etc论文主题

据求臻学术介绍：1、标题标题应简短、明确、有概括性。通过标题使读者大致了解毕业论文(设计)的内容、专业的特点和学科的范畴。标题字数要适当,一般不宜超过20个字，如果有些细节必须放进标题，为避免冗长，可以分成主标题和副标题，主标题写得简明，将细节放在副标题里。2、摘要摘要又称内容提要，它应以浓缩的形式概括研究课题的内容、方法和观点,以及取得的成绩和结论。摘要应反映整个内容的精华，中文摘要在300字以内为宜,同时要求写出外文摘要,以250个实词为宜。撰写摘要时应注意以下几点：用精炼、概括的语言来表达，每项内容均不宜展开论证或说明；要客观陈述，不宜加主观评价；成果和结论性字句是摘要的重点，在文字论述上要多些,以加深读者的印象；要独立成文，选词用语要避免与全文尤其是前言和结论部分雷同；既要写得简短扼要，又要行文生动，在词语润色、表达方法和章法结构上要尽可能写得有文彩,以唤起读者对全文阅读的兴趣。3、目录4、前言前言应说明本课题的意义、目的、研究范围及应达到的技术要求；还要简述本课题在国内外的发展概况及存在问题；说明本课题的指导思想；阐述本课题应解决的重要问题。虽然摘要和前言内容大体相同，但仍有较大区别，主要在于摘要一般要写得高度概括、简略，前言则应具体；摘要可以作笼统的表述，而前言则应明确表达；摘要不写选题的缘由，而前言则应明确反映；在文字量上一般是前言较多。正文正文是作者对研究工作的详细表述。它占全文的绝大部分，其内容应包括：问题的提出，研究工作的基本前提、假设和条件；模型的建立，实验方案的拟定；基本概念和理论基础；设计计算的主要方法和内容；实验方法、内容及其分析；理论论证，理论在课题中的应用，课题得出的结果，以及对结果的讨论等。根据毕业论文（设计）题目的性质，一般情况下，正文可能仅仅包含上述的一部分内容。撰写正文部分的要求如下所述。（1）理论分析部分应写明所作的假设及其合理性，所用的分析方法、计算方法、实验方法等哪些是别人用过的，哪些是自己进的，哪些是自己创造的，以便指导教师审查和纠正，篇幅不宜过多，应用简练的文字概略地表达。（2）对于用实验方法研究的课题，应说明实验用的装置、仪器的性能，并应对所用装置、仪器作出检验和标定。对实验的过程和操作方法，力求叙述简明扼要，对人所共知的内容或细节内容不必详述。对于经理论推导达到研究目的课题，内容要精心组织，做到概念准确，判断推理符合客观事物的发展规律，符合人们对客观事物的认识习惯，换言之，要做到言之有序，言之有理，以论点为中心，组成完整而严谨的内容整体。（3）结果与讨论是全文的心脏，一般要占较多篇幅，在撰写时对必要而充分的数据、现象、认识等要作为分析的依据写进去。在对结果作定性和定量分析时，应说明数据的处理方法以及误差分析，说明现象出现的条件及其可证性，交代理论推导中认识的由来和发展以便他人以此为依据进行核实验证。对结果进行分析后得出的结论，也应说明其适用的条件与范围。此外，适当运用图、表作为结果与分析，是科技论文通用的一种表达方式。结论结论包括对整个研究工作进行归纳和综合而得出的总结，还包括所得结果与已有结果的比较和本课题尚存在的问题，以及进一步开展研究的见解和建议。结论集中反映作者的研究成果，表达作者对所研究课题的见解，是全文的思想精髓，是文章价值的体现，结论要写得概括、简短。撰写时应注意以下几点。（1）结论要简单、明确，措辞应严密，且又容易被人领会；（2）结论应反映个人的研究工作，属于他人已有过的结论要少提；（3）要实事求是地介绍自己研究的成果，切忌言过其实，在无充分把握时应留有余地，因为科学问题的探索是永无止境的。谢辞谢辞应以简短的文字对课题研究与论文撰写过程中曾直接给予帮助的人员（例如指导教师、答疑教师及其他人员）表示自己的谢意，这不仅是一种礼貌，也是对他人劳动的尊重，是治学者应有的思想作风。参考文献与附录参考文献是毕业论文(设计)不可缺少的组成部分，它反映毕业论文(设计)的取材来源、材料的广博程度和材料的可靠程度。一份完整的参考文献也是向读者提供的一份有价值的信息资料。对于一些不宜放在正文中，但有参考价值的内容，可编入毕业论文(设计)的附录中，例如：分式的推演、编写的算法、语言程序等。

means that is, 是补充说明；而 short for example, 也就是举例子；etc通常用于事物的等等省略， 而et al则常用在论文作者描述中，表示第一作者及其他作者等。

这题目英文翻译的就有问题。。

论文开题报告基本要素

各部分撰写内容

论文标题应该简洁，且能让读者对论文所研究的主题一目了然。

摘要是对论文提纲的总结，通常不超过1或2页，摘要包含以下内容：

目录应该列出所有带有页码的标题和副标题， 副标题应缩进。

这部分应该从宏观的角度来解释研究背景，缩小研究问题的范围，适当列出相关的参考文献。

这一部分不只是你已经阅读过的相关文献的总结摘要，而是必须对其进行批判性评论，并能够将这些文献与你提出的研究联系起来。

这部分应该告诉读者你想在研究中发现什么。在这部分明确地陈述你的研究问题和假设。在大多数情况下，主要研究问题应该足够广泛，而次要研究问题和假设则更具体，每个问题都应该侧重于研究的某个方面。

论文主要内容：

一、论文的标题部分

标题就是题目或题名，标题需要以最恰当、最简明的词语反映论文中重要的特定内容逻辑组合，论文题目非常重要，必须用心斟酌选定。

二、论文的摘要

论文一般应有摘要，它是论文内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述。摘要应该包含以下内容：

1、从事这一研究的目的和重要性

2、研究的主要内容

3、完成了哪些工作

4、获得的基本结论和研究成果，突出论文的新见解

5、结构或结果的意义

三、论文关键词

关键词属于主题词中的一类，主题词除关键词外，还包含有单元词、标题词和叙词。关键词是标识文献的主题内容，单未经规范处理的主题词。

四、引言

又称为前言，属于正片论文的引论部分。写作内容包括：

1、研究的理由

2、研究目的

3、背景

4、前人的工作和知识空白

5、作用和意义

五、正文部分

论文的主题，占据论文大部分篇幅。论文所体现的创造性成果或新的研究结果，都将在这一部分得到充分的反映，要求这部分内容一定要充实，论据充分可靠，论证有利，主题明确。

六、参考文献

参考文献是文章在研究过程和论文撰写是所参考过的有关文献的目录，参考文献的完整标注是对原作者的尊重。不只在格式上有具体要求，在数量、种类、年份等方面又有相关要求。

A Comparative Study of Animal Words between English and Chinese[Abstract] In the history of developing process of human beings, some animals always keep relation with human and deeply influence human survival and development to some extent. This close relation repose human’s abounding emotions, like love, joy, hatred, fear and jealousy in animals, so there are lots of animal words in different languages. Words can reflect differences of culture and words are influenced by history, customs, values, and religion. Animal words are given special cultural connotations in different languages. There are many words of animals, such as dogs, birds, sheep, dragons, etc, used in metaphors in the human languages. These animal metaphors have explained the origins of different cultures. Research on comparisons of animal metaphors between Chinese and foreign language provides an answer to the explanations of cultural generalities. Cognitive interpretations of cultural differences or coincidence in different animal metaphors have been reflected from different language levels. Therefore, a reasonable explanation can only be found from the point of view of cognitive science. There are a lot of animal words in both English and Chinese. Their modes of thinking and background are different and they result in the implied meanings of animal words are possibly different. As we known, language is a culture carrier. Culture loaded words play an important role in paper focuses on the similarities and differences of animal words in both Chinese and English. Different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking result in the different connotation of animal words. To be aware of the different cultures and ways of thinking in the two countries will help us understand the usage of the animal words better, thus understand the language itself much better.[Key Words] Animal words; cultural connotation; similarities and differences 英汉动物词的对比研究 【摘 要】在人类历史发展的漫长进程中, 有些动物一直与人类保持着密切联系并对人类的生存、发展有着深刻的影响。这种关系使得人类对动物产生喜爱、同情、厌恶、恐惧等错综复杂的情感, 人们也常常借动物来寄托和表达人的感情, 所以在英汉两种文化中都有许许多多与动物相关的词汇。同时语言中的词汇反映了文化发展的差异, 由于受历史、习俗、价值观念、宗教信仰等诸方面文化因素的影响, 中英两种语言赋予动物词汇以各自特定的文化内涵众所周知, 在不同语言和不同文化背景下, 每个词除了具有字面意义外, 还有丰富的文化内涵, 即该词所隐含的附带的联想义、比喻义、象征义及带有感情色彩的褒义和贬义等。许多同一动物在不同语言中其语词有着不同的文化内涵。从文化语言学和对比语言学的角度来分析对比中英两种语言中动物词的文化内涵之异同会有助于语言学习。动物词在英汉两种语言中的出现频率都很高。英汉民族思维方式和文化背景不同,同一动物所承载的意义也就会出现差异。通过对动物词文化意义的揭示和研究,不仅可以避免交际中的语用失误,而且对于不同文化的比较与导入有一定的理论和实践意义.语言是文化的载体, 不同民族的语言使世界上的文化呈现出千姿百态。文化差异赋予同一动物词语不同的内涵, 词汇反映了特定的社会文化, 不同的社会背景和文化差异造成了词汇在文化内涵上的差异。通过比较, 人们可以更清楚地感受到英汉文化在动物词语上留下的历史文化差异。本文从同一个动物词代表相同的意义；同一个动物词代表不同的意义； 不同的动物词代表相同的意义； 英汉特有的动物词涵义这四个方面来讨论英汉动物词汇涵义的相同点和不同点。【关键词】动物词；文化内涵； 异同 1. IntroductionIn the history of developing process, human beings keep close relation with animals. They live together on the same earth, and they have great impact on each other. This close relation reposes human’s abounding emotions, like love, joy, hatred, fear and jealousy in animals and results in the emergence and enrichment of animal words in different languages. However, different people from different countries have different ways of thinking and social backgrounds. Therefore, the implied meaning of the words that have the same denotations may be totally different. They are given special cultural connotations for the different social backgrounds and national conventions. And as it is well-known, both English and Chinese have a sea of animal words, which are endowed abundant cultural connotations. So, this paper tries to discuss the cultural connotations of animal words both in English and Chinese from the following aspects: the words refer to the same animal with the same connotations; the words refer to the same animal but with different connotations; the words refer to different animals with the same connotation; the words refer to the same animal but only has connotation in English or Chinese. With comparison, the English learners can better understand the usage of the animal words. 2. The worth for the comparison of animal words between English and Chinese“Cultural connotation refers to the general meaning including connotative meaning and cultural meaning carried in different cultural circumstance. It includes the meaning added and the amplified meaning under special social and cultural background, and also includes the emotions and attitudes of some particular cultural colony.”[1] As we have mentioned above, different social backgrounds render diverse cultural connotations to different languages. Therefore, even if animal words of different languages have the same conceptual meanings, their connotative meanings are not totally the same. As we all know, English has become one of the most open languages around the world. Since it was born, it has never stopped its self-development and meanwhile assimilated other’s cultural essence from different countries. As the result, it can be sure that the animal words in English language have rich cultural implications. And Chinese, as one of the oldest languages in the world, has evolved over 5000 years. The animal words in Chinese have their own specific cultural connotations as well. Fore these reasons, it is worthwhile to make a good comparison of animal words between English and Chinese both for the English language learners and Chinese language learners. It can help them get a better comprehension of the intercultural communication as well. 3. The similarities and differences of animal words between English and . Similar words or similar . The words refer to the same animal with the same connotation It is sure that people around the world live in similar surroundings, so they will have similar thinking on some aspects. When they learn some animal words from their basic cognition to the world, these animal words are endowed with the same cultural connotation. For example, regardless of English or Chinese culture, the animal, fox is the symbol of crafty. Phrases: old fox; play the foxSentences: (1) She is as cunning as a fox, you’ve got to watch her. [2] (2) I could not help reflecting on the strange by which the old fox had saved himself. (3) Are you sure you can trust that man------he is such a sly old fox. [3] Fox also means sly crafty and doubtful in Chinese, for example: (1) 狐假虎威: the ass in the lion’s skin;(fig) bully people by flaunting one'spowerful connections.(2) 狐狸尾巴: fox's tail-cloven hoof; something that gives away the evil intention of somebody like a fox tail(3) 狐朋狗友: a pack of rogues; a gang of scoundrels(4) 狐狸精: fox spirit symbolizing a seductive woman(5) 狐疑: doubt; suspicion [4]In Chinese, “old fox” means someone who is very crafty. For example：(1) 他是一只老狐狸，不要轻易相信他说的话。(He is an old fox, whose words cannot be believed.)(