英语论文1500词

The term English literature refers to literature written in the English language, including literature composed in English by writers not necessarily from England; Joseph Conrad was Polish, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Dylan Thomas was Welsh, Edgar Allan Poe was American, Salman Rushdie is Indian, V.S. Naipaul was born in Trinidad, Vladimir Nabokov was Russian. In other words, English literature is as diverse as the varieties and dialects of English spoken around the world. In academia, the term often labels departments and programmes practising English studies in secondary and tertiary educational systems. Despite the variety of authors of English literature, the works of William Shakespeare remain paramount throughout the English-speaking world.This article primarily deals with literature from Britain written in English. For literature from specific English-speaking regions, consult the see also section at the bottom of the page.Contents [hide]1 Old English 2 Renaissance literature 3 Early Modern period 3.1 Elizabethan Era 3.2 Jacobean literature 3.3 Caroline and Cromwellian literature 3.4 Restoration literature 3.5 Augustan literature 4 18th century 5 Romanticism 6 Victorian literature 7 Modernism 8 Post-modern literature 9 Views of English literature 10 See also 11 External links Old EnglishMain article: Anglo-Saxon literatureThe first works in English, written in Old English, appeared in the early Middle Ages (the oldest surviving text is Cædmon's Hymn). The oral tradition was very strong in early British culture and most literary works were written to be performed. Epic poems were thus very popular and many, including Beowulf, have survived to the present day in the rich corpus of Anglo-Saxon literature that closely resemble today's Norwegian or, better yet, Icelandic. Much Anglo-Saxon verse in the extant manuscripts is probably a "milder" adaptation of the earlier Viking and German war poems from the continent. When such poetry was brought to England it was still being handed down orally from one generation to another, and the constant presence of alliterative verse, or consonant rhyme (today's newspaper headlines and marketing abundantly use this technique such as in Big is Better) helped the Anglo-Saxon peoples remember it. Such rhyme is a feature of Germanic languages and is opposed to vocalic or end-rhyme of Romance languages. But the first written literature dates to the early Christian monasteries founded by St. Augustine of Canterbury and his disciples and it is reasonable to believe that it was somehow adapted to suit to needs of Christian readers. Even without their crudest lines, Viking war poems still smell of blood feuds and their consonant rhymes sound like the smashing of swords under the gloomy northern sky: there is always a sense of imminent danger in the narratives. Sooner or later, all things must come to an end, as Beowulf eventually dies at the hands of the monsters he spends the tale fighting. The feelings of Beowulf that nothing lasts, that youth and joy will turn to death and sorrow entered Christianity and were to dominate the future landscape of English fiction.Renaissance literatureMain article: English RenaissanceFollowing the introduction of a printing press into England by William Caxton in 1476, vernacular literature flourished. The Reformation inspired the production of vernacular liturgy which led to the Book of Common Prayer, a lasting influence on literary English language. The poetry, drama, and prose produced under both Queen Elizabeth I and King James I constitute what is today labelled as Early modern (or Renaissance).Early Modern periodFurther information: Early Modern English and Early Modern Britain Elizabethan EraMain article: Elizabethan literatureThe Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the field of drama. The Italian Renaissance had rediscovered the ancient Greek and Roman theatre, and this was instrumental in the development of the new drama, which was then beginning to evolve apart from the old mystery and miracle plays of the Middle Ages. The Italians were particularly inspired by Seneca (a major tragic playwright and philosopher, the tutor of Nero) and Plautus (its comic clichés, especially that of the boasting soldier had a powerful influence on the Renaissance and after). However, the Italian tragedies embraced a principle contrary to Seneca's ethics: showing blood and violence on the stage. In Seneca's plays such scenes were only acted by the characters. But the English playwrights were intrigued by Italian model: a conspicuous community of Italian actors had settled in London and Giovanni Florio had brought much of the Italian language and culture to England. It is also true that the Elizabethan Era was a very violent age and that the high incidence of political assassinations in Renaissance Italy (embodied by Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince) did little to calm fears of popish plots. As a result, representing that kind of violence on the stage was probably more cathartic for the Elizabethan spectator. Following earlier Elizabethan plays such as Gorboduc by Sackville & Norton and The Spanish Tragedy by Kyd that was to provide much material for Hamlet, William Shakespeare stands out in this period as a poet and playwright as yet unsurpassed. Shakespeare was not a man of letters by profession, and probably had only some grammar school education. He was neither a lawyer, nor an aristocrat as the "university wits" that had monopolised the English stage when he started writing. But he was very gifted and incredibly versatile, and he surpassed "professionals" as Robert Greene who mocked this "shake-scene" of low origins. Though most dramas met with great success, it is in his later years (marked by the early reign of James I) that he wrote what have been considered his greatest plays: Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, and The Tempest, a tragicomedy that inscribes within the main drama a brilliant pageant to the new king. This 'play within a play' takes the form of a masque, an interlude with music and dance coloured by the novel special effects of the new indoor theatres. Critics have shown that this masterpiece, which can be considered a dramatic work in its own right, was written for James's court, if not for the monarch himself. The magic arts of Prospero, on which depend the outcome of the plot, hint at the fine relationship between art and nature in poetry. Significantly for those times (the arrival of the first colonists in America), The Tempest is (though not apparently) set on a Bermudan island, as research on the Bermuda Pamphlets (1609) has shown, linking Shakespeare to the Virginia Company itself. The "News from the New World", as Frank Kermode points out, were already out and Shakespeare's interest in this respect is remarkable. Shakespeare also popularized the English sonnet which made significant changes to Petrarch's model.The sonnet was introduced into English by Thomas Wyatt in the early 16th century. Poems intended to be set to music as songs, such as by Thomas Campion, became popular as printed literature was disseminated more widely in households. See English Madrigal School. Other important figures in Elizabethan theatre include Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Dekker, John Fletcher and Francis Beaumont. Had Marlowe (1564-1593) not been stabbed at twenty-nine in a tavern brawl, says Anthony Burgess, he might have rivalled, if not equalled Shakespeare himself for his poetic gifts. Remarkably, he was born only a few weeks before Shakespeare and must have known him well. Marlowe's subject matter, though, is different: it focuses more on the moral drama of the renaissance man than any other thing. Marlowe was fascinated and terrified by the new frontiers opened by modern science. Drawing on German lore, he introduced Dr. Faustus to England, a scientist and magician who is obsessed by the thirst of knowledge and the desire to push man's technological power to its limits. He acquires supernatural gifts that even allow him to go back in time and wed Helen of Troy, but at the end of his twenty-four years' covenant with the devil he has to surrender his soul to him. His dark heroes may have something of Marlowe himself, whose untimely death remains a mystery. He was known for being an atheist, leading a lawless life, keeping many mistresses, consorting with ruffians: living the 'high life' of London's underworld. But many suspect that this might have been a cover-up for his activities as a secret agent for Elizabeth I, hinting that the 'accidental stabbing' might have been a premeditated assassination by the enemies of The Crown. Beaumont and Fletcher are less-known, but it is almost sure that they helped Shakespeare write some of his best dramas, and were quite popular at the time. It is also at this time that the city comedy genre develops. In the later 16th century English poetry was characterised by elaboration of language and extensive allusion to classical myths. The most important poets of this era include Edmund Spenser and Sir Philip Sidney. Elizabeth herself, a product of Renaissance humanism, produced occasional poems such as On Monsieur’s Departure.Canons of Renaissance poetryJacobean literatureAfter Shakespeare's death, the poet and dramatist Ben Jonson was the leading literary figure of the Jacobean era (The reign of James I). However, Jonson's aesthetics hark back to the Middle Ages rather than to the Tudor Era: his characters embody the theory of humours. According to this contemporary medical theory, behavioral differences result from a prevalence of one of the body's four "humours" (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) over the other three; these humours correspond with the four elements of the universe: air, water, fire, and earth. This leads Jonson to exemplify such differences to the point of creating types, or clichés.Jonson is a master of style, and a brilliant satirist. His Volpone shows how a group of scammers are fooled by a top con-artist, vice being punished by vice, virtue meting out its reward.Others who followed Jonson's style include Beaumont and Fletcher, who wrote the brilliant comedy, The Knight of the Burning Pestle, a mockery of the rising middle class and especially of those nouveaux riches who pretend to dictate literary taste without knowing much literature at all. In the story, a couple of grocers wrangle with professional actors to have their illiterate son play a leading role in a drama. He becomes a knight-errant wearing, appropriately, a burning pestle on his shield. Seeking to win a princess' heart, the young man is ridiculed much in the way Don Quixote was. One of Beaumont and Fletcher's chief merits was that of realising how feudalism and chivalry had turned into snobbery and make-believe and that new social classes were on the rise.Another popular style of theatre during Jacobean times was the revenge play, popularized by John Webster and Thomas Kyd. George Chapman wrote a couple of subtle revenge tragedies, but must be remembered chiefly on account of his famous translation of Homer, one that had a profound influence on all future English literature, even inspiring John Keats to write one of his best sonnets.The King James Bible, one of the most massive translation projects in the history of English up to this time, was started in 1604 and completed in 1611. It represents the culmination of a tradition of Bible translation into English that began with the work of William Tyndale. It became the standard Bible of the Church of England, and some consider it one of the greatest literary works of all time. This project was headed by James I himself, who supervised the work of forty-seven scholars. Although many other translations into English have been made, some of which are widely considered more accurate, many aesthetically prefer the King James Bible, whose meter is made to mimic the original Hebrew verse.Besides Shakespeare, whose figure towers over the early 1600s, the major poets of the early 17th century included John Donne and the other Metaphysical poets. Influenced by continental Baroque, and taking as his subject matter both Christian mysticism and eroticism, metaphysical poetry uses unconventional or "unpoetic" figures, such as a compass or a mosquito, to reach surprise effects. For example, in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning", one of Donne's Songs and Sonnets, the points of a compass represent two lovers, the woman who is home, waiting, being the centre, the farther point being her lover sailing away from her. But the larger the distance, the more the hands of the compass lean to each other: separation makes love grow fonder. The paradox or the oxymoron is a constant in this poetry whose fears and anxieties also speak of a world of spiritual certainties shaken by the modern discoveries of geography and science, one that is no longer the centre of the universe. Apart from the metaphysical poetry of Donne, the 17th century is also celebrated for its Baroque poetry. Baroque poetry served the same ends as the art of the period; the Baroque style is lofty, sweeping, epic, and religious. Many of these poets have an overtly Catholic sensibility (namely Richard Crashaw) and wrote poetry for the Catholic counter-Reformation in order to establish a feeling of supremacy and mysticism that would ideally persuade newly emerging Protestant groups back toward Catholicism.Caroline and Cromwellian literatureThe turbulent years of the mid-17th century, during the reign of Charles I and the subsequent Commonwealth and Protectorate, saw a flourishing of political literature in English. Pamphlets written by sympathisers of every faction in the English civil war ran from vicious personal attacks and polemics, through many forms of propaganda, to high-minded schemes to reform the nation. Of the latter type, Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes would prove to be one of the most important works of British political philosophy. Hobbes's writings are some of the few political works from the era which are still regularly published while John Bramhall, who was Hobbes's chief critic, is largely forgotten. The period also saw a flourishing of news books, the precursors to the British newspaper, with journalists such as Henry Muddiman, Marchamont Needham, and John Birkenhead representing the views and activities of the contending parties. The frequent arrests of authors and the suppression of their works, with the consequence of foreign or underground printing, led to the proposal of a licensing system. The Areopagitica, a political pamphlet by John Milton, was written in opposition to licensing and is regarded as one of the most eloquent defenses of press freedom ever written.Specifically in the reign of Charles I (1625 – 42), English Renaissance theatre experienced its concluding efflorescence. The last works of Ben Jonson appeared on stage and in print, along with the final generation of major voices in the drama of the age: John Ford, Philip Massinger, James Shirley, and Richard Brome. With the closure of the theatres at the start of the English Civil War in 1642, drama was suppressed for a generation, to resume only in the altered society of the English Restoration in 1660.Other forms of literature written during this period are usually ascribed political subtexts, or their authors are grouped along political lines. The cavalier poets, active mainly before the civil war, owed much to the earlier school of metaphysical poets. The forced retirement of royalist officials after the execution of Charles I was a good thing in the case of Izaak Walton, as it gave him time to work on his book The Compleat Angler. Published in 1653, the book, ostensibly a guide to fishing, is much more: a meditation on life, leisure, and contentment. The two most important poets of Oliver Cromwell's England were Andrew Marvell and John Milton, with both producing works praising the new government; such as Marvell's An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland. Despite their republican beliefs they escaped punishment upon the Restoration of Charles II, after which Milton wrote some of his greatest poetical works (with any possible political message hidden under allegory). Thomas Browne was another writer of the period; a learned man with an extensive library, he wrote prolifically on science, religion, medicine and the esoteric.Restoration literatureMain article: Restoration LiteratureRestoration literature includes both Paradise Lost and the Earl of Rochester's Sodom, the high spirited sexual comedy of The Country Wife and the moral wisdom of Pilgrim's Progress. It saw Locke's Treatises on Government, the founding of the Royal Society, the experiments of Robert Boyle and the holy meditations of Boyle, the hysterical attacks on theatres from Jeremy Collier, the pioneering of literary criticism from Dryden, and the first newspapers. The official break in literary culture caused by censorship and radically moralist standards under Cromwell's Puritan regime created a gap in literary tradition, allowing a seemingly fresh start for all forms of literature after the Restoration. During the Interregnum, the royalist forces attached to the court of Charles I went into exile with the twenty-year old Charles II. The nobility who travelled with Charles II were therefore lodged for over a decade in the midst of the continent's literary scene. Charles spent his time attending plays in France, and he developed a taste for Spanish plays. Those nobles living in Holland began to learn about mercantile exchange as well as the tolerant, rationalist prose debates that circulated in that officially tolerant nation.The largest and most important poetic form of the era was satire. In general, publication of satire was done anonymously. There were great dangers in being associated with a satire. On the one hand, defamation law was a wide net, and it was difficult for a satirist to avoid prosecution if he were proven to have written a piece that seemed to criticize a noble. On the other hand, wealthy individuals would respond to satire as often as not by having the suspected poet physically attacked by ruffians. John Dryden was set upon for being merely suspected of having written the Satire on Mankind. A consequence of this anonymity is that a great many poems, some of them of merit, are unpublished and largely unknown.未完

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Some people think that we learn our most important lessons in school. Others think that the knowledge we acquire outside of school is the most important. Which view do you agree with? Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.问题——现实情况——他人的观点——你的观点 Children all around the world are attending school. Education has become a core issue for every government on earth, and they are all striving hard to achieve higher quality and larger scale of education. This is by no means coincidence, but indicates the importance of education. In my point of view, we learn our most important lessons of our life in school, which is reflected by the emphasis of education by governments.理由一 In schools, students learn the essence of all human knowledge. The human knowledge is accumulated through all human history. Knowledge taught in lessons in school are selected and selected over thousands of years, composing the fundamental knowledge a person needed to survive and succeed in society. For example, the mathematics courses in school lay the basis for every student who is to understand numbers. If they know nothing about mathematics, they may well be fooled in the future by banks and other people.理由二 Also, the knowledge taught in school is often systematic and reasonable, rather than discrete pieces of knowledge. Through the process of learning systematically and solving academic problems by reasoning, students only learn the knowledge they are learning, but also learn the most efficient way to view and solve problems around us. For example, through learning physics and chemistry, students know more about what's happening around us, but more importantly, they grasp some idea of observation, assumption, experimentation and conclusion.理由三 And lessons in school often determine students' appetite of literature, art and music. In schools, student spend much more time learning famous piece of literary works, paintings, sculptures and great compositions, which is definitely different from what they hear and see outside the school. In this way, their appetites for beauty reach a higher level. And an appetite for fine arts and literature would bring tremendous benefits to the happiness of their life, considering the huge heritage of fine arts we have!理由四 To conclude, the knowledge taught in school is the true essence of all human knowledge, and school knowledge has a tremendous positive effect on individuals.总结理由，强化结论

帮你弄一篇吧我选的是第二个题目Information and communications technology to ChinaChina has experienced rapid growth within the information and communications technology (ICT) industry over the past decade, and now plays a leading role in China’s economic development. As a result of China’s ‘opening up’ policy and path of economic reform, China’s electronic communications industry has grown at three times the rate of GDP growth. In 2006, China’s electronic communications industry revenue reached RMB475 billion. The total value of foreign trade reached US$651.7 billion representing over 15 per cent of the global electronics trade, with the output of many electronic products ranked first worldwide. These electronics products include: • colour TVs • mobile phone handsets • computers • electronic watches • calculators • DVDsChina’s accession into the World Trade Organization (WTO) provided a transitional period for opening up its telecom sector which lasted until November 2007. Consequently, this has assisted China to develop one of the largest open telecom markets in the world. The Value Added Services (VAS) sector is expected to contribute to this growth, as one of the hottest market entry sectors for foreign ICT companies. Through the Ministry of Information Industry (MII), the Chinese Government administers foreign direct investment into the telecommunications sector. This includes basic infrastructure and value added services, however, with various restrictions on foreign ownership levels. From 1 December 2007, a new set of Categories of Foreign Investment Industry Guidance 2007 Amended Version has been implemented, superseding the previous version issued on 30 November 2004, and providing new levels of guidance on foreign direct investment in the various industry sectors. To ensure China’s telecommunications market operates in a fair, transparent and effective competitive environment, China’s first Telecommunications Law has been drafted and is currently undergoing a process of public consultation before being enacted. This should provide further guidance and protection to both investors and operators, in addition to the various regulations currently in place. With China entering its 11th Five Year Plan period, ICT has also moved from 'enabling and promoting' to 'strengthening industry integration and indigenous innovations'. The key focuses are to:• Continue increasing overall integrated ICT service levels • Increase and improve the development of ICT infrastructure • Strengthen the indigenous innovation in core industries • Focus on incubating strategic industry clusters • Proactively promote the integrated development of all ICT sectors • Strengthen the modernisation of post services • Strengthen the administration of radio communications • Increase the supportive capability of ICT infrastructure to the national economyBy 2010, the targeted penetration levels for fixed telecommunication in China is anticipated to reach 30 per cent of its population to one billion subscribers in operation (SIO), and 45 per cent penetration in mobile communications to 600 million SIOs. Internet users are anticipated to reach 200 million with 15 per cent penetration.TelecommunicationsSince the first wireless mobile phone base station was installed on 18 November 1987, China reached 531.4 million mobile SIOs at the end of October 2007. Therefore, China has the highest number of mobile phone subscribers in the world. The vast number of SIOs also generated 483.7 billion short message services (SMS). Due to China’s large population, mobile penetration in China is still considered low at 39.9 per cent when compared with most developed countries. This presents substantial growth opportunities for companies within the China market.Fixed communications grew slightly lower than mobile communications with a total of 370 million SIOs, representing a 28.3 per cent penetration rate. China has over 22,000 registered companies providing Value Added Services to the telecom sector. There are six major telecommunications operators in China:• China Telecom • China Mobile • China Satellite Company • China Unicom • China Netcom • China Railway CommunicationsSoftware and system integrationIn 2006, the size of China’s domestic software market reached RMB480 billion. The total number of registered software companies increased to 15,723 with over 1.29 million people employed in the software industry. There were over 35 companies with a turnover exceeding RMB1 billion, and 51 companies with turnover in the range of RMB0.5–1 billion. Furthermore, more than 80 software companies had over 1,000 employees. There are currently 38 companies with CMM5 (Capability Maturity Model For Software) certifications, the highest level of an internationally recognized certification program for software companies. In addition, 23 companies achieved CMM4 certifications and over 200 companies were awarded CMM3 certifications. The increasing number of Chinese software companies seeking and achieving CMM certification demonstrates their enhanced software development capabilities and overall product quality to compete in the global market. InternetSince China sent out the first email 'Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world' on 20 September 1987, the diffusion of the Internet in China has grown in parallel with the development and expansion of the overall telecom infrastructure. China has become the world’s second largest Internet user country with an estimated 162 million users behind the US with 211 million users. In addition, at the end of June 2007, China had 67 million Internet connected computers and over 1.3 million websites. The total bandwidth to the world reached 312,346Mbps with annual growth rate of 45.8 per cent.Although China’s Internet industry has achieved significant growth, the penetration is still very low at 12.3 per cent, as compared with the global average of 17.6 per cent. There is clear 'unequitable' access to the Internet between urban and rural areas with 21.6 per cent as compared to 5.1 per cent respectively.ADSL, dial-Up and wireless (including mobile phone access) are the three key access methods of accessing the Internet in China. Broadband SIOs have grown very quickly. As at December 2007, broadband users reached 122 million, the largest user country in the world, with a penetration rate of 17.5 per cent. In 2007, 30 per cent of the new broadband users were from rural areas. In addition, there are also 20.2 million dial-Up users.The key applications for Internet users in China are searching for news, instant messaging, and entertainment (music, video and games). There has been a growing trend of e-commerce related activities including net-shopping, travel booking, online stock market trading and banking. It is expected e-commerce related applications and services will become one of the key growth areas in the future.Although there has been increasing trend of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Internet- related infrastructure, applications and services such as Internet Service Providers (ISPs), Application Service Provider (ASPs), and Internet Content Provider (ICPs) are yet to open up to foreign providers, and there are strict content management and approval processes in place to ensure that the Internet is used to enhance social responsibility and harmony. The challenges facing China’s Internet industry include:• Equitable access to the Internet between urban and rural areas to break the 'digital divide'. • Level of information and technology knowledge among small to medium enterprises. • Overall quality and applications of the Internet, to improve the productivity and be more competitive on the global market. • Integration of information and communication technologies within all industry sectors.OpportunitiesThe development of China’s ICT industry provides opportunities in a number of areas, which include the following:• Telecommunications infrastructure o 3G/4G wireless communications o IP based technologies o Rural telecommunications o Network integration and billing• Value Added Services o e-Learning o Entertainment o Mobile applications• E-Commerce o Online payment and mobile payment o e-Security o Integrated logistics application and management• Industry application o Telematics o Remote metering o Geo-spatial application o Environment and clean technology applications o Finance and banking o Security o Digital content• New Technologies and applications and materials o IPTV o New digital audio systems o Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) o Nanotechnologies o Energy efficiency materialsTariffs, regulations and customsTariffs for ICT products and services vary depending on the category classification and what level of Chinese indigenous component is included. Certain ICT products exported to China are subject to China Compulsory Certification, known as 3CCC certification. As a result of China's commitments for accession into the WTO, China has applied zero tariffs to 256 categories of ICT products. To determine the exact category and the level of tariffs applied, if any, it is recommended that experienced customs brokers specialised in ICT products are consulted. Marketing your products and servicesMarket entryDepending upon your company’s situation and strategic direction, there are various vehicles that can be utilised for entry into the Chinese ICT market. These include: • Wholly owned foreign enterprises (WOFEs) • Joint ventures (JVs) • Value added resellers (VARs) • DistributorsA new and emerging type of entry vehicle, Virtual Entry, has been utilised by many small and medium (SME) companies. A Chinese domain name is registered with all the content translated into the local language, however, operations are conducted offshore in the home country. Each vehicle requires a different set of requirements and investment strategies.The Chinese Government’s aim is to become more transparent in awarding large projects. A public tender is normally published via media inviting Expression of Interests from interested and suitable companies. In some circumstances, foreign companies find it useful to form a partnership with suitable local companies to promote awareness of their capabilities. Establishing good relationships with key stakeholders are vital so that a company can be in a better position to access information and prepare a submission. However, many other projects are done via local network. In these circumstances it is often necessary to work with a local partner with a similar industry capability and background. If your products or applications do not require local modification and are 'plug and play', you may sell your products and services via a local distributor. This can occur once customs import procedure is cleared and passes through relevant network-access tests if applicable. If your products and applications require localisation, translation, further development and local integration, then a local service integrator needs to be engaged. This can be done via a joint venture partner or a service contractor, prior to selling to the end users, especially in financial and other sensitive categories.In most of the cases, except games and English language learning applications, it is most likely that your products and applications will have to be 'localised' to suit the local market environment. This is especially important for accounting, intelligent transportation systems, finance and banking, and security applications.Registration of a company is relatively easy in China once you meet all the requirements. Different company structures require different start-up capital funding. There can be regional variations to company registration requirements. It is recommended that you research well and consult widely before making a final investment decision. 刚才算了一下，大概是1700多字