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毕业论文用英语的翻译：毕业 论文 迅捷在线翻译：Graduation （毕业） thesis（论文）参考一下
English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project collectively. It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional skills. Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering disciplines. A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, uniformity. Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economyAncient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 years. During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great strides. Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative analysis. Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and maturity. In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material basis. People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering development. 土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。.古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃.
Thesis For Graduation毕业论文Thesis For Academic Degree学位论文Thesis表示比较严肃的文章，是带有一定目的的，研究性的文章。学位论文，研究报告。
靠谱不靠谱，那要看你基本的写作功底怎么样了。润色公司的编辑对细节的把控强大。对格式的要求精益求精。我学姐推荐的北京译顶科技那边做的不错，你可以考虑一下。你可以统一去知道了解下
简简单单的就行,
Research on the construction safety management of Civil EngineeringIn recent years, the construction accident in civil engineering in our country often occur. This not only caused casualties, also caused great loss of national property, and resulting in a very bad social influence. Therefore, in our country, the construction units in the civil engineering construction projects, shouldstrengthen the construction safety management, all aspects ofsecurity control for engineering, to prevent dangerous accidentsin the end it all. The cause of the civil engineering constructionaccidents are in many aspects. In order to enhance security,should be combined with the characteristics of construction projects and the enterprise's internal and external conditions, the rational allocation of production factors, optimization of management process. In order to realize the construction safetymanagement, construction units should establish a safety management system of a project, it should be carried out from the following aspects:A construction safety consciousness, cultivate the modern safety science theory, occurrence of unsafe human behavior causedcasualties. To implement safety management, it should becombined with psychology, behavioral science to strengthen the education and training of employees in production safety,improve the consciousness of safe production, so as to guide the safety production behavior of employees. For the construction enterprises should strengthen safety awareness and educationproject personnel, developing the regular safety education to the construction personnel involved in the project, and to carry outsecurity work. Three level education to the new participate in the work of the operating personnel; often transform types of employees, should be safety training for new types of work, makeoperation personnel matters needing attention can be familiar with the safe operation of the. In order to make safe productionconsciousness win support among the people, enterprisemanagement personnel but also in engineering project, using a variety of promotional tools to start a variety of education,cultivate the construction personnel safety consciousness. Andin the management of enterprises, the production safety systemthought to. Leaders at all levels and enterprises in issuing the project production task, should also carry out safety productionmeasures. Such as the production safety requirements to the construction personnel, so conducive to safe thought into the production of management, let each employee has consciously in the psychological sense of , the establishment of management system for safety in production in addition to strengthen production safety education and awareness of construction project staff, should alsoestablish a safety management system, protect the system from the construction enterprise safety in production of. In order toavoid the frequent occurrence of sudden accident, the construction enterprise should according to the project, to develop a comprehensive, the system of safety management,and invest the necessary manpower and funds to ensure the implementation of the project. Ensure the production safetyconstruction from the system implementation, the project section of construction enterprises should establish the safety inspectionsystem, and regularly to the project construction of the security check. Make a clear record of project construction process,record the dangerous post, and regularly check the work. Self evaluation and construction team every week to organize asafety activities, the project department to make regular safetyevaluation for project production. Construction enterprises in theconstruction of civil engineering, in order to establish a safety management system, need to make corresponding technical measures for safety management system, a comprehensivescientific standard for , the safety work of construction enterprise project technical measures should be prior to commencement of for engineering and technical measures should be strict examination and approval, the approval before implementation. If the design changes during construction, corresponding safety technical measures should be coordinated with the adjustment,will follow. The safety technical measures enacted personnel andparticipation, should fully understand the project as the construction scheme, construction environment, the actualoperation has, and combined with relevant laws and regulations or the security policy to establish safety technical measures,which can ensure the safety measures. In civil engineering construction of large, corresponding safety technical measuresshould be formulated more comprehensive and more specific,must be carried out through the whole process of construction,and mainly covers to other engineering safety. To establish the system of safety management, construction enterprises should also be strict safety before the construction of the project, technical personnel should to the technical measures for the construction personnelwork. Such as technical personnel issue written materials relatedto the construction personnel, and the implementation of safety technical measures of construction workers to regularly check;when technicians found construction personnel in violation oftechnical measure behavior, to give timely corrected. When theconstruction personnel technical mistakes when amended and supplemented immediately. In order to ensure the safety ofconstruction enterprises to implement, should take theseinspection of production safety measures the formation of rules and regulations, require employees to strictly abide by, so to ensure safety production system. At the same time, the construction enterprises can also follow the specific constructiondevelopment situation, formulate a set of safety technical measures linked to reward and punishment system, to strictly abide by the department or individual production safety, strictsecurity checks to reward, and if there are penalties for violations of the phenomenon. At the same time should have a goodproduction safety supervision work, and sent to the specialized production safety supervision work. When there is potential safety hazard factors in project development, should be timely analysis and inspection and make treatment immediately, so thatthe safety management to implement, implement the specificsystem, ensure the feasibility of production safety. The range ofcivil engineering projects involved in the construction processmore widely, because the factors which affect the engineering safety more. But in the construction process, the occurrence of safety accidents is often unexpected, with occasional andunexpected strong. These come unexpectedly accidents, serious damage often caused casualties and , strengthen the safety production and environment management in civil engineering construction process,environment is an important factor influencing the construction safety. So in order to guarantee safety in production, enterprises should be to strengthen the management of construction site. As in the construction site, the unnecessary equipment and surplus materials, should be timely treatment. In the pile construction materials in order to keep the construction site, the patency of the road accident, ensure to timely rescue, this is to protect the safety measures to realize. And construction enterprises shouldstrictly abide by the rules and regulations, which occurred on theconstruction site of the waste, garbage bag, cement, waste materials and other items should be clear, it can keep the siteclean, to create a civilized construction environment for safe construction. Create a safe production environment construction enterprises, should also be reflected in the risk disposal of equipment. For some such as the construction of electricity,dangerous equipment, cloth rod is used, should by the competent department of enterprise safety approval approval,the approval before they can be put into use after. And in the process of construction of civil engineering, a comprehensive analysis of the conditions of construction project. Some of the effects of environmental factors of the quality of construction, totake timely measures, and to conduct a comprehensivespecification, so that can realize the safe construction quality engineering to create good conditions.
Construction project management methodology for researchAbstract: The construction project is the largest number of the most typical of the "project", construction project management project management theory and practice is one of the important sources, combines the practical experience of project management systems project management theory also for the construction project management provides a theoretical tool, allowing construction project management is increasingly systematic and : Project Management Engineering1, of the problem and the status quo ReviewProject management makes it a modern community to resolve the "one-off problems" so an effective tool for an occupational qualification, in social affairs, economic process, and the rapid development of widely used, it is that it provides a new approach. Ever-increasing volume of modern socio-economic globalization, the growing trend of information technology, more speed, complex procedure, new industries, emerging areas, product development cycles, leading to an increasing number of "one-off", there are no precedents to follow the emergence of the task, particularly in business and management of social and public affairs, government, it is faced with an increasingly complex domestic and foreign affairs from the market and the various issues related to factors, the main interest of more and more, these problems conventional management practices are difficult to resolve, or satisfactorily resolved, while those from construction projects and military, space exploration and other areas of project management method has been promoted to project management theory and thought, offered a solution to the problem of socio-economic development in Central Africa conventional means. May be that the development and application of project management lies in its methods. Project Management in China, widely popular in recent years, things in the ascendant, and we introduce and popularize the focus should not be tedious theories, concepts, procedures, but should be concise, applicable and effective of changes in economic structure, engineering, project construction is still the main carrier of China's economic development. In our country is currently building a moderately prosperous society, developing the northwest, the revitalization of the Northeast against the backdrop of the project into many parts of the important means of economic revitalization. Some cities have even proposed "project Prospering City" slogan. Economic progress in the application of the results rely mainly on new technology and rely on content-type expansion, relying on knowledge innovation situation, relying on extensive-type projects are not suitable means of revitalizing the economy, our country has been for the investment decision-making mistakes pay a huge price, so the use of scientific methods of construction project management, including assessment of feasibility studies, project construction will be able to achieve the desired objectives of the important management approach is not only specific methods, but also ideas. The party's third plenum put forward the people-oriented, sustainable scientific development concept, "people-oriented", "sustainable" is an essential element of science and technology, economy, environment and social development, the project construction as an economic development an important tool, not only costly, but also have significant impact on the surrounding environment, it is necessary to meet the sustainable, coordinated development of the request, which is project management, one of the important guiding ideology. Methodology is a method of research. Comprehensively building a moderately prosperous society, developing the northwest, the real background of the revitalization of the Northeast may trigger a new round of construction boom, sustainable, coordinated development of the scientific concept of development projects, building on a certain restrictive macro-control, which is to be implemented in construction project management approaches. Engineering Project Management is designed not only to achieve specific objectives (duration, quality, costs), should also be project construction and environmental, social coordination, otherwise it might repeat of past investment mistakes, missteps, out of control in the past. This is also the project management approach up to the "Methodology" One of the theory of project management can be said has been very comprehensive, and this not only in the rich diversity of theoretical results, such as a variety of project management books (including translation) is available, but also the performance in this area has its own "knowledge system", such as the the . Project Management Institute (PMI) in 1987, as amended 1996,2000 proposed revision of the "Project Management Body of Knowledge", International Project Management Association in 1997 launched a "project management capacity benchmarks", China's double-Law Research Project Management Research The Commission also launched in 2001, "China Project Management Body of Knowledge." The above knowledge system project management knowledge is divided into a number of areas, elements, modules, China's knowledge of "methods and tools," the concept of no other systems on the method of independent topics, but throughout all stages of project management, process , domain. Were also many works of a variety of project management focused on project management, content, stages, procedures, and organization of the exposition devoted to rare for the method. Of course, this does not mean that the methodology of the neglect, but a summary of the methodology, which focused on project management and improvement will help promote the use of project management role into full added: 2, construction project management approach the level ofNarrow project management is a limited duration, quality, cost objectives of the project within the integrated management to achieve the project targets, but only the management of the construction project, with the scale of investment, the expansion of the area, diversification of investment sources , project on the environment, enhance the economic impact, project management has been limited to the implementation process, but extends to be delivered from the project to the maintenance of the whole process of management, engineering implementation of the project from development to project management and construction contracting, engineering, general contracting and other forms. For a specific project, its objectives have not only the quality, duration, cost control, but also with the financing, risk analysis, the use of maintenance as well as the seat of economic, environmental and other linked objectives of the project, management should have "generalized" to consider. Project management approach, in addition to specific technical approach, but also forward in the latter part of the evaluation but also an extension of the central authorities to consider the sustainable and coordinated development, reflected these ideas. In summary, this article will be divided into project management methodology at two levels: ideological approach and technical methods, or that the project management ideas and , the ideological construction project management method
土木工程的key哀，速度，
Research on the construction safety management of Civil EngineeringIn recent years, the construction accident in civil engineering in our country often occur. This not only caused casualties, also caused great loss of national property, and resulting in a very bad social influence. Therefore, in our country, the construction units in the civil engineering construction projects, shouldstrengthen the construction safety management, all aspects ofsecurity control for engineering, to prevent dangerous accidentsin the end it all. The cause of the civil engineering constructionaccidents are in many aspects. In order to enhance security,should be combined with the characteristics of construction projects and the enterprise's internal and external conditions, the rational allocation of production factors, optimization of management process. In order to realize the construction safetymanagement, construction units should establish a safety management system of a project, it should be carried out from the following aspects:A construction safety consciousness, cultivate the modern safety science theory, occurrence of unsafe human behavior causedcasualties. To implement safety management, it should becombined with psychology, behavioral science to strengthen the education and training of employees in production safety,improve the consciousness of safe production, so as to guide the safety production behavior of employees. For the construction enterprises should strengthen safety awareness and educationproject personnel, developing the regular safety education to the construction personnel involved in the project, and to carry outsecurity work. Three level education to the new participate in the work of the operating personnel; often transform types of employees, should be safety training for new types of work, makeoperation personnel matters needing attention can be familiar with the safe operation of the. In order to make safe productionconsciousness win support among the people, enterprisemanagement personnel but also in engineering project, using a variety of promotional tools to start a variety of education,cultivate the construction personnel safety consciousness. Andin the management of enterprises, the production safety systemthought to. Leaders at all levels and enterprises in issuing the project production task, should also carry out safety productionmeasures. Such as the production safety requirements to the construction personnel, so conducive to safe thought into the production of management, let each employee has consciously in the psychological sense of , the establishment of management system for safety in production in addition to strengthen production safety education and awareness of construction project staff, should alsoestablish a safety management system, protect the system from the construction enterprise safety in production of. In order toavoid the frequent occurrence of sudden accident, the construction enterprise should according to the project, to develop a comprehensive, the system of safety management,and invest the necessary manpower and funds to ensure the implementation of the project. Ensure the production safetyconstruction from the system implementation, the project section of construction enterprises should establish the safety inspectionsystem, and regularly to the project construction of the security check. Make a clear record of project construction process,record the dangerous post, and regularly check the work. Self evaluation and construction team every week to organize asafety activities, the project department to make regular safetyevaluation for project production. Construction enterprises in theconstruction of civil engineering, in order to establish a safety management system, need to make corresponding technical measures for safety management system, a comprehensivescientific standard for , the safety work of construction enterprise project technical measures should be prior to commencement of for engineering and technical measures should be strict examination and approval, the approval before implementation. If the design changes during construction, corresponding safety technical measures should be coordinated with the adjustment,will follow. The safety technical measures enacted personnel andparticipation, should fully understand the project as the construction scheme, construction environment, the actualoperation has, and combined with relevant laws and regulations or the security policy to establish safety technical measures,which can ensure the safety measures. In civil engineering construction of large, corresponding safety technical measuresshould be formulated more comprehensive and more specific,must be carried out through the whole process of construction,and mainly covers to other engineering safety. To establish the system of safety management, construction enterprises should also be strict safety before the construction of the project, technical personnel should to the technical measures for the construction personnelwork. Such as technical personnel issue written materials relatedto the construction personnel, and the implementation of safety technical measures of construction workers to regularly check;when technicians found construction personnel in violation oftechnical measure behavior, to give timely corrected. When theconstruction personnel technical mistakes when amended and supplemented immediately. In order to ensure the safety ofconstruction enterprises to implement, should take theseinspection of production safety measures the formation of rules and regulations, require employees to strictly abide by, so to ensure safety production system. At the same time, the construction enterprises can also follow the specific constructiondevelopment situation, formulate a set of safety technical measures linked to reward and punishment system, to strictly abide by the department or individual production safety, strictsecurity checks to reward, and if there are penalties for violations of the phenomenon. At the same time should have a goodproduction safety supervision work, and sent to the specialized production safety supervision work. When there is potential safety hazard factors in project development, should be timely analysis and inspection and make treatment immediately, so thatthe safety management to implement, implement the specificsystem, ensure the feasibility of production safety. The range ofcivil engineering projects involved in the construction processmore widely, because the factors which affect the engineering safety more. But in the construction process, the occurrence of safety accidents is often unexpected, with occasional andunexpected strong. These come unexpectedly accidents, serious damage often caused casualties and , strengthen the safety production and environment management in civil engineering construction process,environment is an important factor influencing the construction safety. So in order to guarantee safety in production, enterprises should be to strengthen the management of construction site. As in the construction site, the unnecessary equipment and surplus materials, should be timely treatment. In the pile construction materials in order to keep the construction site, the patency of the road accident, ensure to timely rescue, this is to protect the safety measures to realize. And construction enterprises shouldstrictly abide by the rules and regulations, which occurred on theconstruction site of the waste, garbage bag, cement, waste materials and other items should be clear, it can keep the siteclean, to create a civilized construction environment for safe construction. Create a safe production environment construction enterprises, should also be reflected in the risk disposal of equipment. For some such as the construction of electricity,dangerous equipment, cloth rod is used, should by the competent department of enterprise safety approval approval,the approval before they can be put into use after. And in the process of construction of civil engineering, a comprehensive analysis of the conditions of construction project. Some of the effects of environmental factors of the quality of construction, totake timely measures, and to conduct a comprehensivespecification, so that can realize the safe construction quality engineering to create good conditions.
土木工程的key哀，速度，
目录Unit1Text High-Rise BuildingsReadig Material The Skyscraper Unit2Text Civil Engineering and the Civil Engineer Reading Material The Capabilities and Careers of Civil EngineersUnit3 Text Design Reading Manterial Safety in Design Unit4 Text FoundationsReading Material The Function of FoundationsUnit5Txet Reinforced ConcreteReading Material Conveying, Placing, Compacting and Curing of ConcreteUnit6Text Tall Building Structure Reading Material The Davelopment of High-Rise Buildings Unit7Test Characteristics of Real EstateReading Material Marketing Real EstateUnit8Test Efficient Organization of FirmsReading Material Civil Engineering ContractsUnit9Text Basic Concepts of Construdtion Project ManagementReading Material The Project Life CycleUnit10Text Loal Classification Reading Material Construction ContractorsUnit11Text Construction PlanningReading Material Construction-cost ContralUnit12Text Quality Contral and Quality AssuranceReading Material Organizing for Quality and SafetyUnit 13Text Bidding,Bid Opening and Award of ContractReading Material Competitve BiddingUnit14Text Urban SenseReading Material A Theory of Landscape ArchitectureUnit15Text Aesthetic Plans of Furniture ArrangementReading Material Green Buildings Unit16Text What a Buildings IsReading Material Structural ReliabilityUnit17Text Making Architectural JudgementsReading Material Criteria FOR Evaluating Proposed ArchitectureUnit18Text The Two Paradinms of ZoningReading Material Evaluation Methods in Urban and Regional Planning Unit19Text Foundamentals of CADReading Material Architects and InternetUnit20Text Scientific PaperReading Material How to Write a Scientific Paper
你的文献综述具体准备往哪个方向写，题目老师同意了没，具体有要求要求，需要多少字呢？你可以告诉我具体的排版格式要求，文献综述想写好，先要在图书馆找好相关资料，确定好题目与写作方向。老师同意后在下笔，还有什么不了解的可以直接问我，希望可以帮到你，祝写作过程顺利。文献综述的写法与格式一、何谓文献综述？文献综述是对某一学科、专业或专题的大量文献进行整理筛选、分析研究和综合提炼而成的一种学术论文，是高度浓缩的文献产品。根据其涉及的内容范围不同，综述可分为综合性综述和专题性综述两种类型。所谓综合性综述是以一个学科或专业为对象，而专题性综述则是以一个论题为对象的。学生毕业论文主要为专题性综述。文献综述反映当前某一领域中某分支学科或重要专题的历史现状、最新进展、学术见解和建议，它往往能反映出有关问题的新动态、新趋势、新水平、新原理和新技术等等。文献综述是针对某一研究领域分析和描述前人已经做了哪些工作，进展到何程度，要求对国内外相关研究的动态、前沿性问题做出较详细的综述，并提供参考文献。作者一般不在其中发表个人见解和建议，也不做任何评论，只是客观概括地反映事实。二、 文献综述的特点1． 综合性 综述要"纵横交错"，既要以某一专题的发展为纵线，反映当前课题的进展；又要从本单位、省内、国内到国外，进行横的比较。只有如此，文章才会占有大量素材，经过综合分析、归纳整理、消化鉴别，使材料更精练、更明确、更有层次和更有逻辑，进而把握本专题发展规律和预测发展趋势。 2． 评述性： 是指比较专门地、全面地、深入地、系统地论述某一方面的问题，对所综述的内容进行综合、分析、评价，反映作者的观点和见解，并与综述的内容构成整体。一般来说，综述应有作者的观点，否则就不成为综述，而是手册或讲座了。 1） 先进性：综述不是写学科发展的历史，而是要搜集最新资料，获取最新内容，将最新的信息和科研动向及时传递给读者。 2） 综述不应是材料的罗列，而是对亲自阅读和收集的材料，加以归纳、总结，做出评论和估价。并由提供的文献资料引出重要结论。一篇好的综述，应当是既有观点，又有事实，有骨又有肉的好文章。由于综述是三次文献，不同于原始论文(一次文献)，所以在引用材料方面，也可包括作者自己的实验结果、未发表或待发表的新成果。 3） 综述的内容和形式灵活多样，无严格的规定，篇幅大小不一，大的可以是几十万字甚至上百万字的专著，参考文献可数百篇乃至数千篇；小的可仅有千余字，参考文献数篇。一般医学期刊登载的多为3000～4000字，引文15～20篇，一般不超过20篇，外文参考文献不应少于1／3。 三、 综述的内容要求 1）选题要新：即所综述的选题必须是近期该刊未曾刊载过的。一片综述文章，若与已发表的综述文章"撞车"，即选题与内容基本一致，同一种期刊是不可能刊用的。 说理要明：说理必须占有充分的资料，处处以事实为依据，决不能异想天开地臆造数据和诊断，将自己的推测作为结论写。 2）层次要清：这就要求作者在写作时思路要清，先写什么，后写什么，写到什么程度，前后如何呼应，都要有一个统一的构思。 3）语言要美：科技文章以科学性为生命，但语不达义、晦涩坳口，结果必然阻碍了科技知识的交流。所以，在实际写作中，应不断地加强汉语修辞、表达方面的训练。 4）文献要新：由于现在的综述多为"现状综述"，所以在引用文献中，70％的应为3年内的文献。参考文献依引用先后次序排列在综述文末，并将序号置入该论据(引文内容)的右上角。引用文献必须确实，以便读者查阅参考。 校者把关：综述写成之后，要请有关专家审阅，从专业和文字方面进一步修改提高。这一步是必须的，因为作者往往有顾此失彼之误，常注意了此一方而忽视了彼一方。有些结论往往是荒谬的，没有恰到好处地反应某一课题研究的"真面目"。这些问题经过校阅往往可以得到解决。四、综述的格式与写法综述一般都包括题名、著者、摘要、关键词、正文、参考文献几部分。其中正文部分又由前言、主体和总结组成。1）前言：用200～300字的篇幅，提出问题，包括写作目的、意义和作用，综述问题的历史、资料来源、现状和发展动态，有关概念和定义，选择这一专题的目的和动机、应用价值和实践意义，如果属于争论性课题，要指明争论的焦点所在。 2）主体：主要包括论据和论证。通过提出问题、分析问题和解决问题，比较各种观点的异同点及其理论根据，从而反映作者的见解。为把问题说得明白透彻，可分为若干个小标题分述。这部分应包括历史发展、现状分析和趋向预测几个方面的内容。 a.历史发展：要按时间顺序，简要说明这一课题的提出及各历史阶段的发展状况，体现各阶段的研究水平。 b.现状分析：介绍国内外对本课题的研究现状及各派观点，包括作者本人的观点。将归纳、整理的科学事实和资料进行排列和必要的分析。对有创造性和发展前途的理论或假说要详细介绍，并引出论据；对有争论的问题要介绍各家观点或学说，进行比较，指问题的焦点和可能的发展趋势，并提出自己的看法。对陈旧的、过时的或已被否定的观点可从简。对一般读者熟知的问题只要提及即可。 c.趋向预测：在纵横对比中肯定所综述课题的研究水平、存在问题和不同观点，提出展望性意见。这部分内容要写得客观、准确，不但要指明方向，而且要提示捷径，为有志于攀登新高峰者指明方向，搭梯铺路。 主体部分没有固定的格式，有的按问题发展历史依年代顺序介绍，也有按问题的现状加以阐述的。不论采用哪种方式，都应比较各家学说及论据，阐明有关问题的历史背景、现状和发展方向。主体部分的写法有下列几种：a.纵式写法 "纵"是"历史发展纵观"。它主要围绕某一专题，按时间先后顺序或专题本身发展层次，对其历史演变、目前状况、趋向预测作纵向描述，从而勾划出某一专题的来龙去脉和发展轨迹。纵式写法要把握脉络分明，即对某一专题在各个阶段的发展动态作扼要描述，已经解决了哪些问题，取得了什么成果，还存在哪些问题，今后发展趋向如何，对这些内容要把发展层次交代清楚，文字描述要紧密衔接。撰写综述不要孤立地按时间顺序罗列事实，把它写成了"大事记"或"编年体"。纵式写法还要突出一个"创"字。有些专题时间跨度大，科研成果多，在描述时就要抓住具有创造性、突破性的成果作详细介绍，而对一般性、重复性的资料就从简从略。这样既突出了重点，又做到了详略得当。纵式写法适合于动态性综述。这种综述描述专题的发展动向明显，层次清楚。 b.横式写法 "横"是"国际国内横览"。它就是对某一专题在国际和国内的各个方面，如各派观点、各家之言、各种方法、各自成就等加以描述和比较。通过横向对比，既可以分辨出各种观点、见解、方法、成果的优劣利弊，又可以看出国际水平、国内水平和本单位水平，从而找到了差距。横式写法适用于成就性综述。这种综述专门介绍某个方面或某个项目的新成就，如新理论、新观点、新发明、新方法、新技术、新进展等等。因为是"新"，所以时间跨度短，但却引起国际、国内同行关注，纷纷从事这方面研究，发表了许多论文，如能及时加以整理，写成综述向同行报道，就能起到借鉴、启示和指导的作用。 c.纵横结合式写法在同一篇综述中，同时采用纵式与横式写法。例如，写历史背景采用纵式写法，写目前状况采用横式写法。通过 "纵"、"横"描述，才能广泛地综合文献资料，全面系统地认识某一专题及其发展方向，作出比较可靠的趋向预测，为新的研究工作选择突破口或提供参考依据。无论是纵式、横式或是纵横结合式写法，都要求做到：一要全面系统地搜集资料，客观公正地如实反映；二要分析透彻，综合恰当；三要层次分明，条理清楚；四要语言简练，详略得当。 d.总结：主要是对主题部分所阐述的主要内容进行概括，重点评议，提出结论，最好是提出自己的见解，并提出赞成什么，反对什么。 e.参考文献：写综述应有足够的参考文献，这是撰写综述的基础。它除了表示尊重被引证者的劳动及表明文章引用资料的根据外，更重要的是使读者在深入探讨某些问题时，提供查找有关文献的线索。综述性论文是通过对各种观点的比较说明问题的，读者如有兴趣深入研究，可按参考文献查阅原文。因此，必须严肃对待。 四、 写作步骤1)选定题目选定题目对综述的写作有着举足轻重的作用。 a.选题首先要求内容新颖，只有新颖的内容才能提炼出有磁石般吸引力的题目。 b.选题还应选择近年来确有进展，适合我国国情，又为本专业科技人员所关注的课题，如对国外某一新技术的综合评价，以探讨在我国的实用性；又如综述某一方法的形成和应用，以供普及和推广。选题通常有几种：一种是与作者所从事的专业密切相关的选题，对此作者有实际工作经验，有比较充分的发言权；一种是选题与作者专业关系不大，而作者掌握了一定的素材，又乐于探索的课题；还有一种是医学科学情报工作者的研究成果。 c.题目不要过大，过大的题目一定要有诸多的内容来充实，过多的内容必然要查找大量的文献，这不但增加阅读、整理过程的困难，或者无从下手，或顾此失彼；而且面面俱到的文稿也难以深入，往往流于空泛及一般化。实践证明，题目较小的综述穿透力强，易深入，特别对初学写综述者来说更以写较小题目为宜，从小范围写起，积累经验后再逐渐写较大范围的专题。此外，题目还必须与内容相称、贴切，不能小题大作或大题小作，更不能文不对题。好的题目可一目了然，看题目可知内容梗概。 2)查阅文献题目确定后，需要查阅和积累有关文献资料。 a.对初学者来说，查找文献往往不知从哪里下手，一般可首先搜集有权威性的参考书，如专著、教科书、学术论文集等，教科书叙述比较全面，提出的观点为多数人所公认；专著集中讨论某一专题的发展现状、有关问题及展望；学术论文集能反映一定时期的进展和成就，帮助作者把握住当代该领域的研究动向。其次是查找期刊及文献资料，期刊文献浩如烟海，且又分散，但里面常有重要的近期进展性资料，吸收过来，可使综述更有先进性，更具有指导意义。 b.查找文献资料的方法有两种。一种是根据自己所选定的题目，查找内容较完善的近期(或由近到远)期刊，再按照文献后面的参考文献，去收集原始资料。这样"滚雪球"式的查找文献法就可收集到自己所需要的大量文献。这是比较简便易行的查阅文献法，许多初学综述写作者都是这样开始的。另一种较为省时省力的科学方法，是通过检索工具书查阅文献。常用的检索工具书有文摘和索引类期刊，它是查阅国内外文献的金钥匙，掌握这把金钥匙，就能较快地找到需要的文献。此外，在平时工作学习中，随时积累，做好读书文摘或笔记，以备用时查找，可起到拾遗补缺作用。 c.查找到的文献首先要浏览一下，然后再分类阅读。有时也可边搜集、边阅读，根据阅读中发现的线索再跟踪搜集、阅读。资料应通读、细读、精读，这是撰写综述的重要步骤，也是咀嚼和消化、吸收的过程。阅读中要分析文章的主要依据，领会文章的主要论点，用卡片分类摘记每篇文章的主要内容，包括技术方法、重要数据、主要结果和讨论要点，以便为写作做好准备。 d.加工处理：对阅读过的资料必须进行加工处理，这是写综述的必要准备过程。按照综述的主题要求，把写下的文摘卡片或笔记进行整理，分类编排，使之系列化、条理化，力争做到论点鲜明而又有确切依据，阐述层次清晰而合乎逻辑。按分类整理好的资料轮廓，再进行科学的分析。最后结合自己的实践经验，写出自己的观点与体会，这样客观资料中就融进了主观资料。 e.撰写成文：撰写成文前应先拟提纲，决定先写什么，后写什么，哪些应重点阐明，哪些地方融进自己的观点，哪些地方可以省略或几笔带过。重点阐述处应适当分几个小标题。拟写题纲时开始可详细一点，然后边推敲边修改。多一遍思考，就会多一分收获。 f.提纲拟好后，就可动笔成文。按初步形成的文章框架，逐个问题展开阐述，写作中要注意说理透彻，既有论点又有论据，下笔一定要掌握重点，并注意反映作者的观点和倾向性，但对相反观点也应简要列出。对于某些推理或假说，要考虑到医学界专家所能接受的程度，可提出自己的看法，或作为问题提出来讨论，然后阐述存在问题和展望。初稿形成后，按常规修稿方法，反复修改加工。 撰写综述要深刻理解参考文献的内涵，做到论必有据，忠于原著，让事实说话，同时要具有自己的见解。文献资料是综述的基础，查阅文献是撰写综述的关键一步，搜集文献应注意时间性，必须是近一二年的新内容，四五年前的资料一般不应过多列入。综述内容切忌面面俱到，成为浏览式的综述。综述的内容越集中、越明确、越具体越好。参考文献必须是直接阅读过的原文，不能根据某些文章摘要而引用，更不能间接引用(指阅读一篇文章中所引用的文献，并未查到原文就照搬照抄)，以免对文献理解不透或曲解，造成观点、方法上的失误。五、 综述论文的遴选与审编1)综述论文是多篇研究成果的综合,所涵盖的内容信息量大,使读者费时不多却能得到更多的信息。国内外著名期刊很多都设有综述栏目,并给以较大的篇幅和较多的参考文献数额。综述论文的学术水平和写作要求比较高,只有资深的作者才可能写出合乎要求的综述论文。它要求作者对所综述的资料拥有准确的判断能力,有较强的分析、综合能力,对专业知识的掌握有一定的深度和广度,并有亲身研究的经历和体会,以及有较强的驾驭文字的能力。综述论文能较系统地反映国内外某一学科或专题的研究概况及发展趋势,可以帮助读者了解最新研究的热点及新思路、新方法,对启发读者的研究思路具有向导作用。此外,综述论文的桥梁功能亦很显著。 2)综述论文的审稿程序遵从一般审稿规则,但具体到某篇综述的取舍上,还是有其特殊性和规律性。 a.在平衡比较中遴选。综述论文的资料来源于文献,可以有多个作者就同一个问题在一个时间段内分别向编辑部投稿,因此,编辑部必须对类似稿件进行权衡比较、分析,以决定取舍。如"干细胞的研究"是当前研究热点,本刊在同一时间段内收到3篇文章,经分析比较后认为它们是从不同侧面进行的综述,各有特点,故决定放在同一期刊出。又如,有关"端粒酶"的研究是近年来的热点课题,本刊连续收到多篇同类文章,内容多有重复,结果选取了1篇投稿较早的文章,对后来者只得以"已有类似稿件,请改投他刊"而退稿。 b.在达到总体评审要求的稿件中遴选。对一篇达到总体评审要求的综述论文应该是:就某一问题写得系统、深入,能反映该课题当前的研究水平,内容有新意,文字通顺。在这些稿件中再根据其对当前研究的指导意义和参考价值进行分级优选。 2)笔者根据所编期刊近几年来审稿人的意见,并结合自己的工作实践,归纳出对综述稿件的总体评价。 a.对录用稿件的评价:属国际研究热点,有较好的指导和参考意义;是该领域重大课题,内容丰富,值得刊登;国内研究较少,对开展此项工作有推动作用;介绍设计的思路及目前动态,对读者有一定启发;综述当前概况,读者将从中汲取教益;内容新颖而重要,能引起有关读者的兴趣与重视;选题很好,对立足国内走向世界有很大的鼓舞作用;目前尚在起始阶段,有利于读者了解其概貌;内容好,文献新,层次清晰,语言通顺;有重要的理论和实际意义,重点突出,分析得当;综述较全面,并较深入,反映了当前研究状况;属前沿进展资料,有较大学术参考价值;内容具有进展性,且有作者自己的工作,值得介绍;问题有新意,且存有争议,本文提供了一定思路。 b.对被退稿件的评价:涉及面太窄,感兴趣的读者不多;实验依据不足,多为推测性内容;内容分散,重点不突出,读后无系统概念;罗列文献,未作分析讨论;题目很大,但具体内容不多;国内已有不少报道,无明显特色;观点有错,原则有误,说服无力;内容肤浅,深度不够,未能反映重大进展;语言表达及结构均差,修改难度很大;资料来源可信度差,分量不够;文献未经充分消化,思路不清,前后矛盾;选题缺乏新意,内容陈旧,文字冗长;材料零散,内容单薄,说理不透;对所综述的领域不熟,写作不得要领。笔者在编辑综述稿件时发现,达到录用要求的稿件,都无一例外地要退修和编辑加工后才能刊出。当然,编辑部对稿件退修是很慎重的,一般情况下,退修的稿件即属准备刊发的稿件。 七、综述文稿的常见问题及审编编辑工作中发现,综述论文文稿存在的问题比较多,审编时须慎重处理。1)根据已有的综述直译转抄这样做,难免有抄袭之嫌,因为"综述论文"不同于"译文"。在写作综述论文时,可以借鉴他人已发表的综述启发思路,但切不可照抄照搬。也就是说,必须结合自己的工作体会写出有别于他文的特色,有自己的侧重点。要做到这一点,首先必须进行文献更新,补足与自己侧重点有关的和该课题最新发表的文献,然后按照自己的侧重点重新命题,将全文重新整理,综合分析,提出自己的见解。如本刊收到一篇综述文稿,列文献30余篇,而正文不足4000字。在初审中发现,其题名直译自其中一篇文献,进一步发现其内容亦基本来自该篇文献,但鉴于选题是当前研究的热点,故决定让作者重新查阅文献,补足近年的研究进展,改写后再投稿,再审编。 2)洋洋大篇,只是资料的堆积有的来稿超过1万字,但内容既无重点又不深入,层次不清,概念模糊,甚至有误。究其原因,主要是作者对所综述的专题不熟悉,体验不深,不能很好地把握主题,而只是资料的堆积。对于这样的稿件退稿时即提醒作者,倒不如选一个自己比较熟悉的题目,哪怕是写一个较小的题目,只要在该专题范围内写得系统、深入,这样的文章也是一篇好综述。 3)文献开列过多,引文不当一般要求综述论文著录的文献应是作者亲自阅读过的原文,但也并不是所有读过的文献都统统列出,应选择最主要和最新近的文献.4)把综述写成讲座讲座和综述的共同点是文章的综合性、新颖性和进展性。一般认为,综述是专业人员写给同专业和相关专业人员看的,要求系统、深入;讲座是专业人员写给相关专业人员和非相关专业的"大同行"看的,一般在深度上不作太高要求。从来稿中看到,把综述写成讲座最显著的特征是,文章中夹带大量的基础知识性的内容,甚至把教科书上的图表也搬了过来,文章冗长而深度不足。对此类文稿应大力删减专业人员所熟知的内容,在深度上下功夫,进一步挖掘提炼原始文献中的科研信息,从理论和机制的高度上进行分析归纳,从而使其达到综述论文的要求。随着我国科技工作与国际接轨,科研论文亦逐步投向国际期刊。相应地,以综合报道国内外科学技术新进展,促进国内科技发展为宗旨的综述性科技论文必将在国内有所加强,因此,科技期刊将会加大综述文章的比重。 文献综述的写法与格式 文献综述是对某一方面的专题搜集大量情报资料后经综合分析而写成的一种学术论文，它是科学文献的一种。文献综述是反映当前某一领域中某分支学科或重要专题的最新进展、学术见解和建议的它往往能反映出有关问题的新动态、新趋势、新水平、新原理和新技术等等。 要求同学们学写综述，至少有以下好处： 过搜集文献资料过程，可进一步熟悉科学文献的查找方法和资料的积累方法；在查找的过程中同时也扩大了知识面；②查找文献资料、写文献综述是科研选题及进行科研的第一步，因此学习文献综述的撰写也是为今后科研活动打基础的过程；③通过综述的写作过程，能提高归纳、分析、综合能力，有利于独立工作能力和科研能力的提高；④文献综述选题范围广，题目可大可小，可难可易。对于毕业设计的课题综述，则要结合课题的性质进行书写。 文献综述与“读书报告”、“文献复习”、“研究进展”等有相似的地方，它们都是从某一方面的专题研究论文或报告中归纳出来的。但是，文献综述既不象“读书报告”、“文献复习”那样，单纯把一级文献客观地归纳报告，也不象“研究进展”那样只讲科学进程，其特点是“综”，“综”是要求对文献资料进行综合分析、归纳整理，使材料更精练明确、更有逻辑层次；“述”就是要求对综合整理后的文献进行比较专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的论述。总之，文献综述是作者对某一方面问题的历史背景、前人工作、争论焦点、研究现状和发展前景等内容进行评论的科学性论文。 写文献综述一般经过以下几个阶段：即选题，搜集阅读文献资料、拟定提纲（包括归纳、整理、分析）和成文。 一、选题和搜集阅读文献 撰写文献综述通常出于某种需要，如为某学术会议的专题、从事某项科研、为某方面积累文献资料等等，所以，文献综述的选题，作者一般是明确的，不象科研课题选题那么困难。文献综述选题范围广，题目可大可小，大到一个领域、一个学科，小到一种算法、一个方法、一个理论，可根据自己的需要而定。 选定题目后，则要围绕题目进行搜集与文题有关的文献。关于搜集文献的有关方法，可以如看专著、年鉴法、浏览法、滚雪球法、检索法等等，在此不述。搜集文献要求越全越好，因而最常用的方法是用检索法。搜集好与文题有关的参考文献后，就要对这些参考文献进行阅读、归纳、整理，如何从这些文献中选出具有代表性、科学性和可靠性大的单篇研究文献十分重要，从某种意义上讲，所阅读和选择的文献的质量高低，直接影响文献综述的水平。因此在阅读文献时，要写好“读书笔记”、“读书心得”和做好“文献摘录卡片”。有自己的语言写下阅读时得到的启示、体会和想法，将文献的精髓摘录下来，不仅为撰写综述时提供有用的资料，而且对于训练自己的表达能力，阅读水平都有好处，特别是将文献整理成文献摘录卡片，对撰写综述极为有利。 二、格式与写法 文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，特别是阳性结果，而文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，再根据提纲进行撰写。 1． 前言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念及定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。 2． 主题部分，是综述的主体，其写法多样，没有固定的格式。可按年代顺序综述，也可按不同的问题进行综述，还可按不同的观点进行比较综述，不管用那一种格式综述，都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较，阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向，以及对这些问题的评述，主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。 3． 总结部分，与研究性论文的小结有些类似，将全文主题进行扼要总结，对所综述的主题有研究的作者，最好能提出自己的见解。 4． 参考文献虽然放在文末，但却是文献综述的重要组成部分。因为它不仅表示对被引用文献作者的尊重及引用文献的依据，而且为读者深入探讨有关问题提供了文献查找线索。因此，应认真对待。参考文献的编排应条目清楚，查找方便，内容准确无误。 三、注意事项 由于文献综述的特点，致使它的写作既不同于“读书笔记”“读书报告”，也不同于一般的科研论文。因此，在撰写文献综述时应注意以下几个问题： ⒈搜集文献应尽量全。掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好多综述的，甚至写出的文章根本不成为综述。 ⒉注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性。在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和科学性较好的文献。⒊引用文献要忠实文献内容。由于文献综述有作者自己的评论分析，因此在撰写时应分清作者的观点和文献的内容，不能篡改文献的内容。 ⒋参考文献不能省略。有的科研论文可以将参考文献省略，但文献综述绝对不能省略，而且应是文中引用过的，能反映主题全貌的并且是作者直接阅读过的文献资料。 总之，一篇好的文献综述，应有较完整的文献资料，有评论分析，并能准确地反映主题内容。
（二） 推荐方法 弦的特性在本节里，我们介绍圆心与其弦及弦上一点有关的特性。图1(a)显示一个圆圈与其弦AB。让P为圆圈内的一点，圆心为O,而AB是向θ方向经过P点的弦。以P 为中心的笛卡尔坐标系的四分之一圆周I 或II的端点定义为A，而B则定义为四分之一圆周III 或IV的端点。θ是由PX逆时针测量至AB的正角，θ ∈[0°, 180°]。同样地，φ是由PX逆时针测量至OP的正角。那么|AP|-|BP|=2|OP|cos(θ-φ). (1)下列的证明很直接。众所周知，任何圆周弦的垂直平分线都会经过圆心O(Rich, 1963)。以C作为AB的中心点，那么|AC|=|BC| and OC⊥AB.因此,|CP|=|OP|cos(θ-φ).|AP|-|BP|=(|AC|+|CP|)-(|BC|-|CP|)=2|CP|. 所以,|AP|-|BP|=2|OP|cos(θ-φ)图1(a)显示，O(xo,yo)与P(xp; yp)的坐标有下列的关系：xo=xp+acosφ,yo=yp-asinφ 而a=|OP|，yo方程里的减号反映在图像坐标系中，y值从上至下增加。如果我们有两条弦经过P点，可以从Eq. (1)直接得出两个方程，从中可解a 和 φ。 因此，可以从Eq. (2) 计算出(xo,yo)。具体细节在下一节展示。 圆心的计算考虑犹如图1(b)所示， A1B1 和A2B2两条弦是分别向θ1和θ2 方向 (θ1≠θ2)经过P (xp, yp)。以d1=|A1P|-|B1P| 及d2=|A2P|-|B2P|.那么从Eq.(1)，d1=2acos(θ1-φ) 及d2=2acos(θ2-φ)将方程d1除以d2以及扩展余弦函数可解φ，我们得到...一堆公式(略)Eq. (4) 展示如何从两相交弦计算出圆心。具体地，如果圆周内有个P点被两条弦穿过，利用两弦所提供的d1, d2, θ1 及θ2，可以用Eq. (4) 计算出圆心位置。最简单的实例是θ1 = 0° 及θ2 = 90°。如果是那样，可以极易地显示θ1=0°横弦的中点是xo，θ2=90°竖弦的中点是yo。这个实例的计算精确，但由于只是使用竖横弦，这种计算方式可能不稳健。因此，本研究将使用随意产生方向的弦来配合Eq. (4)的计算。【英语牛人团】
“通信工程”译为Communication Engineering。
如要表达“我是通信工程专业的”之类的意思，可说：I major in Communication Engineering.
拓展资料：
通信工程，也称电信工程，是电子工程的一大重要分支，电子信息类子专业。
通信工程专业主要研究信号的产生、信息的传输、交换和处理，以及在计算机通信、数字通信、卫星通信、光纤通信、蜂窝通信、个人通信、平流层通信、多媒体技术、信息高速公路、数字程控交换等方面的理论和工程应用问题。
参考资料：百度百科-通信工程
基于WIN CE的ADSL线路参数研究ADSL line parameters research based on WIN CE CE (also known officially as Windows Embedded CE since version [2][3], and sometimes abbreviated WinCE) is a variation of Microsoft's Windows operating system for minimalistic computers and embedded systems. Windows CE is a distinctly different kernel, rather than a trimmed-down version of desktop Windows. It is not to be confused with Windows XP Embedded which is NT-based. It is supported on Intel x86 and compatibles, MIPS, ARM, and Hitachi SuperH CE is optimized for devices that have minimal storage—a Windows CE kernel may run in under a megabyte of memory. Devices are often configured without disk storage, and may be configured as a “closed” system that does not allow for end-user extension (for instance, it can be burned into ROM). Windows CE conforms to the definition of a real-time operating system, with a deterministic interrupt latency. It supports 256 priority levels and uses priority inheritance for dealing with priority inversion. The fundamental unit of execution is the thread. This helps to simplify the interface and improve execution has stated that the ‘CE’ is not an intentional initialism, but many people believe CE stands for ‘Consumer Electronics’ or ‘Compact Edition’; users often disparagingly called it “Wince”.[4] Microsoft says it implies a number of Windows CE design precepts, including “Compact, Connectable, Compatible, Companion, and Efficient.”[5] The first version, known during development under the codename “Pegasus”, featured a Windows-like GUI and a number of Microsoft's popular applications, all trimmed down for smaller storage, memory, and speed of the palmtops of the then, Windows CE has evolved into a component-based, embedded, real-time operating system. It is no longer targeted solely at hand-held computers. Many platforms have been based on the core Windows CE operating system, including Microsoft's AutoPC, Pocket PC 2000, Pocket PC 2002, Windows Mobile 2003, Windows Mobile 2003 SE, Windows Mobile , Windows Mobile 6, Smartphone 2002, Smartphone 2003 and many industrial devices and embedded systems. Windows CE even powered select games for the Sega Dreamcast, was the operating system of the controversial Gizmondo handheld, and can partially run on modified Microsoft Xbox game distinctive feature of Windows CE compared to other Microsoft operating systems is that large parts of it are offered in source code form. First, source code was offered to several vendors, so they could adjust it to their hardware. Then products like Platform Builder (an integrated environment for Windows CE OS image creation and integration, or customized operating system designs based on CE) offered several components in source code form to the general public. However, a number of core components that do not need adaptation to specific hardware environments (other than the CPU family) are still distributed in binary form toolsVisual StudioLate versions of Microsoft Visual Studio support projects for Windows CE / Windows Mobile, producing executable programs and platform images either as an emulator or attached by cable to an actual mobile device. A mobile device is not necessary to develop a CE program. The .NET Compact Framework supports a subset of the .NET Framework with projects in C# and , but not Managed C++.Platform BuilderThis programming tool is used for building the platform (BSP + Kernel), device drivers (shared source or custom made) and also the application. This is a one step environment to get the system up and running. One can also use Platform Builder to export an SDK (standard development kit) for the target microprocessor (SuperH, x86, MIPS, ARM etc.) to be used with another associated tool set named Visual C++ (eVC)The Embedded Visual C++ tool is for development of embedded application for Windows CE based devices. This tool can be used standalone using the SDK exported from Platform Builder or using the Platform Builder using the Platform Manager connectivity to Windows Mobile, Pocket PC, and SmartPhoneOften Windows CE, Windows Mobile, and Pocket PC are used interchangeably. This practice is not entirely accurate. Windows CE is a modular/componentized operating system that serves as the foundation of several classes of devices. Some of these modules provide subsets of other components' features (. varying levels of windowing support; DCOM vs COM), others which are mutually exclusive (Bitmap or TrueType font support), and others which add additional features to another component. One can buy a kit (the Platform Builder) which contains all these components and the tools with which to develop a custom platform. Applications such as Excel Mobile/Pocket Excel are not part of this kit. The older Handheld PC version of Pocket Word and several other older applications are included as samples, Mobile is best described as a subset of platforms based on a Windows CE underpinning. Currently, Pocket PC (now called Windows Mobile Classic), SmartPhone (Windows Mobile Standard), and PocketPC Phone Edition (Windows Mobile Professional) are the three main platforms under the Windows Mobile umbrella. Each platform utilizes different components of Windows CE, as well as supplemental features and applications suited for their respective PC and Windows Mobile is a Microsoft-defined custom platform for general PDA use, and consists of a Microsoft-defined set of minimum profiles (Professional Edition, Premium Edition) of software and hardware that is supported. The rules for manufacturing a Pocket PC device are stricter than those for producing a custom Windows CE-based platform. The defining characteristics of the Pocket PC are the digitizer as the primary Human Interface Device and its extremely portable SmartPhone platform is a feature rich OS and interface for cellular phone handsets. SmartPhone offers productivity features to business users, such as email, as well as multimedia capabilities for consumers. The SmartPhone interface relies heavily on joystick navigation and PhonePad input. Devices running SmartPhone do not include a touchscreen interface. SmartPhone devices generally resemble other cellular handset form factors, whereas most Phone Edition devices use a PDA form factor with a larger Mobile 5 supports USB and new devices running this OS will also conform to the USB Mass Storage Class, meaning the storage on PPC can be accessed from any USB-equipped PC, without requiring any extra software, except requiring a compliant host. In other words, you can use it as a flash productsCompetitors to consumer CE based PDA platforms like Pocket PC – the main application of Windows CE – are Java, Symbian OS, Palm OS, iPhone OS and Linux based packages like Qtopia Embedded Linux environment from Trolltech, Convergent Linux Platform from a La Mobile, and Access Linux Platform from Orange and secondary usage of CE is in devices in need of graphical user interfaces, (point of sale terminals, media centers, web tablets, thin clients) as the main selling point CE is the look and feel being similar to desktop Windows. The competition is Windows XP, Linux and graphical packages for simpler embedded operating an RTOS, Windows CE is also theoretically a competitor to any realtime operating system in the embedded space, like VxWorks, ITRON or eCos. The dominating method, however, of mixing Windows look and feel with realtime on the same hardware, is to run double operating systems using some virtualization technology, like TRANGO Hypervisor from TRANGO Virtual Processors or Intime from TenAsys in the case of Windows, and OS Ware from VirtualLogix, Padded Cell from Green Hills Software, OKL4 from Open Kernel Labs, TRANGO Hypervisor from TRANGO Virtual Processors, RTS Hypervisor from Real-Time Systems or PikeOS from Sysgo, in case of the Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) is a form of DSL, a data communications technology that enables faster data transmission over copper telephone lines than a conventional voiceband modem can provide. It does this by utilizing frequencies that are not used by a voice telephone call. A splitter - or microfilter - allows a single telephone connection to be used for both ADSL service and voice calls at the same time. Because phone lines vary in quality and were not originally engineered with DSL in mind, it can generally only be used over short distances, typically less than 3mi ( km) [William Stallings' book].At the telephone exchange the line generally terminates at a DSLAM where another frequency splitter separates the voice band signal for the conventional phone network. Data carried by the ADSL is typically routed over the telephone company's data network and eventually reaches a conventional internet network. In the UK under British Telecom the data network in question is its ATM network which in turn sends it to its IP network IP distinguishing characteristic of ADSL over other forms of DSL is that the volume of data flow is greater in one direction than the other, . it is asymmetric. Providers usually market ADSL as a service for consumers to connect to the Internet in a relatively passive mode: able to use the higher speed direction for the "download" from the Internet but not needing to run servers that would require high speed in the other are both technical and marketing reasons why ADSL is in many places the most common type offered to home users. On the technical side, there is likely to be more crosstalk from other circuits at the DSLAM end (where the wires from many local loops are close to each other) than at the customer premises. Thus the upload signal is weakest at the noisiest part of the local loop, while the download signal is strongest at the noisiest part of the local loop. It therefore makes technical sense to have the DSLAM transmit at a higher bit rate than does the modem on the customer end. Since the typical home user in fact does prefer a higher download speed, the telephone companies chose to make a virtue out of necessity, hence ADSL. On the marketing side, limiting upload speeds limits the attractiveness of this service to business customers, often causing them to purchase higher cost Digital Signal 1 services instead. In this fashion, it segments the digital communications market between business and home usersHow ADSL worksOn the wireCurrently, most ADSL communication is full duplex. Full duplex ADSL communication is usually achieved on a wire pair by either frequency division duplex (FDD), echo canceling duplex (ECD), or time division duplexing (TDD). FDM uses two separate frequency bands, referred to as the upstream and downstream bands. The upstream band is used for communication from the end user to the telephone central office. The downstream band is used for communicating from the central office to the end user. With standard ADSL (annex A), the band from kHz to 138 kHz is used for upstream communication, while 138 kHz – 1104 kHz is used for downstream communication. Each of these is further divided into smaller frequency channels of kHz. During initial training, the ADSL modem tests which of the available channels have an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio. The distance from the telephone exchange, noise on the copper wire, or interference from AM radio stations may introduce errors on some frequencies. By keeping the channels small, a high error rate on one frequency thus need not render the line unusable: the channel will not be used, merely resulting in reduced throughput on an otherwise functional ADSL may support usage of higher frequencies as a proprietary extension to the standard. However, this requires matching vendor-supplied equipment on both ends of the line, and will likely result in crosstalk issues that affect other lines in the same is a direct relationship between the number of channels available and the throughput capacity of the ADSL connection. The exact data capacity per channel depends on the modulation method used.[edit] ModulationADSL initially existed in two flavours (similar to VDSL), namely CAP and DMT. CAP was the de facto standard for ADSL deployments up until 1996, deployed in 90 percent of ADSL installs at the time. However, DMT was chosen for the first ITU-T ADSL standards, and (also called and respectively). Therefore all modern installations of ADSL are based on the DMT modulation J and M shift the upstream/downstream frequency split up to 276 kHz (from 138 kHz used in the commonly deployed annex A) in order to boost upstream rates. Additionally, the "all-digital-loop" variants of ADSL2 and ADSL2+ (annexes I and J) support an extra 256 kbit/s of upstream if the bandwidth normally used for POTS voice calls is allocated for ADSL the ADSL access utilizes the MHz band, ADSL2+ utilizes the MHz downstream and upstream rates displayed are theoretical maxima. Note also that because Digital subscriber line access multiplexers and ADSL modems may have been implemented based on differing or incomplete standards some manufacturers may advertise different speeds. For example, Ericsson has several devices that support non-standard upstream speeds of up to 2 Mbit/s in ADSL2 and ADSL2+.[edit] Installation issuesDue to the way it uses the frequency spectrum, ADSL deployment presents some issues. It is necessary to install appropriate frequency filters at the customer's premises, to avoid interferences with the voice service, while at the same time taking care to keep a clean signal level for the ADSL the early days of DSL, installation required a technician to visit the premises. A splitter was installed near the demarcation point, from which a dedicated data line was installed. This way, the DSL signal is separated earlier and is not attenuated inside the customer premises. However, this procedure is costly, and also caused problems with customers complaining about having to wait for the technician to perform the installation. As a result, many DSL vendors started offering a self-install option, in which they ship equipment and instructions to the customer. Instead of separating the DSL signal at the demarcation point, the opposite is done: the DSL signal is "filtered off" at each phone outlet by use of a low pass filter, also known as microfilter. This method does not require any rewiring inside the customer side effect of the move to the self-install model is that the DSL signal can be degraded, especially if more than 5 voiceband devices are connected to the line. The DSL signal is now present on all telephone wiring in the building, causing attenuation and echo. A way to circumvent this is to go back to the original model, and install one filter upstream from all telephone jacks in the building, except for the jack to which the DSL modem will be connected. Since this requires wiring changes by the customer and may not work on some household telephone wiring, it is rarely done. It is usually much easier to install filters at each telephone jack that is in use.
英文应该是Communication engineering。
通信工程专业主要做：研究信号的产生、信息的传输、交换和处理，以及在计算机通信、光纤通信、无线通信、交换与通信网等方面的理论和工程应用问题。就业方向有通信技术研发人员，通信产品销售人员，电信运营商工作人员等。
扩展资料
通信工程（也作电信工程，旧称远距离通信工程、弱电工程）是电子工程的一个重要分支，电子信息类子专业，同时也是其中一个基础学科。该学科关注的是通信过程中的信息传输和信号处理的原理和应用。本专业学习通信技术、通信系统和通信网等方面的知识，能在通信领域中从事研究、设计、制造、运营及在国民经济各部门和国防工业中从事开发、应用通信技术与设备。
参考资料通信工程_百度百科
毕业论文是Graduation thesis 若要在论文里指论文就可以直接说thesis或者paper
Marine EngineeringArt of Navigation 或 Navigational Techniques.
Over the last 20 years, mainly due to the vibration caused by the fatal accidents occurred one after another, inflicting huge economic losses. Furthermore, the vibration is still new to large units shipped impossible grid, the normal operation for the main the crew during normal operations, continuous vibration problems affecting the normal production, Units often reduced load and operation of the sick, and even the unit was forced to stand, these incidents not uncommon. The system based on LabVIEW virtual instrument software platform for turbine vibration signal window read, and spectral analysis and correlation analysis. LabVIEW virtual instrument is a common core of computer hardware platform, defined by the user, with virtual front panel, the test function test software from a computer equipment system. The system completed the turbine vibration signal read, the signal rectangular window Hanning, Hamming window window choice, and then the signal amplitude spectrum, power spectrum and phase spectrum analysis and correlation analysis, and operating with graphics and display interface. The result of running the system proved that the system can accomplish the signal read, and three window function and the dynamic analysis of the various options and graphical display with the results.
He was awarded his PhD for a thesis on industrial robots.
他凭一篇研究工业机器人的论文获得博士学位。
Please write an abstract of this article 〔 thesis 〕.
请写一份这本书〔这篇论文〕的`摘要。
Your thesis wouldn't get across if you used too many technical terms in it.
如果你用了过多的专门术语，你的论文就不会被人理解。
He is writing his doctoral thesis in electrical engineering.
他在写关于电气工程学的博士论文。