不相同。 （1）电子市场类农业电子商务网站，根据其销售产品的不同，又可以分为三类，即农业生产资料销售网站、农业服务销售网站和农产品销售网站。农业生产资 料销售网站主要经营与农业生产有关的资源和生产资料，包括土地、农机设备、农药、畜药、饲料等，比较著名的网站如以出租和销售农用土地为主的“农场与土地 网”，销售农机设备为主的“拖拉机在线”等。农业服务销售网站主要提供与农业有关的金融、财务、保险、物流、运输和仓储等的网络化和电子化服 务；而农产品销售网站则主要以拍卖方式销售各种农产品，比较著名的网站有欧洲的“水产品网”和美国的“种牛 网”等。 （2）信息咨询为主的电子商务网站，根据所提供信息的不同，可以分两类，即以 提供市场信息为主的农业市场信息网站，和以提供农业生产和管理咨询为主的农事咨询网站。其中比较著名的有“农业在线”，和“农事咨询网”等。 发展电子商务对促进农业产业化的作用与意义 农业是我国的传统弱质产业，历来存在着生产经营分散，产品竞争力不强，流通环节多，交易成本高，标准化程度低等问题。特别是近年来随着世界经济全球化 进程的不断加快和中国加入WTO，我国农业所面临的小生产与大市场的矛盾将更加突出。当前，流通已成为我国农业的“软肋”，严重地制约着农业整体效益的提高。因此，如何建立一种市场信息畅通、规范、高效的农产品流通新模式，已成为降低我国农产品交易成本，提高农业整体效益，保证农业持续稳定发展和促进农民 增收的重大现实问题。而电子商务，作为一种以计算机网络为基础的商务信息平台，则为解决以上问题提供了成熟完善的技术条件。
我也在写这个题目，提纲拿过去被老师直接否了。一怒之下下载了200多篇文献，专门用来对比是不是有抄袭嫌疑…………
你可以找一个高校、研究所的查询室、或信息查询机构，他们帮你查询一下，然后下载下来再打印，你就可以看了。如果不着急的话，我可以帮你查询下载，QQ150529235，这周不行，我没有时间。下周可以。
《国际贸易理论》、《贸易与环境》、《如何应对贸易技术壁垒》、《如何积极应对农业绿色贸易壁垒》、《浅析绿色贸易壁垒及其对策》
1 对话下半场:建立健全电子商务领域金融秩序 电子商务 2007/01 2 携程电子商务模式组成要素分析 电子商务 2007/01 3 电子商务经营模式给企业带来了什么 电子商务 2007/01 4 服务中小企业的第三方电子商务模式研究 电子商务 2007/01 5 电子商务中《消费者权益保护法》适格主体研究 电子商务 2007/01 6 谈新就业形势下的职业院校电子商务专业建设 电子商务 2007/01 7 浅谈物资采购的电子商务化 电子科技 2007/01 8 中国电信新一代B2B电子商务网站商集网上线运营 互联网周刊 2007/02 9 Web数据挖掘在零售业电子商务中的应用 经济师 2007/01 10 电子商务环境下的税收 经济师 2007/01 11 试论电子商务物流隐性成本控制 经济师 2007/01 12 破除制约我国电子商务发展的四大瓶颈 通信世界 2007/02 13 电子商务代表网站及业务模式分析 通信世界 2007/02 14 组建基于企业服务总线的电子商务集成系统研究 计算机应用与软件 2007/01 15 基于SOAP的即时消息在B2C电子商务系统中的应用 计算机应用与软件 2007/01 16 电子商务对会计的影响及电子商务会计的发展 会计之友(中) 2007/01 17 电子商务中数据挖掘技术的使用 内蒙古电大学刊 2007/02 18 电子商务专业毕业生就业率低的原因及其对策 内蒙古电大学刊 2007/02 19 浅谈烟草行业电子商务 华北、东北地区2007年度烟草学术交流研讨会论文集 2007 20 B2C电子商务模式下物流配送路径优化问题研究 北京交通大学 2007 21 电子商务环境下传统企业流程变革研究 同济大学 2007 22 浅析电子商务诚信体系的构建与实现 商场现代化 2007/01 23 基于电子商务的供应链管理研究 商场现代化 2007/01 24 电子商务体系结构与电子支付技术 商场现代化 2007/01 25 论新农村建设中农业电子商务的发展战略 商场现代化 2007/01 26 旅游电子商务网站的构建 商场现代化 2007/01 27 分销商网络团购营销的电子商务模型研究 商场现代化 2007/01 28 电子商务及其安全技术 商场现代化 2007/01 29 浅析电子商务的安全 商场现代化 2007/01 30 Web 0技术在电子商务中的应用 商场现代化 2007/01
【摘要】发展现状及其在农业领域的应用，简要阐述发展农业电子商务，对于促进农业的产业化建设的重大意义。并通过对比发达国家和国内发达地区农业领域电子商务应用的现状和特点，对加快我区农业电子商务的发展提出几点建议。 关键词 电子商务 农业 产业化建设 电子商务及其在农业领域的应用 20世纪90年代以来，随着计算机互联网技术的迅速发展和普及，世界各国相继开始建设国家基础信息网络，全球互联网用户数大幅度增加，网上资源日益丰富，电子商务和网络经济也随之应运而生，并且受到越来越多的国家、行业和企业的关注与参与，逐步进入高速发展阶段。 1电子商务的概念及发展现况 何谓电子商务？目前还没有一个精确的定义。但简单地说，电子商务就是指商务活动的各参与方之间以电子方式在网上完成产品或服务的销售、购买和电子支付 等业务交易的过程。电子商务通常缩写为EC（Electronic Commerce），是一种全新的商务活动模式，它充分利用互联网的易用性、广域性和 互通性，实现了快速可靠的网络化商务信息交流和业务交易。 电子商务根据其对参与交易方定位的不同，可以分为B to B（B2B，企业对企业）和B to C（B2C，企业对消费者）两种模式。而电子商务网站根据功能设置的不同，可以分为电子市场（E-marketplace）网站、电子销售（E-distributor）网站、电子购买（E- procurement）网站三类。其中，电子市场网站的设计是站在中立的立场，因此在进行核心技术研发时，既要考虑到购买方的不同特点和需求，也要考虑到销售方的利益；电子销售商网站的主要服务对象是销售商，因此它在功能设计时，主要考虑的是消除或替代现存的销售链的某些环节。而电子购买网站的主要服务对象是买主，其目的是通过网站聚集网上买主，通过大宗购买降低价格。 据统计，截至2001年，全球正在运行的电子商务网站有25000个。其中，B2B模式占的比重较大，2000年已达到60%，预计未来将上升到近80%。电子商务交易总价值1998年为80多亿美元，2000年达到近6000亿美元，预计2003至2004年间将达到5万亿美元。 2电子商务在农业领域的应用 据估计，截至2001年，全球正在运行的农业和食品领域的电子商务网站有1000～1500个，占同期全球电子商务网站总数的4～6%，其中发展最快的国家和地区是美国和欧洲。 美国是互联网技术的发源地，也是目前世界上互联网应用最普及的国家。2001年，美国农业资源管理研究中心对216万多家美国农场互联网应用情况的调查表明，美国农民在网上的主要活动是信息收集、财务管理、网上采购和农产品销售等，这几乎涵盖了农业电子商务网站的主要功能。2000年，美国农场的网上 交易额为65亿美元，占农场全部交易额的33%。其中网上购买额为78亿美元，购买的主要产品是机械设备，农业生产资料和饲料等，特别是生产 资料的网上购买量已占总购买量的35%；网上销售额87亿美元，其中66%为畜产品，34%为农产品。据预测，到2005年，美国农业领域的网上交易 额将占到整个网上交易额的14%。 美国较著名的农业电子商务网站如“农场投标网”，注册用户近10万，其中10%是美国以外的用 户。又如“XS农业网”，其经营范围主要涉及种子、农业生产工具以及化肥农药等产品，该网站1999年成立之初就有1万名农场主成为注册用户。 欧洲是继美国之后农业电子商务发展最快的地区，欧洲比较著名的农业电子商务网站是农场在线，它是英国最主要的B2B模式电子商务网站之一，目前已有注册农民18000人。调查表明，该网站60～70%的用户平均每天登陆一次，占用系统时间7～8分 钟，平均每月总下载量达到150万页。 3 国外农业电子商务发展的特点 1、通过计算机和互联网的不断普及，促进农业电子商务的快速发展。 据统计，目前整个北美大陆的互联网用户普及率为2%。而据美国农业资源管理研究中心的调查，2000年美国农场的计算机普及率为55%，Internet接入率达到24%。与此同时，欧洲互联网用户的普及率也达到34%，其中的一些国家如瑞典、英国和法国还分别达到2%、6% 和6%。这表明计算机和互联网的全面普及，是发达国家和地区农业电子商务快速发展的基础和保证。 2、电信资费不断下降，保障农业电子商务的广泛应用 据经合组织（OECD）测算，目前发达国家的电话费水平仅为60年前的5%。与此相应的是，近年来互联网的平均通讯费也不断下降，仅1999年10月到2000年3月，每月20小时的网络平均使用费就下降了15%，而每月40小时的网络平均使用费也下降了17%。而且一些国家还计划进一步下调网络使用费，这就为互联网和电子商务的不断普及提供了条件。 3、农业电子商务网站的日趋专业化，为农业生产提供全程服务。 目前发达国家的农业电子商务正向着专业化方向发展，已有网站根据其市场和用户定位的不同，可以分别电子市场和信息咨询两大主要类型。前者的目标是实现 农业商品交易的电子化，后者则以实现市场信息的网络化传播为主要目的。不同类型的农业电子商务的功能和技术优势也各不相同。 （1）电子市场类农业电子商务网站，根据其销售产品的不同，又可以分为三类，即农业生产资料销售网站、农业服务销售网站和农产品销售网站。农业生产资 料销售网站主要经营与农业生产有关的资源和生产资料，包括土地、农机设备、农药、畜药、饲料等，比较著名的网站如以出租和销售农用土地为主的“农场与土地 网”，销售农机设备为主的“拖拉机在线”等。农业服务销售网站主要提供与农业有关的金融、财务、保险、物流、运输和仓储等的网络化和电子化服 务；而农产品销售网站则主要以拍卖方式销售各种农产品，比较著名的网站有欧洲的“水产品网”和美国的“种牛 网”等。 （2）信息咨询为主的电子商务网站，根据所提供信息的不同，可以分两类，即以 提供市场信息为主的农业市场信息网站，和以提供农业生产和管理咨询为主的农事咨询网站。其中比较著名的有“农业在线”，和“农事咨询网”等。 发展电子商务对促进农业产业化的作用与意义 农业是我国的传统弱质产业，历来存在着生产经营分散，产品竞争力不强，流通环节多，交易成本高，标准化程度低等问题。特别是近年来随着世界经济全球化 进程的不断加快和中国加入WTO，我国农业所面临的小生产与大市场的矛盾将更加突出。当前，流通已成为我国农业的“软肋”，严重地制约着农业整体效益的提高。因此，如何建立一种市场信息畅通、规范、高效的农产品流通新模式，已成为降低我国农产品交易成本，提高农业整体效益，保证农业持续稳定发展和促进农民 增收的重大现实问题。而电子商务，作为一种以计算机网络为基础的商务信息平台，则为解决以上问题提供了成熟完善的技术条件。
一、从广义上讲是指应用计算机与网络技术与现代信息化通信技术，按照 一定标准，利用电子化工具来实现包括电子交易在内的商业交换和行政作业的商贸活动的全过程。电子商务包括电子货币交换、供应链管理、电子交易市场、网络营销、在线事务处理、电子数据交换（EDI）、存货管理和自动数据收集系统。在此过程中，利用到的信息技术包括：互联网、外联网、电子邮件、数据库、电子目录和移动电话。二、 第一，可以在家“逛商店”，订货不受时间的限制； 第二，获得较大量的商品信息，可以买到当地没有的商品； 第三，网上支付较传统拿现金支付更加安全，可避免现金丢失或遭到抢劫； 第三，从订货、买货到货物上门无需亲临现场，既省时又省力； 第四，由于网上商品省去租店面、召雇员及储存保管等一系列费用，总的来说其价格较一般商场的同类商品更便宜。 三、现象和特点是：在现在这个社会很普遍四、消费者购买行为首先受其自身因素的影响，这些因素主要包括： 一是消费者的经济状况，即消费者的收入、存款与资产、借贷能力等。 消费者的经济状况会强烈影响消费者的消费水平和消费范围，并决定着消费者的需求层次和购买能力。消费者经济状况较好，就可能产生较高层次的需求，购买较高档次的商品，享受较为高级的消费。相反，消费者经济状况较差，通常只能优先满足衣食住行等基本生活需求。 二是消费者的职业和地位。 不同职业的消费者，对于商品的需求与爱好往往不尽一致。一个从事教师职业的消费者，一般会较多地购买书报杂志等文化商品；而对于时装模特儿来说，漂亮的服饰和高雅的化妆品则更为需要。消费者的地位不同也影响着其对商品的购买。身在高位的消费者，将会购买能够显示其身份与地位的较高级的商品。 三是消费者的年龄与性别。 消费者对产品的需求会随着年龄的增长而变化，在生命周期的不同阶段，相应需要各种不同的商品。如在幼年期，需要婴儿食品、玩具等；而在老年期，则更多需要保健和延年益寿产品。不同性别的消费者，其购买行为也有很大差异。烟酒类产品较多为男性消费者购买，而女性消费者则喜欢购买时装、首饰和化妆品等。 四是消费者的性格与自我观念。 性格是指一个人特有的心理素质，通常用刚强或懦弱、热情或孤僻、外向或内向、创意或保守等去描述。不同性格的消费者具有不同的购买行为。刚强的消费者在购买中表现出大胆自信，而懦弱的消费者在挑选商品中往往缩手缩脚。
可以去参考（电子商务评论）这本刊物
Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to Transport is performed by various modes, such as air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and Infrastructure consists of the fixed installations necessary for transport, and may be roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines, and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, wharehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations) and Terminals may both be used for interchange of passengers and cargo, and for Vehicles traveling on these networks include vehicles of appropriate types such as automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks people, helocopters and Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, or Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but has a deteriorizing impact on the While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain urban Mode Main article: Mode of transport A mode of transport is a technological solution that used a fundamentally different vehicle, infrastructure and The transport of a person or cargo may be by one or more modes, the latter called intermodal Each mode has its advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip depended on the nature of the purpose, cargo and While there transport in air and on water has their own mode, land transport has several Human-powered transport remains common in developing countries [edit] Human-powered Main article: Human-powered transport Human-powered transport is the transport of person(s) and/or goods using human muscle- Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human- Many forms of human-powered transport remain popular for reasons of cost-saving, leisure, physical exercise and Human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible It is considered an ideal form of sustainable Although humans are able to walk without infrastructure, the transport can be enhanced through the use of roads, especially when enforcing the human power with vehicles, such as bicycles and inline Human-powered vehicles have also been developed for highly encumbering environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowings and skiing; even the air can be entered with human-powered [edit] Animal-powered Main article: Animal-powered transport Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people and Humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled Animals are superior to people in their speed, endurance and carrying capacity; prior to the Industrial Revolution they were used for all land transport impracticable for people, and they remain an important mode of transport in less developed areas of the [edit] Air Main article: Aviation Scandinavian Airlines System MD-80 airliner at Kiruna Airport, SwedenA fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a heavier-than-air craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate The term is used to distinguish from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates A gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary- Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners and military cargo Two necessities for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift, and an area for The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and While the vast majority of aircraft land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow and calm The aircraft is the second fastest method of transport, after the Commercial jets can reach up to 875 kilometres per hour (544 mph), single-engine aircraft 175 kilometres per hour (109 mph) Aviation is able to quickly transport people and limited amounts of cargo over longer distances, but incur high costs and energy use; for short distances or in inaccessible places helicopters can be [1] InterCityExpress, a German high-speed passenger train [edit] Rail Main article: Rail transport Rail transport is where train runs along a two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or They rails are anchored perpendicular to ties (or sleepers) of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent distance apart, or The rails and perpendicular beams are placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of Alternative methods include monorail and A train consists of one or more connected vehicle that run on the Propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by a trackside Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple Also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and gas Railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient, though not as efficient as Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities;[2] modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 350 km/h (220 mph), but this requires specially-built Regional and commuter trains feed cities from suburbs and surrounding areas, while intra-urban transport is performed by high-capacity tramways and rapid transits, often making up the backbone of a city's public Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominentsolution for general freight, while large quantities of bulk are transported by dedicated [edit] Road Main article: Road transport Interstate 80 near Berkeley, United StatesA road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more [3] Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel;[4] though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or [5] In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and [6] The most common road vehicle is the automobile; a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles and As of 2002, there were 590 million automobiles Automobiles offer high flexibility and with low capacity, but are deemed with high energy and area use, and the main source of noise and air pollution in cities; buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced [7] Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight [edit] Water Main article: Ship transport Automobile ferry in CroatiaWater transport is the process of transport a watercraft, such as a barge, boat, ship or sailboat, over a body of water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, canal or The need for buoyancy unites watercraft, and makes the hull a dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance and In the 1800s the first steam ships were developed, using a steam engine to drive a paddle wheel or propeller to move the The steam was produced using wood or Now most ships have an engine using a slightly refined type of petroleum called bunker Some specialized ships, such as submarines, use nuclear power to produce the Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use internal combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water In shallow draft areas, hovercraft are propelled by large pusher-prop Although slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large quantities of non-perishable Transport by water is significantly less costly than air transport for trans-continental shipping;[8] short sea shipping and ferries remain viable in coastal [9][10] Trans-Alaska Pipeline for crude oil [edit] Other Pipeline transport sends goods through a pipe, most commonly liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can send solid capsules using compressed Any chemically stable liquid or gas can be sent through a Short-distance systems exist for sewage, slurry, water and beer, while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural Cable transport is a broad mode where vehicles are pulled by cables instead of an internal power It is most commonly used at steep Typical solutions include aerial tramway, elevators, escalator and ski lifts; some of these are also categorized as conveyor Spaceflight is transport out of Earth's atmosphere into outer space by means of a While large amounts of research have gone into technology, it is rarely used except to put satellites into orbit, and conduct scientific However, man has landed on the moon, and probes have been send to all the planets of the Solar S [edit] Elements Bridges, such as Golden Gate Bridge, allow roads and railways to cross bodies of water [edit] Infrastructure Main article: Infrastructure Infrastructure is the fixed installations that allow a vehicle to It consists of both a way, terminal and facilities for parking and For rail, pipeline, road and cable transport, the entire way the vehicle travels must be built Air and water craft are able to avoid this, since the airway and seaway do not need to be built However, they require fixed infrastructure at Terminals such as airports, ports and stations, are locations were passengers and freight can be transferred from one vehicle or mode to For passenger transport, terminals are integrating different modes to allow riders to interchange to take advantage of each mode's For instance, airport rail links connect airports to the city centers and The terminals for automobiles are parking lots, while buses and coaches can operates from simple [11] For freight, terminals act as transshipment points, though some cargo is transported directly from the point of production to the point of The financing of infrastructure can either be public or Transport is often a natural monopoly and a necessity for the public; roads, and in some countries railways and airports are funded through New infrastructure projects can involve large spendings, and are often financed through Many infrastructure owners therefore impose usage fees, such as landing fees at airports, or toll plazas on Independent of this, authorities may impose taxes on the purchase or use of A Peugeot 206 participating in the World Rally Championship [edit] Vehicles Main article: Vehicle A vehicle is any non-living device that is used to move people and Unlike the infrastructure, the vehicle moves along with the cargo and Vehicles that do not operate on land, are usually called Unless being pulled by a cable or muscle-power, the vehicle must provide its own propulsion; this is most commonly done through a steam engine, combustion engine, electric motor, a jet engine or a rocket, though other means of propulsion also Vehicles also need a system of converting the energy into movement; this is most commonly done through wheels, propellers and Vehicles are most commonly staffed by a However, some systems, such as people movers and some rapid transits, are fully For passenger transport, the vehicle must have a compartment for the Simple vehicles, such as automobiles, bicycles or simple aircraft, may have one of the passengers as a [edit] Operation Incheon International Airport, South KoreaPrivate transport is only subject to the owner of the vehicle, who operates the vehicle For public transport and freight transport, operations are done through private enterprise or by The infrastructure and vehicles may be owned and operated by the same company, or they may be operated by different Traditionally, many countries have had a national airline and national Since the 1980s, many of these have been International shipping remains a highly competitive industry with little regulation,[12] but ports can be public [13] [edit] Function Relocation of travelers and cargo are the most common uses of However, other uses exist, such as the strategic and tactical relocation of armed forces during warfare, or the civilian mobility construction or emergency Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai, India [edit] Passenger Main article: Travel Passenger transport, or travel, is divided into public and private Public is scheduled services on fixed routes, while private is vehicles that provide ad hoc services at the riders The latter offers better flexibility, but has lower capacity, and a higher environmental Travel may be as part of daily commuting, for business, leisure or Short-haul transport is dominated by the automobile and mass The latter consists of buses in rural and small cities, supplemented with commuter rail, trams and rapid transit in larger Long-haul transport involves the use of the automobile, trains, coaches and aircraft, the last of which have become predominantly used for the longest, including intercontinental, Intermodal passenger transport is where a journey is performed through the use of several modes of transport; since all human transport normally starts and ends with walking, all passenger transport can be considered Public transport may also involve the intermediate change of vehicle, within or across modes, at a transport hub, such as a bus or railway International travel may be restricted for some individuals due to legislation and visa [edit] Freight Main article: Shipping Freight transport, or shipping, is a key in the value chain in [14] With increased specialization and globalization, production is being located further away from consumption, rapidly increasing the demand for [15] While all modes of transport are used for cargo transport, there is high differentiation between the nature of the cargo transport, in which mode is [16] Logistics refers to the entire process of transferring products from producer to consumer, including storage, transport, transshipment, warehousing, material-handling and packaging, with associated exchange of [17] Incoterm deals with the handling of payment and responsibility of risk during [18] Freight train with containers in the United KingdomContainerization, with the standardization of ISO containers on all vehicles and at all ports, has revolutionized international and domestic trade, offering huge reduction in transshipment Traditionally, all cargo had to be manually loaded and unloaded into the haul of any ship or car; containerization allows for automated handling and transfer between modes, and the standardized sizes allow for gains in economy of scale in vehicle This has been one of the key driving factors in international trade and globalization since the [19] Bulk transport is common with cargo that can be handled roughly without deterioration; typical examples are ore, coal, cereals and Because of the uniformity of the product, mechanical handling can allow enormous quantities to be handled quickly and The low value of the cargo combined with high volume also means that economies of scale become essential in transport, and gigantic ships and whole trains are commonly used to transport Liquid products with sufficient volume may also be transported by Air freight has become more common for products of high value; while less than one percent of world transport by volume is by airline, it amounts to forty percent of the Time has become especially important in regards to principles such as postponement and just-in-time within the value chain, resulting in a high willingness to pay for quick delivery of key components or items of high value-to-weight [20] In addition to mail, common items send by air include electronics and fashion [edit] History Main article: History of transport Bullock team hauling wool in AustraliaHumans first means of transport was walking and The domestication of animals introduces a new way to lay the burden of transport on more powerful creatures, allowing heavier loads to be hauled, or humans to ride the animals for higher speed and Inventions such as the wheel and sled helped make animal transport more efficient through the introduction of Also water transport, including rowed and sailed vessels, dates back to time immemorial, and was the only efficient way to transport large quantities or over large distances prior to the Industrial R The first forms of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game Paved roads were first built by the Roman Empire, to allow armies to travel quicky; they built deep roadbeds of crushed stone as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone, instead of becoming mud in clay The first watercraft were canoes cut out from tree Early water transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or used the wind for propulsion, or a combination of the The importance of water has led to most cities, that grew up as sites for trading, being located on rivers or at sea, ofter at the intersection of two bodies of Until the Industrial Revolution, transport remained slow and costly, and production and consumption were located as close to each other as
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