刚体力学论文

刚体的定义是不会发生变形的物体，现实生活中没有刚体，但很多问题可以简化成刚体力学问题，对实际应用已足够准确了。

结构理论分析的步骤是首先确定计算模型，然后选择计算方法。土力学在二十世纪初期即逐淅形成，并在40年代以后获得了迅速发展。在其形成以及发展的初期，泰尔扎吉起了重要作用。岩体力学是一门年轻的学科， 二十世纪50年代开始组织专题学术讨论，其后并已由对具有不连续面的硬岩性质的研究扩展到对软岩性质的研究。岩体力学是以工程力学与工程地质学两门学科的融合而发展的。从十九世纪到二十世纪前半期，连续体力学的特点是研究各个物体的性质，如梁的刚度与强度，柱的稳定性，变形与力的关系，弹性模量，粘性模量等。这一时期的连续体力学是从宏观的角度，通过实验分析与理论分析，研究物体的各种性质。它是由质点力学的定律推广到连续体力学的定律，因而自然也出现一些矛盾。于是基于二十世纪前半期物理学的进展 ，并以现代数学为基础，出现了一门新的学科——理性力学。1945年，赖纳提出了关于粘性流体分析的论文，1948年，里夫林提出了关于弹性固体分析的论文，逐步奠定了所谓理性连续体力学的新体系。随着结构工程技术的进步，工程学家也同力学家和数学家一样对工程力学的进步做出了贡献。如在桁架发展的初期并没有分析方法，到1847年，美国的桥梁工程师惠普尔才发表了正确的桁架分析方法。电子计算机的应用，现代化实验设备的使用，新型材料的研究，新的施工技术和现代数学的应用等，促使工程力学日新月异地发展。质点、质点系及刚体力学是理论力学的研究对象。所谓刚体是指一种理想化的固体，其大小及形状是固定的，不因外来作用而改变，即质点系各点之间的距离是绝对不变的。理论力学的理论基础是牛顿定律，它是研究工程技术科学的力学基础。固体力学包括材料力学、结构力学、弹性力学、塑性力学、复合材料力学以及断裂力学等。尤其是前三门力学在土木建筑工程上的应用广泛，习惯上把这三门学科统称为建筑力学，以表示这是一门用力学的一般原理研究各种作用对各种形式的土木建筑物的影响的学科。在二十世纪50年代后期，随着电子计算机和有限元法的出现，逐渐形成了一门交叉学科即计算力学。计算力学又分为基础计算力学及工程计算力学两个分支 ，后者应用于建筑力学时，它的四大支柱是建筑力学、离散化技术、数值分析和计算机软件。其任务是利用离散化技术和数值分析方法，研究结构分析的计算机程序化方法，结构优化方法和结构分析图像显示等。如按使结构产生反应的作用性质分类，工程力学的许多分支都可以 再分为静力学与动力学。例如结构静力学与结构动力学，后者主要包括：结构振动理论、波动力学、结构动力稳定性理论。由于施加在结构上的外力几乎都是随机的，而材料强度在本质上也具有非确定性。随着科学技术的进步，20世纪50年代以来，概率统计理论在工程力学上的应用愈益广泛和深入，并且逐渐形成了新的分支和方法，如可靠性力学、概率有限元法等。

力学论文世界上有确定的东西吗？正如大家所知，1927年3月，海森堡在《量子论的运动学与动力学的知觉内容》论文中，提出了量子力学的另一种测不准关系，海森堡认为，科学研究工作宏观领域进入微观领域时，会遇到测量仪器是宏观的，而研究对象是微观的矛盾，在微观世界里，对于质量极小的粒子来说，宏观仪器对微观粒子的干扰是不可忽视的，也是无法控制点额，测量的结果也就同粒子的原来状态不完全相同。所以在微观系统中，不能使用实验手段同时准确的测出微观粒子的位置和动量，时间和能量。由数学推导，海森堡给出了一个测不准关系式： 。对于微观粒子一些成对的物理量，在这里指位置和动量，时间和能量，不能同时具有确定的数值，其中一个量愈确定，则另一个就愈不确定。所谓测不准关系，主要是普朗克常量h使量子结果与经典结果有所不同。如果h为零，则对测量没有任何根本的限制，这是经典的观点；如果h很小，在宏观情况下，仍然能以很大的精确性同时测定动量与位置或能量与时间的关系，但是在微观的场合就不能同时测定。实验表明，决定微观系统的未来行为，只能是观察结果所出现的概率，测不准关系已经被认为是微观粒子的客观特性。海森堡提出了测不准关系后，立即在哥本哈根学派中引起了强烈的反响，泡利欢呼“现在是量子力学的黎明”，玻尔试图从哲学上进行概括。1927年9月，玻尔在与意大利科摩召开的国际物理学会议上提出了著名的“互补原理”，用以解释量子现象基本特征的波粒二象性，它认为量子现象的空间和时间坐标和动量守恒定律，能量守恒定律不能同时在同一个实验中表现出来，而只能在互相排斥的实验条件下出来不能统一与统一图景中，只能用波和粒子这些互相排斥的经典概念来反映。波和粒子这两个概念虽然是互相排斥的，但两者在描写量子现象是却又是缺一不可的。因此玻尔认为他们二者是互相补充的，量子力学就是量子现象的终极理论。“互补原理”实质上是一种哲学原理，称为量子力学的“哥本哈根解释”。30年代后成为量子力学的“正统”解释，波恩称此为“现代科学哲学的顶峰。”1927年10月在布鲁塞尔第五届索尔卡物理学会议上，量子力学的哥本哈根解释为许多物理学家所接受，同时也受到爱因斯坦等一些人的强烈反对。爱因斯坦为此精心设计了一系列理想实验，企图超越不确定关系的限制来揭露量子力学理论的逻辑矛盾。玻尔和海森堡等人则把量子理论同相对论作比较，有利地驳斥了爱因斯坦。1930年10月第六届索尔卡物理学会议上，爱因斯坦又绞尽脑汁提出了一个“光子箱”的理想实验，向量子力学提出了严峻的挑战。光子箱的结构很简单，一个匣子挂在弹簧称上，一个相机快门一样的装置控制匣子内光子的射出。每次射出光子的时间由快门控制，弹簧称上可以读出整个盒子因光子出射而减少的质量，根据大名鼎鼎的爱因斯坦质能关系： 得出光子的能量，这样原则上时间和能量不存在不能同时确定的问题。 据说玻尔看到这个装置登时口吐白沫，经过紧急抢救时的输氧加上彻夜的苦思之后，玻尔终于搬来了救星，呵呵，那竟然是爱因斯坦本人的广义相对论。发射出光子后，光子箱的质量减少纵然可以精确测出，然而弹簧秤收缩，引力势能减小，根据广义相对论的引力理论，箱子中的时钟会走慢，归根到底时间又是不确定了。 这次轮到爱因斯坦吐血三天了，他费尽心思找来的实验居然成了量子力学测不准关系的绝妙证明，还被玻尔等人堂而皇之的载入他们的论文之中。 既然在微观状态下，存在测不准关系，那么在宏观状态下，还存在测不准关系吗？这个我们应该能得出结论:当然存在测不准关系。我们做实验的时候，一旦到了处理实验数据就要同时算出相应的不确定度。这是为什么呢？测量结果都具有误差，误差自始至终存在于一切科学实验和测量的过程之中。任何测量仪器、测量环境、测量方法、测量者的观察力都不可能做到绝对严密，这就使测量不可避免地伴随着有误差产生。因此，分析测量可能产生的各种误差，尽可能可消除其影响，并对测量结果中未能消除的误差做出估计，就是物理实验和许多科学实验中必不可少的工作。但是，我们只能尽力减小误差，却不能消除它。从上面可以看得出，世界上是不存在测得准的东西的，正所谓世界是辩证统一的，事物是相互影响的，既存在相对性，又存在绝对性。事物的测不准关系，就因为它既有相对性，又有绝对性，而我们通常所说的某某物重多少，高多少，等等看似绝对的数据其实是相对的。在某一个时段里，物体趋向于某个值的概率最大，因而我们就把这个值称作在这个时段里的相对准确值，它本是使不可能测准的。事物之间又存在着相互作用，因而又由于相互作用是具体的，因而是有限的，具有一定的认识意义；而本体则是抽象的，因而是无限的，并不具有任何确定的认识意义。所以，世界上并不存在确定的东西。参考文献：张三慧，《大学物理学<量子物理>》清华大学出版社2000年8月第二版34页35页李士本，张力学，王晓峰《自然科学简明教程》，浙江大学出版社2006年2月第一版，68页.72页黄理稳，李学荣《科学技术发展简史》华南理工大学出版社，2002年3月第一版，136页全林，《科技史简论》，科学出版社，2002年3月第一版，213页,214页周建，《没有极限的科学》，北京理工大学出版社，2006年4月第一版，102页吴平，《大学物理实验教程》机械工业出版社，2005年9月第一版，4页

刚体力学 rigid body mechanics 这里有啊 physics, a rigid body is an idealization of a solid body of finite size in which deformation is neglected. In other words, the distance between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant in time regardless of external forces exerted on it. In classical mechanics a rigid body is usually considered as a continuous mass distribution, while in quantum mechanics a rigid body is usually thought of as a collection of point masses. For instance, in quantum mechanics molecules (consisting of the point masses: electrons and nuclei) are often seen as rigid bodies (see classification of molecules as rigid rotors).Kinematics[edit] PositionThe position of a rigid body can be described by a combination of a translation and a rotation from a given reference position. For this purpose a reference frame is chosen that is rigidly connected to the body (see also below). This is typically referred to as a "local" reference frame (L). The position of its origin and the orientation of its axes with respect to a given "global" or "world" reference frame (G) represent the position of the body. The position of G not necessarily coincides with the initial position of , the position of a rigid body has two components: linear and angular, respectively. Each can be represented by a vector. The angular position is also called orientation. There are several methods to describe numerically the orientation of a rigid body (see orientation). In general, if the rigid body moves, both its linear and angular position vary with time. In the kinematic sense, these changes are referred to as translation and rotation, the points of the body change their position during a rotation about a fixed axis, except for those lying on the rotation axis. If the rigid body has any rotational symmetry, not all orientations are distinguishable, except by observing how the orientation evolves in time from a known starting two dimensions the situation is similar. In one dimension a "rigid body" can not move (continuously change) from one orientation to the other.[edit] Other quantitiesIf C is the origin of the local reference frame L,the (linear or translational) velocity of a rigid body is defined as the velocity of C; the (linear or translational) acceleration of a rigid body is defined as the acceleration of C (sometimes referred at material acceleration); the angular (or rotational) velocity of a rigid body is defined as the time derivative of its angular position (see angular velocity of a rigid body); the angular (or rotational) acceleration of a rigid body is defined as the time derivative of its angular velocity (see angular acceleration of a rigid body); the spatial or twist acceleration of a rigid body is defined as the spatial acceleration of C (as opposed to material acceleration above); For any point/particle of a moving rigid body we havewhere represents the position of the point/particle with respect to the reference point of the body in terms of the local frame L (the rigidity of the body means that this does not depend on time) represents the position of the point/particle at time represents the position of the reference point of the body (the origin of local frame L) at time is the orientation matrix, an orthogonal matrix with determinant 1, representing the orientation (angular position) of the local frame L, with respect to the arbitrary reference orientation of frame G. Think of this matrix as three orthogonal unit vectors, one in each column, which define the orientation of the axes of frame L with respect to G. represents the angular velocity of the rigid body represents the total velocity of the point/particle represents the translational velocity (. the velocity of the origin of frame L) represents the total acceleration of the point/particle represents the translational acceleration (. the acceleration of the origin of frame L) represents the angular acceleration of the rigid body represents the spatial acceleration of the point/particle represents the spatial acceleration of the rigid body (. the spatial acceleration of the origin of frame L) In 2D the angular velocity is a scalar, and matrix A(t) simply represents a rotation in the xy-plane by an angle which is the integral of the angular velocity over , walking people, etc. usually rotate according to changes in the direction of the velocity: they move forward with respect to their own orientation. Then, if the body follows a closed orbit in a plane, the angular velocity integrated over a time interval in which the orbit is completed once, is an integer times 360°. This integer is the winding number with respect to the origin of the velocity. Compare the amount of rotation associated with the vertices of a polygon.[edit] KineticsMain article: Rigid body dynamicsAny point that is rigidly connected to the body can be used as reference point (origin of frame L) to describe the linear motion of the body (the linear position, velocity and acceleration vectors depend on the choice).However, depending on the application, a convenient choice may be:the center of mass of the whole system; a point such that the translational motion is zero or simplified, on an axle or hinge, at the center of a ball-and-socket joint, etc. When the center of mass is used as reference point:The (linear) momentum is independent of the rotational motion. At any time it is equal to the total mass of the rigid body times the translational velocity. The angular momentum with respect to the center of mass is the same as without translation: at any time it is equal to the inertia tensor times the angular velocity. When the angular velocity is expressed with respect to the principal axes frame of the body, each component of the angular momentum is a product of a moment of inertia (a principal value of the inertia tensor) times the corresponding component of the angular velocity; the torque is the inertia tensor times the angular acceleration. Possible motions in the absence of external forces are translation with constant velocity, steady rotation about a fixed principal axis, and also torque-free precession. The net external force on the rigid body is always equal to the total mass times the translational acceleration (., Newton's second law holds for the translational motion, even when the net external torque is nonnull, and/or the body rotates). The total kinetic energy is simply the sum of translational and rotational energy. [edit] GeometryTwo rigid bodies are said to be different (not copies) if there is no proper rotation from one to the other. A rigid body is called chiral if its mirror image is different in that sense, ., if it has either no symmetry or its symmetry group contains only proper rotations. In the opposite case an object is called achiral: the mirror image is a copy, not a different object. Such an object may have a symmetry plane, but not necessarily: there may also be a plane of reflection with respect to which the image of the object is a rotated version. The latter applies for S2n, of which the case n = 1 is inversion a (rigid) rectangular transparent sheet, inversion symmetry corresponds to having on one side an image without rotational symmetry and on the other side an image such that what shines through is the image at the top side, upside down. We can distinguish two cases:the sheet surface with the image is not symmetric - in this case the two sides are different, but the mirror image of the object is the same, after a rotation by 180° about the axis perpendicular to the mirror plane. the sheet surface with the image has a symmetry axis - in this case the two sides are the same, and the mirror image of the object is also the same, again after a rotation by 180° about the axis perpendicular to the mirror plane. A sheet with a through and through image is achiral. We can distinguish again two cases:the sheet surface with the image has no symmetry axis - the two sides are different the sheet surface with the image has a symmetry axis - the two sides are the same [edit] Configuration spaceThe configuration space of a rigid body with one point fixed (., a body with zero translational motion) is given by the underlying manifold of the rotation group SO(3). The configuration space of a nonfixed (with non-zero translational motion) rigid body is E+(3), the subgroup of direct isometries of the Euclidean group in three dimensions (combinations of translations and rotations).