西方经济学论文生产

西方经济学，就是被运用于西方市场经济国家的经济学，有市场经济学之称。以1776年亚当·斯密《国富论》的出版为标志，西方经济学历经了200多年的风雨沧桑。在这个不长不短的历史进程中，从斯密、李加图、萨伊、穆勒、马尔萨斯、马歇尔到凯恩斯、弗里德曼、萨谬尔森、卢卡斯、斯蒂格利茨，经济学大师辈出；从古典经济学、新古典经济学到凯恩斯主义经济学、新古典宏观经济学和新凯恩斯主义经济学，经济学流派林立。百花齐放，百家争鸣，带来西方经济学的不断创新和发展，以致于文献上有“经济学帝国”之称。西方经济学它主要介绍流行于西方市场经济国家的现代经济理论与经济政策。它既研究古老而又现代的家政管理，又研究多姿多彩的企业经营，还大胆解说政府日益加码的经济调控。它既赞美价格机制这只“看不见的手”的效率优势，也无情的剖析市场机制在不少领域资源配置上的诸多缺陷。主要包括微观经济学和宏观经济学。微观经济学--研究家庭、厂商和市场合理配置经济资源的科学--以单个经济单位的经济行为为对象；以资源的合理配置为解决的主要问题；以价格理论为中心理论；以个量分析为方法；其基本假定是市场出清、完全理性、充分信息。宏观经济-研究国民经济的整体运行中充分利用经济资源的科学—以国民经济整体的运行为对象；以资源的充分利用为解决的主要问题；以收入理论为中心理论；以总量分析为方法，其基本假定为市场失灵、政府有效。从方法上看，西方经济学运用实证分析和规范分析梁中方法。实证分析企图超脱于一切价值判断，只研究经济本身的内在规律，并据此分析和预测人们的经济行为效果，着重回答“是什么”的问题。实证分析的步骤。定义----对经济学所研究的各种变量规定明确的含义；这里的变量有内生变量和外生变量、流量和存量；内生变量是一种理论内所要解释的变量，外生变量是一种在理论内影响其他变量而他本身则由理论外的因素来决定的变量；存量是通常在一定时点上才能有效测定的变量，流量是指通常在一定时期内才能有效测定的变量；假设----某一理论所适用的条件，在假设条件下得出结论，就象自然科学在严格的假定条件下分析自然现象一样，事实上整个社会即使天然的实验室；假说----未经证明的各个经济变量之间的关系；预测----根据假说对未来进行预期规范分析通过设定一些价值判断和好与坏的标准，作为经济理论的前提和制定政策的依据，并研究如何才能符合这些标准，着重回答“应该是什么”的问题。西方经济学德发展可以主要分为三个部分，即古典经济学、新古典经济学与现代经济学。古典经济学—从17世纪中期开始到19世纪70年代为止—包括英国经济学家斯密、李嘉图、西尼尔、穆勒、马尔萨斯，法国经济学家萨伊—以斯密为代表，其1776年出版的《国富论》被称为经济学上的第一次革命，建立了以自由放任为中心的经济学体系，他标志着经济学的诞生—代表性的教科书是穆勒《政治经济学原理及其在社会哲学上的应用》流行了20年。新古典经济学—从19世纪的“边际革命”开始到20世纪30年代为止—包括英国经济学家杰文史、马歇尔，法国经济学家瓦尔拉斯—边际效用价值论的提出被说成是经济学上的第二次革命，他标志着新古典经济学的开始，马歇尔在1890年发表的《经济学原理》是其代表性的教科书。现代经济学—开始于20世纪30年代凯恩史主义的产生---包括英国经济学家凯恩史、琼·罗宾逊、斯拉伐，以及美国经济学家萨缪尔森、弗里德曼和卢卡斯—其中凯恩斯在1936年出版的的《就业利息和货币通论》标志着当代经济学的产生，该书与爱因斯坦的《相对论》、达尔文的《物种起源》、马克思的《资本论》被人们称着改变世界历史的四大著作；而萨缪尔森的1948年开始发行的《经济学》至今已出第十六版，是第三本好教科书

经济全球化时代的后发优势与发展中国家的对策 ● 论文报告 ● 作品简介 根据联合国开发计划署发表的1999年度《人类发展报告》，占全球1/5的人口生活在收入水平最高的国家，他们拥有全球国内生产总值的86%，全球出口市场的82%，外国直接投资的68%，全球电话总数的74%；...

提供一篇西方经济学论文，供参考。对边际生产力论文的探讨一、边际生产力理论的局限性边际生产力理论是新古典经济理论的基石。边际生产力理论是用于阐明在生产中相互合作的各种生产要素或资源所得到的报酬的一种方法。通常情况，当其他要素数量不变，而单位某种生产要素离开（或加入）生产过程时所引起的商品产值的减少（或增加）量，就等于该种生产要素一个单位的服务报酬或其他报酬。这里很明显，决定生产要素的报酬是取决于生产过程中的技术条件。在新古典理论中，一般用生产函数来表明这种投入和产出的技术关系。边际生产力理论用数学公式来表达就是：厂商的生产函数是Y=F(x[,1],x[,2],x[,3],x[,4]……)，Y是生产过程中的产出，x[,1],x[,2]……是生产过程中的投入，F是生产函数。一般情况下，生产函数满足下面假设：产出对生产要素的投入满足一阶偏导数大于零，二阶偏导数小于零，即附图。一阶偏导数大于零表示，在其他投入不变的情况下，任何一种生产要素等量增加，必然带来实物产出的增加，即边际产品大于零，这一点是非常容易理解的，可以说是市场经济条件下的一个公理，厂商没有必要在产量减少时增加一种要素的投入量。二阶偏导数小于零也就是生产函数的凸性假设，表明一种生产要素的边际产品会随该要素的投入量增加而递减的，这是一个比一阶导数大于零较强的假定，这就是经济学中常常使用的边际产品递减规律。“实际上这并不是一个规律，而是大多数生产过程所具有的共同特性”。（注：范里安：《微观经济学：现代观点》，上海三联出版社、上海人民出版社，1994年，第395页。）在生产过程中，任何一种要素的报酬超过了在少使用这种要素时损失的产值时，那么就会少使用一单位该种生产要素，并且如果这种不平衡没有消除，就会继续减少使用这种生产要素，直到相等为止，即：附图，（注：实际上应该要素的报酬应该等于要素的边际生产收入(marginal revenue of product)，而不是边际产值(value ofmarginal product)，由于新古典的边际生产力理论主要是研究是完全竞争市场，因此二者在量上是相等。）其中w[,i]是x[,i]这种生产要素的报酬（价格），P为产品的价格。这个结论可以很简单地从给定生产函数和厂商利润最大化的条件下得出。边际生产力理论有两要素形式和多要素形式来说明生产要素的需求量。两要素是指总资本和总劳动，在这种形式下，生产函数的形式是Y=F(L,K)，L、K分别是生产过程中投入的劳动和资本的数量。多要素是指在生产过程中使用的可分辨要素的种类，就是在本文开始部分所采用的那种形式。两要素形式可以使边际生产力理论进行简化，但是这个模型存在着一个致命的弱点，就是如何将一个厂商投入的不同质的劳动和不同质的资本进行加总，（注：加总问题是边际生产力理论所遇到的最大的困难，边际生产力需要一个总量劳动和资本的概念，资本的加总只能通过对其价值（格）进行加总的形式来实现，而资本的价格受到资本的边际生产力（利息率）的影响，即维克赛尔效应，从而使边际生产力理论成为一个循环论证。）这也是在上个世纪剑桥资本争论最为激烈的一个问题。多要素形式避免了对不同的劳动和资本进行加总，但这种形式却远离现实，因为这种形式会使生产函数连续可微分的性质难以成立：许多厂商的投入要素都是固定比例，不可能单独地增减一种生产要素而不增减其他的生产要素，即生产要素之间不存在替代性，这样没有办法得出一种要素的边际生产力，因此边际生产力的理论适用范围非常有限。本文在这里分析的是边际生产力理论的适用范围，因此，在这里采用的是两要素生产模型，将厂商的投入抽象地分为劳动和资本，而如何将异质的资本和劳动加总的问题给抛开，而抽象地认为劳动和资本是同质的。这样边际生产力的模型就可以描述成：对于一个厂商的生产函数Y=F(L,K)，劳动者的报酬也就是工资附图，资本的报酬也就是利润（息）率附图。二、总额相符问题(Adding-up Problem)边际生产力在直觉上非常容易被人接受的，因为它体现了一个基本的经济理论原理，那就是其他要素固定不变时，一种要素投入所带来的边际收益等于边际成本，从而使厂商的利润最大化。但是这里存在着一个问题就是：如果每个要素的每一单位都按照相应的边际生产力得到相应报酬，那么厂商的产量是否等于所有的生产要素的边际产品，这就是Y=MP[,L]×L+MP[,K]×K。在1894年，威克斯蒂德在《论分配法则的协调》中详细地论述了这一观点，“这些分配份额加起来等于每个厂商的净产量。”（注：《帕尔格雷夫经济学词典》第1卷，经济科学出版社，1986年，第22-23页；熊彼特：《经济分析史》（第3卷），商务印书馆，1996年，第407-409页。）这个结论的详细描述是：在生产函数是一次（线性）齐次性时，各种投入的生产要素的边际产品乘以其投入量的总和正好等于其产值，这就是总额相符，也就是欧拉定理(Euler's theorem)，从而使边际生产力在理论上更加完美。如果用产品的价格和生产要素的报酬来表示，就可以得到各种投入要素的报酬总和正好等于总产值。（注：在欧拉定理Y=MP[,L]×L+MR[,K]×K两边同时乘以产品的价格P，就可以得到Y×P=w×L+r×K。）厂商的（超额）利润等于厂商的收入（总产值）减去各种生产要素的报酬总和（总成本），即总额相符，厂商的利润为零。但是这里存在着一个条件，就是生产函数必须是线性齐次的，即生产是规模报酬不变的。在新古典经济理论中，通常用生产函数的齐次性来表示规模报酬。齐次性是一个数学概念，它表明一个函数F(x,y)如果满足条件：P(ax,ay)=a[n]F(x,y)，这个函数就是n次齐次性。如果n=1时，就是一次齐次性，也称为线性齐次性，即F(ax,ay)=aF(x,y)。如果一个生产函数是n次齐次生产函数，那么当n＞1时，该生产函数就是规模报酬递增，n＜1时，是规模报酬递减，n=1时，是规模报酬不变。这就意味着总额相符只有在规模报酬不变时，才能成立。同样可以容易证明出：当n＜1时，即存在规模报酬递减时，厂商的总产值就小于各种生产要素的得到报酬总和，存在着“总额不足”；当n＞1时，即存在规模报酬递增时，厂商的总产值就大于各种生产要素的得到报酬总和，存在着“总额过剩”。那么，谁来弥补“不足”和得到“过剩”呢？很明显，这两种情况下，边际生产力理论存在着重大的缺陷，因为它与规模报酬递增和递减相矛盾，除非可以证明资本主义经济中不存在着这两种情况。在经济中存在规模报酬递减的可能不大，如果存在规模报酬递减，就可以把大企业分割成小企业来生产，而在现实经济中很少出现这种现象。所以一般认为经济是规模报酬不变和递增的。三、规模报酬递增现象的存在性规模报酬递增是现代经济中普遍存在的现象，是经济发展的必然结果。从资本主义发展的历史来看，生产是逐渐集中，大规模生产可以实行分工，采用先进设备，聘请高级专家，节省管理费用，都能提高生产效率，这些足以表明现代化的生产肯定是存在着规模递增现象。斯密最早提出分工会导致专业化，从而提高劳动生产率，而使规模报酬呈递增。斯拉法在《经济学杂志》1926年12月发表了《竞争条件下的报酬规律》，指出“在纯粹竞争的条件下，只要产量增加伴之有内部经济，厂商便不会处于完全均衡状态”，“递增收益也是同完全竞争的假设不协调的”。从此也就揭开了不完全竞争理论的序幕。也有一些经济学家承认存在着规模报酬递增现象，但是“根据复制的观点，不变规模报酬是最自然现象，但这并不等于说其他情况不可能发生……递增的规模报酬通常在一定的产量范围内适用。”用复制来说明不变规模报酬的存在是有疑问的，这种复制是远离现实的，因为在现实世界，人们基本上看不到厂商扩大产量的方法是在原有规模上扩大，而不是去建造新厂复制原来的工厂，范里安这种认为不变规模报酬是犯了形而上学的错误。但是不管怎么很难否认规模报酬递增的存在。四、边际生产力理论对规模报酬递增的解释既然规模报酬递增是现代化生产中必然存在的现象，那么边际生产力理论必然要对这种与其相矛盾的规模报酬递增给以解释。一种解释认为经济中不存在规模报酬递增的现象，之所以产生规模报酬递增，是由于有一种促使规模报酬递增的生产要素被人们忽视了，只要加入新的生产要素，生产函数就不会存在规模递增现象：两种要素的生产函数解释不了现实经济的真实情况，在现代经济中，生产要素也在多元化，科学技术、知识、教育等因素加入到生产函数中去，生产函数成了Y=F(L,K,T,I,E……)，从而使生产函数变得越来越复杂，这样处理之后，生产函数就成为线性齐次性，就可以满足于总额相符，从而就使边际生产力学说更加完美，甚至进一步找出科技、知识、教育等在生产过程中的作用来。这种学说存在着一个明显的错误，根据生产要素的性质，生产要素起着两个方面的作用，一是生产过程的投入物，二是要在生产过程中得到相应的报酬。尽管我们可以通过复杂的计算得出科技、知识和教育的边际生产力，但是是谁根据这些要素的边际生产力而得到它的报酬呢？是工人，还是资本家，还是科学家？另外，科技和知识都是体现在劳动和资本中，不能从劳动和资本中独立出来，生产函数的形式应该是Y=F[L(T,I,E……),K(T,I,E……)]，这样，从数学的逻辑上分析，自变量之间必然是独立的，即有完全的自由度。如果技术、知识、教育和劳动、资本之间存在着相关性，它们就不可能同时作为生产函数的自变量，即同时成为生产要素。因此，用多生产要素的生产函数使之成为线性齐次性，从而可以使之满足总额相符的方法，是存在着逻辑矛盾。

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price rise. A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely positive. But others don’t agree with the viewpoint. John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too much. However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this year. The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also decreases. Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher returns. But Mr. Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of gaiatsu. That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the history. He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen recently. However, that will not happen. One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would like. Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take place. So the inflation is not good news for cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of inflation. Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the demand. To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $ bills that are able to buy them with. If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $. However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of goods. So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the goods. This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of goods. (, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram below. In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price level. AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply curve. When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’. But the price level decreases from P to P’. So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $. This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of money. By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on anything. (, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten years. That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of deflation. The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the deflation. If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be good. For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was increasing. So the supply of goods obviously went up. Therefore, the price level dropped. Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same result. If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be bad. The economy contracted because of lack of liquidity. People may lose their jobs. Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off it. Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their jobs. (, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary policy. A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest rate. An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to 2006. In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased sharply. That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary policy. Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this policy. That would activate the aggregate demand. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation problem. One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too long. That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 years. Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated fully. The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic demand. So the purpose of the policy has not achieved completely. The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would like. Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest rate. So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange rate. As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange market. Foreign exchange is one type of financial assets. An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital returns. Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial market. If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the currency. If the interest rate drops, the return will decrease. Therefore, the attraction of the currency is low. BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 economy. That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital inflows. Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the imports. First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign goods. So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will decrease. It is good for Japanese exports and international reserve. Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national income. The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is falling. As a result, the company profits are reducing. So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain competitive. One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal wage. Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt-tightening. Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 years. So when the inflation is happening, the price level is increased. Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by deflation. So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is increasing. But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the problem. Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation period. In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short run.