关于总统选举论文范文资料

后面有分析的给你三篇2005年的申论范文，以供参考。申论写作参考范例(1)决不能用损害群众利益的方式搞建设湖南省嘉禾县强制拆迁和陕西省周至县非法圈占耕地违法违规事件，有关责任人已经受到了严肃处理（有关报道见第二版）。这两起事件都是地方政府滥用行政权力、用损害群众利益的方式搞建设的典型案例。我国正处于城镇化快速发展阶段，需要保持合理的发展速度和适度的建设规模，拆迁和征地都是必要的。但是，各地区、各部门必须站在实践“三个代表”重要思想的高度，以科学的发展观和正确的政绩观为指导，正确处理好城市化进程中的各种利益关系，从维护人民群众的合法权益出发，坚决贯彻落实中央关于宏观调控的各项政策措施，坚决纠正城镇房屋拆迁中侵害居民利益和土地征用中侵害农民利益的问题。城镇房屋拆迁和农村土地征用必须坚持“以人为本”。实践证明，做到了这一点，就会形成社会效益、企业利益和个人权益共赢的局面，反之，片面追求建设速度，片面强调降低成本，超越了资源环境和群众承受能力，其代价必然是损害群众的合法权益。在征地拆迁工作中坚持“以人为本”，必须做到决不能因为地方财力有限，就降低拆迁和土地征用补偿安置标准；决不能为了招商引资，满足开发商的要求，而牺牲人民群众的利益；决不能为了要政绩、谋形象，用损害群众利益的方式搞建设。城镇房屋拆迁和农村土地征用必须坚持依法行政。为规范房屋拆迁和土地征用，维护人民群众的根本利益，国家出台了一系列法律法规和规章制度，要求各级政府和有关部门正确履行职责，实现从注重依靠行政手段管理到依靠法律手段管理的根本性转变。决不能以政府行为替代市场行为，决不能以行政命令替代法定程序，决不能片面强调为政府的“重点工程”让路而破坏拆迁和土地征用公开、公平、公正的原则。城镇房屋拆迁和农村土地征用必须坚持量力而行。各级政府特别是领导干部，一定要端正经济工作的指导思想，根据当地社会经济承受能力和发展的实际需要，合理确定城市建设规模和土地征用规模。坚决制止脱离实际，大规模投资建设行政中心、中央商务区、会展（博览）中心、大草坪、大广场、宽马路等盲目攀比、贪大求洋、劳民伤财的“形象工程”、“政绩工程”。坚持一切从实际出发，一切从人民利益出发，一切按客观规律办事，一切按勤俭节约原则办事。加强城镇房屋拆迁和农村土地征用管理工作，关系到人民群众的切身利益，关系到经济发展和社会稳定，关系到中央宏观调控政策的落实。各地区、各部门要从这两起事件中深刻吸取教训，举一反三，引以为戒。把控制城镇房屋拆迁和农村土地征用规模作为落实中央宏观调控政策的重要措施和确保社会稳定的一项重要内容，列入今年政府工作的重要任务，列为廉政建设专项治理的一项重要工作。依法行政，严格依据城市建设规划，合理确定拆迁和土地征用规模，规范审批程序，完善补偿安置政策，深入开展土地市场治理整顿，坚决查处城镇房屋拆迁和农村土地征用中违法违规损害群众利益的事件，坚决维护中央宏观调控政策的统一性、权威性和有效性，确保国民经济平稳较快增长。

论文没有，不过我把就职的演讲稿给你，你从中可以看到他的意志和决心，再添加点成一篇论文英爱不难My fellow citizens: 各位同胞： I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors. I thank President Bush for his service to our nation, as well as the generosity and cooperation he has shown throughout this transition. 今天我站在这里，为眼前的重责大任感到谦卑，对各位的信任心怀感激，对先贤的牺牲铭记在心。我要谢谢布什总统为这个国家的服务，也感 谢他在政权转移期间的宽厚和配合。 Forty-four Americans have now taken the presidential oath. The words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace. Yet, every so often the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms. At these moments, America has carried on not simply because of the skill or vision of those in high office, but because We the People have remained faithful to the ideals of our forbearers, and true to our founding documents. 四十四位美国人发表过总统就职誓言，这些誓词或是在繁荣富强及和平宁静之际发表，或是在乌云密布，时局动荡之时。在艰困的时候，美国 能箕裘相继，不仅因为居高位者有能力或愿景，也因为人民持续对先人的抱负有信心，也忠于创建我国的法统。 So it has been. So it must be with this generation of Americans. 因此，美国才能承继下来。因此，这一代美国人必须承继下去。 That we are in the midst of crisis is now well understood. Our nation is at war, against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred. Our economy is badly weakened, a consequence of greed and irresponsibility on the part of some, but also our collective failure to make hard choices and prepare the nation for a new age. Homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered. Our health care is too costly; our schools fail too many; and each day brings further evidence that the ways we use energy strengthen our adversaries and threaten our planet. 现在大家都知道我们正置身危机核心，我国正处于对抗深远暴力和憎恨的战争。我们的经济元气大伤，是某些人贪婪且不负责任的后果，也是 大众未能做出艰难的选择，为国家进入新时代做淮备所致。许多人失去房子，丢了工作，生意垮了。我们的医疗照护太昂贵，学校教育辜负了 许多人。每天都有更多证据显示，我们利用能源的方式壮大我们的对敌，威胁我们的星球。 These are the indicators of crisis, subject to data and statistics. Less measurable but no less profound is a sapping of confidence across our land - a nagging fear that America’s decline is inevitable, and that the next generation must lower its sights. 这些都是得自资料和统计数据的危机指标。比较无法测量但同样深沉的，是举国信心尽失—持续担心美国将无可避免地衰退，也害怕下一代一 定会眼界变低。 Today I say to you that the challenges we face are real. They are serious and they are many. They will not be met easily or in a short span of time. But know this, America - they will be met. 今天我要告诉各位，我们面临的挑战是真的，挑战非常严重，且不在少数。它们不是可以轻易，或在短时间内解决。但是，美国要了解，这些 挑战会被解决。 On this day, we gather because we have chosen hope over fear, unity of purpose over conflict and discord. 在这一天，我们聚在一起，因为我们选择希望而非恐惧，有意义的团结而非纷争和不合。 On this day, we come to proclaim an end to the petty grievances and false promises, the recriminations and worn out dogmas, that for far too long have strangled our politics. 在这一天，我们来此宣示，那些无用的抱怨和虚伪的承诺已终结，那些扭曲我们政治已久的相互指控和陈旧教条已终结。 We remain a young nation, but in the words of Scripture, the time has come to set aside childish things. The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation: the God-given promise that all are equal, all are free, and all deserve a chance to pursue their full measure of happiness. 我们仍是个年轻的国家，但借用圣经的话，摆脱幼稚事物的时刻到来了，重申我们坚忍精神的时刻到来了，选择我们更好的历史，实践那种代 代传承的珍贵权利，那种高贵的理念：就是上帝的应许，我们每个人都是平等的，每个人都是自由的，每个人都应该有机会追求全然的幸福。 In reaffirming the greatness of our nation, we understand that greatness is never a given. It must be earned. Our journey has never been one of short-cuts or settling for less. It has not been the path for the faint-hearted - for those who prefer leisure over work, or seek only the pleasures of riches and fame. Rather, it has been the risk-takers, the doers, the makers of things - some celebrated but more often men and women obscure in their labor, who have carried us up the long, rugged path towards prosperity and freedom. 再次肯定我们国家的伟大，我们了解伟大绝非赐予而来，必须努力达成。我们的旅程从来就不是抄捷径或很容易就满足。这条路一直都不是给 不勇敢的人走的，那些偏好逸乐胜过工作，或者只想追求名利就满足的人。恰恰相反，走这条路的始终是勇于冒险的人，做事的人，成事的人 ，其中有些人很出名，但更常见的是在各自岗位上的男男女女无名英雄，在这条漫长崎区的道路上支撑我们，迈向繁荣与自由。 For us, they packed up their few worldly possessions and traveled across oceans in search of a new life. 为了我们，他们携带很少的家当，远渡重洋，追寻新生活。 For us, they toiled in sweatshops and settled the West; endured the lash of the whip and plowed the hard earth. 为了我们，他们胼手胝足，在西部安顿下来；忍受风吹雨打，筚路蓝缕。 For us, they fought and died, in places like Concord and Gettysburg; Normandy and Khe Sanh. 为了我们，他们奋斗不懈，在康科特和盖茨堡，诺曼地和溪山等地葬身。 Time and again these men and women struggled and sacrificed and worked till their hands were raw so that we might live a better life. They saw America as bigger than the sum of our individual ambitions; greater than all the differences of birth or wealth or faction. 前人不断的奋斗与牺牲，直到双手皮开肉绽，我们才能享有比较好的生活。他们将美国视为大于所有个人企图心总和的整体，超越出身、财富 或小圈圈的差异。 This is the journey we continue today. We remain the most prosperous, powerful nation on Earth. Our workers are no less productive than when this crisis began. Our minds are no less inventive, our goods and services no less needed than they were last week or last month or last year. Our capacity remains undiminished. But our time of standing pat, of protecting narrow interests and putting off unpleasant decisions - that time has surely passed. Starting today, we must pick ourselves up, dust ourselves off, and begin again the work of remaking America. 这是我们今天继续前进的旅程。我们仍旧是全球最繁荣强盛的国家。这场危机爆发时，我们的劳工生产力并未减弱。我们的心智一样创新，我 们的产品和劳务和上周或上个月或去年相比，一样是必需品。我们的能力并未减损。但是我们墨守成规、维护狭小利益、推迟引人不悦的决定 ，这段时期肯定已经过去。从今天起，我们必须重新出发、再次展开再造美国的工程。 For everywhere we look, there is work to be done. The state of the economy calls for action, bold and swift, and we will act - not only to create new jobs, but to lay a new foundation for growth. We will build the roads and bridges, the electric grids and digital lines that feed our commerce and bind us together. We will restore science to its rightful place, and wield technology’s wonders to raise health care’s quality and lower its cost. We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories. And we will transform our schools and colleges and universities to meet the demands of a new age. All this we can do. And all this we will do. 我们无论朝何处望去，都有工作必须完成。经济情势需要大胆、迅速的行动，我们将有所行动，不光是创造新工作，更要奠定成长的新基础。 我们将造桥铺路，为企业兴建电力网格与数位线路，将我们联系在一起。我们将让科学回归合适的用途，运用科技的奇迹来提高医疗品质并降 低费用。我们将利用太阳能、风力和土壤作为汽车的燃料和工厂的能源。我们将让中小学及大专院校转型，因应新时代的需要。这些我们可以 作到。我们也将会作到。[/

美国总统非直接民选，而是由各州依人口比例委任选举人团代表选出。获得一州相对多数选票候选人，其所属政党可推选该州所有的选举人团代表。此系统的创建是因为美国制宪时，参加制宪会议的代表们无意决定总统选举方式，故他们提供各州若干选举人团代表名额，而由各州自行决定其产生方式。现今各州选举人团代表皆为民选。 这种选法有些特殊之处。例如说，获得全国最多普选票的候选人可能未获最多的选举人票。这在美国历史上曾于1826年、1888年、和2000年发生过三次。反对这种选举法者认为此系统并不民主，因为获最高民意支持者也许无法成为总统。支持此系统者则认为这种总统选举法可预防地域主义。因为在多州获得些微多数普选票的候选人，可以胜过只在一州获得压倒性多数普选票者。所以为了获得选举人票，候选人必须普遍考虑美国各地区的要求，不能只在乎其中一部分。好的民主形式，大家都可以参与。

IntroductionThere are very many elections each year in America - over 80,000 - though the most important, the national election for president is held every four years. These elections are far from simple in terms of organisation. In fact, research indicates that many Americans do not fully understand the nation's electoral structure which might be one of the reasons to explain why nearly 50% of those eligible to vote in November 2000 did not do so.The process for a national election lasts nearly a year - nearly 25% of the standing president's time in power. A party must provide nominated people to stand for election. They obviously need to have (or are assumed to have) public charisma and are experienced in going public A shy candidate would be a potential disaster in what is becoming an increasingly media dominated event - especially with regards to the use of television.Of those nominated, only one is selected by the party delegates at the national conventions. This person then goes onto represent that party in the national presidential election. The running mate for the presidential candidate is also announced at the national convention.The voting body at a national convention is made up of delegates and super-delegates. How each delegate gets to a national convention is a complicated business and can differ markedly from state to state. The two parties at state level can decide which system they use to send delegates to a national convention.There are two systems : the caucus system and the primary elections. However, the structure of primary elections can differ from state to state. Some delegates are elected in a straight 'first-past-the-post' system while other states use a form of proportional representation to give a greater spread of representation among the delegates sent to a national convention.The delegates, once at a convention, vote for a candidate for the presidential election. Super-delegates have tended to muddy this system, and therefore the whole voting structure at the national conventions.Super-delegates are senior civil servants, governors, ex-presidents and old-established figures within the party - be it Democrat or Republican. The super-delegates inflate the number of people who can vote at a convention and they can be very influential in the final decision of who runs for presidency for the party that they represent. Super-delegates are not voted for by state parties and they tend to undermine the issue of state party democracy.After the national conventions, the two parties presidential hopefuls can concentrate on campaigning for the ultimate prize in American politics.The start of an election campaign in America can be as much as one year before the actual election. When both Presidents Carter and Reagan decided that they would run for presidency both left their positions as governors and campaigned for a year before the election to work out grass roots support for them and to spread their ‘gospel’. It worked as both were elected. George W Bush and Al Gore started effective campaigning in January 2000 for a November election.George Bush for the 2000 campaign continued to be governor of Texas but spent most of his time on the campaign trial. His one notable ‘event’ during the 2000 campaign as governor was his refusal to commute the death sentence on a rapist/murderer who was duly executed on the authority of the state’s governor. The Democrats responded with the "15 minutes" tag whereby they criticised the governor (to-be-president) on his record of deciding on a commutation of the death sentence or the execution being carried out: it was claimed that Bush Junior took only 15 minutes to decide the fate of a condemned man and that he was pandering to the belief in the South (a vital electoral region) that judicial execution was acceptable.Officially an election campaign starts in February with the presidential primaries in the so-called "primary season". It continues from here. The key month for when party wards, precincts and states vote for their presidential candidate is March which includes "Super Tuesday". By then it is likely that those who had forwarded themselves for the party nomination for presidency will know if there is sufficient support for them within the party for them to proceed. Many will have drained their finances sufficiently to lead to them pulling out of the campaign.This is how the campaign runs using the Democratic Party as an example :Wards X, Y Z etc. vote for their presidential nomination for the town/city of Tahoe, California. Delegates, to represent their views at the party's state convention, are also elected. This is usually done only by active and registered party members.Delegates voted for within the town/city go to the party’s state convention and theoretically put forward the views of their city for presidential nomination. The delegates then vote for their nomination and that state will adopt politician A. For example, for the 1996 election, the Republican politician (and eventually the elected Republican candidate) Bob Dole received in his best showing 82% of the votes of Republican delegates in New Jersey. Clinton, as the Democrats unopposed nomination in 1996, received 100% of the delegates for Georgia, his home state…………..Delegates from the state party go to the party National Convention in August where all the state delegates assemble and vote for their party’s presidential nomination. The person who has a majority support amongst the delegates at the national convention wins the party’s backing for presidential nomination and the nomination for vice president is also voted for.But :It is not as clear cut or as simple as this.Each ward can use its own system of voting for delegates and presidential nomination. This is not standardised throughout America and is symptomatic of the democracy that is meant to seep throughout politics right down to grass roots level. The theory is "why should regional party ‘big-wigs’ dictate to us how we should run our local party structure?".The National Conventions are inflated delegate-wise with "super delegates" who have not been voted for at a local or state level but are people who have been rewarded by the party for loyalty and long service. These would include state governors, ex-presidents, senior civil servants etc. They can have a marked impact on the final voting of a national convention. That they do not necessarily reflect local party beliefs remains a source of contention in America.Regardless of this, the most basic requirement that a presidential candidate must have is support at grass roots level.This requires much travelling throughout the states and therefore a presidential candidate must have sufficient funds to see through a campaign. Winning the hearts and minds of local party activists is vital for a presidential candidate to proceed. They will vote for a candidate who has charisma and political know-how.In the 1996 election the former Chief of Staff, Colin Powell, who had made his name during the Gulf War, was expected by the media to announce his intention to run for the presidency. However, Powell did not do this despite his popularity amongst the public simply because he, by his own admission, did not possess sufficient political know-how; something that can only be gained with years of political service (though to some extent J F Kennedy bucked this trend).'Primary election' is the term used in America for the elections which will select the two parties presidential nomination. The primary elections start in January of election year in what is called the "primary season". A good start to the primaries is considered vital if a candidate is to become his party's presidential nomination - however, George W Bush bucked this trend in the 2000 primary season by making a poor start but ultimately winning the Republican Party's nomination.Since 1952 the first primary election has traditionally been in New Hampshire. It is the first real test of opinion and receives a great deal of publicity from the media. As a result a number of other states have tried to bring forward their primaries but the biggest contender to New Hampshire in terms of importance has been the decision by 21 mostly Southern states to hold their primaries on the same day in what has become known as "Super Tuesday". Originally this was on March 8th 1988, but it is now usually held on the second Tuesday of March in election year.There are a variety of ways in which the elections at a local level are held. These can almost be seen as the heats in an athletics meeting. If you win this you move on to the next one, the semi-finals (state party elections) and if you win this, on to the final itself. One is the caucus system. Others are the so-called primaries : closed primaries, open primaries and blanket primaries.Regardless of their title, the primaries are designed to give as much democracy as is deemed possible to local politics. This is not so true for the caucus system.CaucusesThe word "caucus" itself comes from the Native People of America and means "to gather together and make a great noise."This seems rather appropriate but this system of electing a presidential nominee is becoming less and less popular as it puts a great deal of power in the hands of local party bosses and the fear is that the beliefs of the people themselves at a local level are not necessarily listened to.By 1980 only 25% of the delegates to the national conventions (coming from 18 states) were voted for in this way. In 1988, only 16% of the Democrats delegates were selected in this manner while just under 21% of Republicans were. The figure has continued to shrink with only 12 Republican state parties using the caucus system in 1996 with the Democrats using it in only 14 states.What is a caucus?A caucus is a series of party meetings at every level of party organisation within a state; wards, precincts, districts and counties. At each level, party members vote for delegates who will take their opinions on the choice of presidential candidate forward to the next level. Ultimately the state conventions choose the delegates to the national convention.Caucus meetings tend to be dominated by party activists who are sufficiently committed to the party’s cause to take part in each stage. Supporters of the caucus system believe that it leads to the best candidate being selected. However, meetings are closed (i.e. not opened up to anyone other than a party member) and historically they were linked to a small group of men in Congress and in state legislatures who selected party candidates for national and state office including presidential candidates.As a result of this apparent lack of a democratic approach, fewer and fewer states are using this type of selection. Many feel that the system allows the local ‘big-wigs’ in politics to dominate a ward, precinct etc. and that any final choice of presidential candidate is not really representative of those at the caucus but purely the views of such political figures who dominate at a local level.What are primaries ?This system allows a broader participation of voters to express their views on who should represent the party at the next election. In some primaries you do not have to be a party member to vote.Closed primaries offer a greater degree of participation than caucuses in that voting is not confined to party members. Those voters who have declared an affiliation to a party are allowed to participate in that party’s primary. This declaration can literally be done as the voter enters the polling office with a statement that s/he voted for the Democrats at the last election and that they intend voting in this primary; assuming this was a Democrats primary !!Open primaries allow even greater participation. The voters of a state, regardless of their party affiliation, can participate in either party’s primary but not both. The advantage of this system is that it allows the most popular candidate to be put forward and one who will have appeal across party lines. This, of course, is an advantage. But the purely democratic nature of this system is open to abuse as in the past there have been cases whereby Democrats, for example, have legally voted at a Republican primary, though not at their own, but have voted for what was the worst candidate. The Republicans have done likewise at Democratic primaries. Twenty nine states use this system of voting.Blanket primaries offer the widest possible participation. Voters are allowed to vote in both primary elections of the parties - i.e. at both the Republican and Democrat primaries.States also vary in the way they allocate delegates to the presidential candidates. Some primaries use the 'winner-take-all' system (WTA) whereby the candidate who wins the most votes at a primary gets all of the delegates.The alternative system is the proportional representation primary (PR) which allocates delegates in proportion to the number of votes they received in the primary. The Democrats have used PR since 1969 in an effort to increase the voice of the minority groups and to broaden the appeal of the candidates. However in recent years the party has used WTA in larger primaries and some of the larger states favour such a system as they feel that WTA increases their political clout in the overall nomination process of the presidential candidate.Some primaries are also called "advisory primaries" as the elected delegates to the national convention do not have to follow the views of the voters and they are free to follow their own preference for presidential candidate. However, the voters have expressed their advice - hence the title - on the ballot paper.Other primaries are called "mandatory primaries" or "binding primaries" as the views of the voters with regards to the presidential candidate are binding on the delegates and the delegates at the national convention cast their votes accordingly.However, this was successfully challenged in 1982 when the Supreme Court declared that a state could not force a delegate to a national convention to support the winner of his/her state’s presidential primary (Democratic Party v La Follette).The primary season plays a very important role in American politics. While the caucus system was predominant, party bosses could effectively decide who the delegates voted for. This was hardly democratic but the man who was the favoured candidate had little to worry about with regards to the primary season. This quite obviously is no longer the case and the primaries now take far greater importance: for example, 77% of the votes cast by Republican delegates in 1988 came from those selected by primaries. Party leaders can no longer ignore these primaries.Sine 1952 the primary in the state of New Hampshire has been the first and most important as it gives an indication of public opinion with regards to the voters. A candidate must do well here as a failure to do so could mean a drastic fall in that candidate’s financial status as backers might pull out and potential backers would not wish to back a non-starter. Also a failure in the New Hampshire primary might just seal the fate of that candidate who might get labelled a failure even before the nomination contest has got underway.A failure will also do a lot to affect party support. New Hampshire has jealously guarded its position as the first state to declare who has won the party nominations and it has pushed the date of the primary election earlier and earlier. In fact, the state legislature has stated that the primary must be one week before any other state primary. In the 1996 election it was held in February. The election was in November.The next most important date is in March when "Super Tuesday" takes place. This is when 21 states declare their nominations. A candidate can be made or broken on this day. The first "Super Tuesday" was on 8th March 1988 and it is held on the second Tuesday in March. As most of the 21 states are southern, traditionally this is a good time for southern candidates. In 1992, Bill Clinton (Arkansas) won practically all the nominations available.In 1996, the mid-western states of Illinois, Michigan and Ohio held their primaries on the third Tuesday in March. This was done as an attempt to boost the importance of these three states which had been seen as something of a backwater politically.California is a vital state to win. Traditionally, its primary was held in June but in 1996, it was moved to March. Winning here is very important as the state sends 20% of all the delegates to both party’s national conventions. The move to March was meant to symbolise how important this state is politically regardless of "Super Tuesday". New York state has its primary in April. By then, America will have a reasonably good idea as to who the Democrats and Republicans nominations are.The so-called "primary season" requires candidates to involve themselves in an intensive media campaign. From February to the end of April there is no time to raise finance and this has to be done before the primaries. This need for finance allows the better known candidates more leeway as they will be better financed and therefore have more time to campaign. They are also likely to have built up a better rapport and connections with the media and they will be able to use it to their advantage.At this time the candidates are practically by themselves and they only receive party support when it is obvious that as a candidate they have the potential to attract public support across the nation. A candidate who is not viable is not going to receive this support. A candidate who does not have the necessary financial backing will find the going extremely tough as regional primaries such as in the mid-west are expensive and to keep a campaign in the field will cost a great deal. Candidates have to adhere to the financial regulations laid down by the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974.How well do incumbent presidents do in primaries ? Clinton did well enough to not be opposed at the 1996 Democratic National Convention. Other presidents who wish to stand again have not done as well. Lyndon Johnson in 1968, withdrew from the Democrat’s nomination process after doing badly at the New Hampshire primary. He won just over 50% of the votes cast and he was expected to do a lot better. He suffered on the backlash that was occurring against the Vietnam. Sensing a weakened candidate, Robert Kennedy, who had been Attorney-General under his brother, announced his entry into the race and Johnson withdrew his candidacy. History tends to indicate that recent presidents who seek re-election but experience a significant challenge in the primaries usually lose the election itself - Ford (1976), Carter (1980) and Bush (1992) seem to indicate this.

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美国选举制度美国总统选举实行间接选举制。首先由各州选民投票选出本州选举人（人数与本州国会议员人数相等），再由各州选举人同时在各州首府投票选举正、副总统。议员选举实行直接选举制。众议员由各州选民直接选举；参议员最初由各州议会选举，1913年生效的第17条宪法修正案规定，参议员也由各州选民直接选举。州长、议员和某些州的法官、重要行政官员都由选民选举产生。各级选举一般都由两党包办。为了保证两党的统治地位，一般实行单名选区制和多数代表制。【选民资格】凡年满18周岁的美国公民有选举权，除北达科他州外，其他州都规定，选民必须事先办理登记手续，方能参加投票。【候选人资格】宪法规定，凡年满25周岁、成为美国公民已7年者，均可竞选国会众议员；凡年满30周岁、成为美国公民已9年者，均可竞选国会参议员。但是候选人在参选时必须在选区居住（因此美国第一夫人希拉里为竞选纽约州参议员而临时移居纽约州）。【候选人产生办法】候选人的产生有许多方式，如党组织推荐、政治权势人物点名、利益集团推举，不过多数情况是毛遂自荐。如属于某一政党的候选人，则必须在某一党内的预选中击败党内其他对手，方赢得该党提名。在某些一党占压倒优势的国会选区内，赢得该党提名差不多就赢得了竞选。一般候选人通过预选的方式获得党内提名。预选制度的形成经过了一个多世纪的时间。美国在19世纪30年代形成了由政党代表大会提名候选人的制度，从那以后，大多数议员都由党内的秘密会议提名产生，而这种制度使议员人选往往由党魁所控制。1867年，宾夕法尼亚州的克劳福县首先采用直接预选的方法提名地方的公职候选人，即由两党的选民直接投票确定该政党提名的候选人。20世纪初，直接预选制度得到推广，到1917年，全国48个州中已有44个实行了某种形式的直接预选制。现在，美国所有50个州都采用直接预选的方法提名政党候选人。【参议员选举办法】国会参议员由各州直接选举产生，每州选举出2名参议员，共100人，任期6年，每两年改选三分之一，具体做法是将参议员分为3组，1组两年后改选，1组4年后改选，1组任满6年改选。基本分配原则是保证一个州的2位议员不要在同一年任期届满。如参议员在任期内死亡或辞职，州长应组织补选，除非该州立法机构授权州长指定一位参议员继任者，继任者可一直任职到下次大选，但大选中继任者只竞选其前任余下的任期，如一位参议员任期为6年，在第3年去世，继任者继任一年后参加大选，获选者任期只有2年。现在50个州中有49个州都授权州长指定参议员继任者，只有俄勒冈州是例外，必须经过补选选出参议员继任者。1866年以前，美国没有统一的联邦参议员选举制度，各州自行其是，大约半数州使用两院表决，即州议会两院以院为单位分别选举，直到两院各以过半数票选出同一人士为联邦参议员，这种制度的弊端是两院常常陷入僵局，以致国会开会后几个月，参议院的有些州议席还空缺。另外半数州使用“联席投票制”，即州议会两院议员一起投票，获多数票者当选。各州自行其是的选举制度给国会选举带来不少混乱。1866年7月，参议院司法委员会向全院提交报告，建议国会通过法律，统一参议员选举制度。国会两院迅速通过了有关议案。新的参议员选举方式为：州议会两院分别投票，采用口头表决方式选举参议员，次日，两院应举行联席会议，清点两院表决结果，如果两院分别以过半数票选举同一人为联邦参议员，应即行宣布该人当选；如没有一个同时获得两院过半数者，该州议会两院应在同一会期每天中午12点，至少每日一次地举行联席投票，直至选出联邦参议员。这种通过间接选举的办法选举联邦参议员的做法一直沿用到1913年。1913年，三分之二的州批准宪法第17条修正案，规定合众国参议员由每州人民选举，即在州议会选举参议员前先由该州选民预选，州议会的选举实质上只是对预选结果加盖公章。目前，美国有48个州参议员选举只须一次投票，获得简单多数者就可以当选，只有佐治亚州和路易斯安那州是例外。参议员选举投票是非强制性的。【众议员选举办法】美国宪法将众议员的选举原则规定为：国会众议员依据各州人口比例分配名额选出，众议员与人口的比例不得超过1∶3万（即每位众议员至少须代表3万选民），但每个州至少应有1名众议员。美国人口普查每10年进行一次，依普查结果重新分配众议院议席。如按此比例，美国国会现在议员数将高达7000人。现在的435位议员数是按1910年第13次人口普查结果定下的。在第87届国会时曾又给阿拉斯加和夏威夷各一个名额，使众议院有437名议员，但人们普遍认为像英国平民院那样拥有650个议员的立法机构太庞大、太笨重了，不希望再增加众议员数额，因此1929年国会将众议员总数固定为435名后不再随人口增加名额。美国宪法规定众议员所代表的选民数不得少于3万，但实践中发现这个规定范围太宽。与最高法院通过案例确定的“尽量使每一位议员与其他议员所代表的选民数相当”原则不相符。因此最高法院又通过一个案例裁决划分选区时要使各选区人口比例差额不超过3.1%。1967年美国又通过法律取消了所有以州为单位选举众议员的办法，即如果给某一州分配了3个名额，该州必须在本州划分3个选区，每个选区选出一位议员，而不得全州选民集体投票选出3名议员，当然若该州只有一个名额的除外。现行的众议院议席分配中加利福尼亚州的议席数最多，为52席；纽约州其次，为31席；阿拉斯加等7个州各有1席；仅有14个州的议席数超过10席。众议院除有各州选出的议员外还有从波多黎各自由邦来的属地代表（Resident Commissioner），哥伦比亚特区、美属萨摩亚、关岛、美属维尔京群岛的列席代表（delegates），这些派驻众议院的代表享有大部分众议员的权力，只是不能投票表决。【选举的管理】联邦竞选法规定由联邦选举委员会管理有关选举事务。联邦选举委员会由6人组成，他们经总统提名，由参议院认可产生。联邦选举委员会专门执行联邦选举管理法，对违法行为提起公诉。根据联邦竞选法规定，任何个人在同一年内，对同一竞选人的捐款不得超过1000美元，对所有候选人的捐款不得超过25000美元，对同一政治行动委员会的捐款不得超过5000美元，对同一政党的全国委员会捐款不得超过20000美元。任何政治行动委员会在一年内对同一候选人的捐款不得超过5000美元，对同一政党的全国委员会捐款不得超过15000美元，参议院的民主党、共和党两个参议员选举委员会对同一候选人的捐款不得超过17500美元。虽然法律对竞选经费进行了严格的控制，但实际中还是存在着很大的漏洞。捐赠者往往通过捐软钱（soft money）的方式回避法律的约束（美国法律对选民将钱捐赠用于支持某一政策的数额没有限制，但实际上一项政策很可能就是某一位候选人倡导的，因此捐钱支持一项政策与支持该候选人并无区别)。每个候选人必须在选举前10天或选举后30天内向联邦选举委员会报告所收到的捐款和竞选开销，其中包括所有捐款在100美元以上的捐款人的姓名、通讯处和职业。【选举的种类】选举分大选年选举、中期选举和补选等。大选年选举为4年一度的总统大选年的国会选举，届时，总统选举和国会选举同期举行；中期选举指两次大选年之间的第二年举行的国会选举。议员任期未满而辞职、死亡或被所属议院驱逐等形成空缺时举行的选举为补缺选举。【议员构成】在现任参议院100席中，共和党占55席，民主党占45席。众议院435个席位中共和党占223席，民主党211席，独立候选人1席。参议院中共有9名女议员，众议院有58名女议员。绝大多数国会议员为男性，白人，受过良好教育，中年，中等或中上等收入家庭出身。按职业划分，出身律师的最多，在众议院占40%以上，在参议院占60%以上；其次是企业家和银行家，真正来自工会的或蓝领的议员很少。【连选连任】美国对总统的任职规定了连选连任不得超过两届的限制，但对议员的任期未作任何限制。事实上，美国议员的连选连任率相当高，众议院有92%再度竞选的议员获得连任，参议院也有75%。在普通的大选中，众议院有50～70个席位的议员几乎不需作任何竞选努力就可当然连任。在任者能较容易地连任成功的原因主要有：1.可利用的资源较对手多。可以在电视、广播、集会上发表演讲，让选民了解、熟悉（选民在投票时，往往会更倾向于投给自己比较了解的人）；也可通过助手向选民发信，加强联系，让选民记住；更可以利用自己的职位为选区谋福利，让选民感激。2.在任者较其对手更容易获得竞选资助。美国的总统选举制度(一)美国的总统选举根据美国宪法的规定，美国实行总统制，行政权属于总统。国家元首和政府首脑职权集中于总统一人。总统兼任武装部队总司令。总统不对国会负责。总统由每四年举行一次的大选选出，任期四年，并可连任一次。美国总统选举的过程漫长而复杂，主要包括预选、总统候选人提名、竞选运动、全国选举、选举团投票表决以及当选总统就职仪式。预选阶段通常于大选年2月份的第3个星期二在新罕布什尔州拉开帷幕，到6月份结束。此后，美国民主、共和两大政党将分别在全国大多数州选出参加本党全国代表大会的代表。在少数不举行预选的州，则由两党的州委员会或代表大会选拔代表。因新罕布什尔州率先进行预选，其选举结果对其他各州影响很大。美国两大政党的全国代表大会通常在7月和8月分别举行。届时，参加代表大会的各州代表将投票选出本党总统后选人，然后通过由总统候选人提名的副总统候选人，并正式选举出竞选纲领。大会往往长达数天，投票上百次。代表大会结束后，选出的总统候选人即开始在全国展开历时数月的争取选票的竞选运动，其中包括到各州作竞选旅行、广泛会见选民、发表电视演说、进行电视辩论等。总统候选人为竞选而耗费巨资，使尽各种招数。美国法律规定：在全国选举时，选民要在大选年的11月第二个星期二到指定地点投票，在两个总统候选人之间作出选择。全国选举还要通过选举团的投票表决。由于在一个州中获得选票最多的总统候选人便赢得该州全部选举人票，因此一般情况下选举只是例行公事。(二)美国副总统是如何产生的在美国政治中，副总统不担任实际工作。他的公务是担任国会参议院主席，但这主要是礼仪性的，因为他只有在参议院表决时赞成票和反对票相等情况下才投票。副总统的日常工作通常根据总统的要求而定，一般无足轻重，如代表总统参加外国领导人的葬礼活动等。根据美国宪法，如果总统去世或失去工作能力，副总统接任总统职位。先当副总统是登上美国总统宝座的途径之一。第二次世界大战以来，有三位副总统在总统任期内接任总统职务。杜鲁门因罗斯福去世，约翰逊因肯尼迪遇剌，福特因尼克松下台而分别继任总统。此外，有几位副总统还当过总统候选人，其中包括尼克松、汉弗莱、蒙代尔和布什。美国副总统不是由美国公众直接选出的，而是由民主党和共和党的总统候选人挑选并经两党全国代表大会选举产生。总统候选人在选择副总统候选人时首先要考虑此人的政治资历和条件，但主要看他在党内代表哪部分势力以便取得平衡，尽可能争取最大多数选民的支持。但大选结果不取决于总统候选人对副总统的选择，而是取决于总统候选人。1988年美国大选期间，许多美国人认为共和党总统候选人布什的竞选伙伴奎尔太年轻、不老练、不值得考虑，而认为民主党总统候选人杜卡基斯的竞选伙伴本特森经验丰富、深孚众望。但大选结果，布什获胜当上了总统，奎尔自然也成为副总统。副总统候选人通常是国会议员，但参议员被挑选为副总统候选人的机会较大。原因是参议员一旦当选副总统，就担任参议院主席，这可加强总统与参议院的联系。(三)美国总统选举的预选阶段预选即初选，是美国总统选举的第一阶段。通常从2月到6月为预选阶段。在这一阶段里主要是选举出参加各党的全国代表大会的代表，各党的总统候选人最后在党的全国代表大会上产生。目前，美国大多数州实行直接预选的方式，通过选民投票的方式直接选出参加该党全国代表大会的代表，选民也可以直接对总统竞选人表态。由于全国代表大会的代表明确表示支持哪位总统竞选人，所以投票结果就能清楚地知道各位总统竞选人的支持率。今年2月1日在新罕布什尔州举行的就是这种预选。另一种预选形式叫“干部会议”(或称“基层会议”)，由两党在一个州的各个选举点分别举行党的基层会议，由支持本党的选民当场表态支持谁当本党总统候选人，并选出出席县一级代表会议的代表。然后，县代表会议选出州代表会议的代表，州代表会议选出全国代表大会代表，最终由全国代表大会决定本党的总统候选人。1月24日在艾奥瓦州举行的就是这种预选。艾奥瓦是全国第一个召开党的代表会议的州，新罕布什尔是第一个举行直接预选的州。两州的预选起着“风向标”和“晴雨表”的作用，选举结果将影响以后其他各州的预选，因此，对候选人的成败至关重要。每个州的预选活动，不管是采取预选还是预选会议的形式，一般都只允许明确表示自己是民主党人或共和党人的选民参加，不明确自己党派立场的选民不能参加。即使是前一部分选民，实际上也只有一小部分参加。(四)美国总统届、任、位的区分美国大选常常涉及到美国总统的“届”、“任”和“位”这三个含义不同的概念。关于“届”，美国宪法规定，总统选举4年一次，总统任满4年为一届。如果总统在任期内因故未能满任，另由他人接任，这两位总统为同一届总统。关于“任”，是指担任总统职位的次数。一人担任几届总统职务，仍为一任。但一人在不连续的几届总统选举中先后几次当选，当选几次就算几任。关于“位”，指担任过总统的实际人数。美国从开始选举总统至今，不论是连选连任，还是先后几次当选，不重复计算，有几位算几位。如此计算下来，比尔·克林顿为第52届、第42任和第41位美国总统。