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网络保险 Internet Insurance Network insuranceNet Insurance保险学 Insurance , in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of a contingent loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium. An insurer is a company selling the insurance. The insurance rate is a factor used to determine the amount, called the premium, to be charged for a certain amount of insurance coverage. Risk management, the practice of appraising and controlling risk, has evolved as a discrete field of study and of insuranceA large number of homogeneous exposure units. The vast majority of insurance policies are provided for individual members of very large classes. Automobile insurance, for example, covered about 175 million automobiles in the United States in 2004.[2] The existence of a large number of homogeneous exposure units allows insurers to benefit from the so-called “law of large numbers,” which in effect states that as the number of exposure units increases, the actual results are increasingly likely to become close to expected results. There are exceptions to this criterion. Lloyd's of London is famous for insuring the life or health of actors, actresses and sports figures. Satellite Launch insurance covers events that are infrequent. Large commercial property policies may insure exceptional properties for which there are no ‘homogeneous’ exposure units. Despite failing on this criterion, many exposures like these are generally considered to be insurable. Definite Loss. The event that gives rise to the loss that is subject to insurance should, at least in principle, take place at a known time, in a known place, and from a known cause. The classic example is death of an insured on a life insurance policy. Fire, automobile accidents, and worker injuries may all easily meet this criterion. Other types of losses may only be definite in theory. Occupational disease, for instance, may involve prolonged exposure to injurious conditions where no specific time, place or cause is identifiable. Ideally, the time, place and cause of a loss should be clear enough that a reasonable person, with sufficient information, could objectively verify all three elements. Accidental Loss. The event that constitutes the trigger of a claim should be fortuitous, or at least outside the control of the beneficiary of the insurance. The loss should be ‘pure,’ in the sense that it results from an event for which there is only the opportunity for cost. Events that contain speculative elements, such as ordinary business risks, are generally not considered insurable. Large Loss. The size of the loss must be meaningful from the perspective of the insured. Insurance premiums need to cover both the expected cost of losses, plus the cost of issuing and administering the policy, adjusting losses, and supplying the capital needed to reasonably assure that the insurer will be able to pay claims. For small losses these latter costs may be several times the size of the expected cost of losses. There is little point in paying such costs unless the protection offered has real value to a buyer. Affordable Premium. If the likelihood of an insured event is so high, or the cost of the event so large, that the resulting premium is large relative to the amount of protection offered, it is not likely that anyone will buy insurance, even if on offer. Further, as the accounting profession formally recognizes in financial accounting standards, the premium cannot be so large that there is not a reasonable chance of a significant loss to the insurer. If there is no such chance of loss, the transaction may have the form of insurance, but not the substance. (See the . Financial Accounting Standards Board standard number 113) Calculable Loss. There are two elements that must be at least estimable, if not formally calculable: the probability of loss, and the attendant cost. Probability of loss is generally an empirical exercise, while cost has more to do with the ability of a reasonable person in possession of a copy of the insurance policy and a proof of loss associated with a claim presented under that policy to make a reasonably definite and objective evaluation of the amount of the loss recoverable as a result of the claim. Limited risk of catastrophically large losses. The essential risk is often aggregation. If the same event can cause losses to numerous policyholders of the same insurer, the ability of that insurer to issue policies becomes constrained, not by factors surrounding the individual characteristics of a given policyholder, but by the factors surrounding the sum of all policyholders so exposed. Typically, insurers prefer to limit their exposure to a loss from a single event to some small portion of their capital base, on the order of 5 percent. Where the loss can be aggregated, or an individual policy could produce exceptionally large claims, the capital constraint will restrict an insurers appetite for additional policyholders. The classic example is earthquake insurance, where the ability of an underwriter to issue a new policy depends on the number and size of the policies that it has already underwritten. Wind insurance in hurricane zones, particularly along coast lines, is another example of this phenomenon. In extreme cases, the aggregation can affect the entire industry, since the combined capital of insurers and reinsurers can be small compared to the needs of potential policyholders in areas exposed to aggregation risk. In commercial fire insurance it is possible to find single properties whose total exposed value is well in excess of any individual insurer’s capital constraint. Such properties are generally shared among several insurers, or are insured by a single insurer who syndicates the risk into the reinsurance market. [edit] IndemnificationMain article: IndemnityThe technical definition of "indemnity" means to make whole again. There are two types of insurance contracts; 1) an "indemnity" policy and 2) a "pay on behalf" or "on behalf of"[3] policy. The difference is significant on paper, but rarely material in "indemnity" policy will never pay claims until the insured has paid out of pocket to some third party; . a visitor to your home slips on a floor that you left wet and sues you for $10,000 and wins. Under an "indemnity" policy the homeowner would have to come up with the $10,000 to pay for the visitors fall and then would be "indemnified" by the insurance carrier for the out of pocket costs (the $10,000)[4].Under the same situation, a "pay on behalf" policy, the insurance carrier would pay the claim and the insured (the homeowner) would not be out of pocket for anything. Most modern liability insurance is written on the basis of "pay on behalf" language[5].An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type, etc.) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a contract, called an insurance 'policy'. Generally, an insurance contract includes, at a minimum, the following elements: the parties (the insurer, the insured, the beneficiaries), the premium, the period of coverage, the particular loss event covered, the amount of coverage (., the amount to be paid to the insured or beneficiary in the event of a loss), and exclusions (events not covered). An insured is thus said to be "indemnified" against the loss events covered in the insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the covered amount of loss as specified by the policy. The fee paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many insureds are used to fund accounts reserved for later payment of claims—in theory for a relatively few claimants—and for overhead costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses (., reserves), the remaining margin is an insurer's profit.[edit] Insurer’s business modelProfit = earned premium + investment income - incurred loss - underwriting make money in two ways: (1) through underwriting, the process by which insurers select the risks to insure and decide how much in premiums to charge for accepting those risks and (2) by investing the premiums they collect from most difficult aspect of the insurance business is the underwriting of policies. Using a wide assortment of data, insurers predict the likelihood that a claim will be made against their policies and price products accordingly. To this end, insurers use actuarial science to quantify the risks they are willing to assume and the premium they will charge to assume them. Data is analyzed to fairly accurately project the rate of future claims based on a given risk. Actuarial science uses statistics and probability to analyze the risks associated with the range of perils covered, and these scientific principles are used to determine an insurer's overall exposure. Upon termination of a given policy, the amount of premium collected and the investment gains thereon minus the amount paid out in claims is the insurer's underwriting profit on that policy. Of course, from the insurer's perspective, some policies are winners (., the insurer pays out less in claims and expenses than it receives in premiums and investment income) and some are losers (., the insurer pays out more in claims and expenses than it receives in premiums and investment income).An insurer's underwriting performance is measured in its combined ratio. The loss ratio (incurred losses and loss-adjustment expenses divided by net earned premium) is added to the expense ratio (underwriting expenses divided by net premium written) to determine the company's combined ratio. The combined ratio is a reflection of the company's overall underwriting profitability. A combined ratio of less than 100 percent indicates underwriting profitability, while anything over 100 indicates an underwriting companies also earn investment profits on “float”. “Float” or available reserve is the amount of money, at hand at any given moment, that an insurer has collected in insurance premiums but has not been paid out in claims. Insurers start investing insurance premiums as soon as they are collected and continue to earn interest on them until claims are paid the United States, the underwriting loss of property and casualty insurance companies was $ billion in the five years ending 2003. But overall profit for the same period was $ billion, as the result of float. Some insurance industry insiders, most notably Hank Greenberg, do not believe that it is forever possible to sustain a profit from float without an underwriting profit as well, but this opinion is not universally held. Naturally, the “float” method is difficult to carry out in an economically depressed period. Bear markets do cause insurers to shift away from investments and to toughen up their underwriting standards. So a poor economy generally means high insurance premiums. This tendency to swing between profitable and unprofitable periods over time is commonly known as the "underwriting" or insurance cycle. [6]Property and casualty insurers currently make the most money from their auto insurance line of business. Generally better statistics are available on auto losses and underwriting on this line of business has benefited greatly from advances in computing. Additionally, property losses in the US, due to natural catastrophes, have exacerbated this , claims and loss handling is the materialized utility of insurance. In managing the claims-handling function, insurers seek to balance the elements of customer satisfaction, administrative handling expenses, and claims overpayment leakages. As part of this balancing act, fraudulent insurance practices are a major business risk that must be managed and of insuranceAny risk that can be quantified can potentially be insured. Specific kinds of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". An insurance policy will set out in detail which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Below are (non-exhaustive) lists of the many different types of insurance that exist. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the categories set forth below. For example, auto insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the . typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's insurance can be any kind of insurance that protects businesses against risks. Some principal subtypes of business insurance are (a) the various kinds of professional liability insurance, also called professional indemnity insurance, which are discussed below under that name; and (b) the business owners policy (BOP), which bundles into one policy many of the kinds of coverage that a business owner needs, in a way analogous to how homeowners insurance bundles the coverages that a homeowner needs.[7]HealthHealth insurance policies will often cover the cost of private medical treatments if the National Health Service in the United Kingdom (NHS) or other publicly-funded health programs do not pay for them. It will often result in quicker health care where better facilities are available. Dental insurance, like medical insurance, is coverage for individuals to protect them against dental costs. In the ., dental insurance is often part of an employer's benefits package, along with health insurance. Most countries rely on public funding to ensure that all citizens have universal access to health care.[edit] DisabilityDisability insurance policies provide financial support in the event the policyholder is unable to work because of disabling illness or injury. It provides monthly support to help pay such obligations as mortgages and credit cards. Total permanent disability insurance insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. Disability overhead insurance allows business owners to cover the overhead expenses of their business while they are unable to work. Workers' compensation insurance replaces all or part of a worker's wages lost and accompanying medical expense incurred because of a job-related injury. CasualtyCasualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific insurance is a form of casualty insurance that covers the policyholder against losses arising from the criminal acts of third parties. For example, a company can obtain crime insurance to cover losses arising from theft or embezzlement. Political risk insurance is a form of casualty insurance that can be taken out by businesses with operations in countries in which there is a risk that revolution or other political conditions will result in a loss. [edit] Life insuranceMain article: Life insuranceLife insurance provides a monetary benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for income to an insured person's family, burial, funeral and other final expenses. Life insurance policies often allow the option of having the proceeds paid to the beneficiary either in a lump sum cash payment or an provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance and require the same kinds of actuarial and investment management expertise that life insurance requires. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance and, from an underwriting perspective, are the mirror image of life life insurance contracts accumulate cash values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and endowment policies, are financial instruments to accumulate or liquidate wealth when it is many countries, such as the . and the UK, the tax law provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of saving as well as protection in the event of early ., the tax on interest income on life insurance policies and annuities is generally deferred. However, in some cases the benefit derived from tax deferral may be offset by a low return. This depends upon the insuring company, the type of policy and other variables (mortality, market return, etc.). Moreover, other income tax saving vehicles (., IRAs, 401(k) plans, Roth IRAs) may be better alternatives for value accumulation. A combination of low-cost term life insurance and a higher-return tax-efficient retirement account may achieve better investment insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance.字数超限了。。。
(美)康斯坦斯·M.卢瑟亚特()等著,英勇,于小东总译校.财产与责任保险原理[M]. 北京大学出版社, 2003 (美)小哈罗德·斯凯博()等编著,荆涛等译.国际风险与保险[M]. 机械工业出版社, 1999 (美)所罗门·许布纳()等著,陈欣等译.财产和责任保险[M]. 中国人民大学出版社, 2002 【英】Malcolm A. Clarke 著、 何美欢、吴志攀等译：《保险合同法》，北京大学出版社 2002 年版。 Mckendrick :“Contract Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2003 年版。 H. Whincup：“Contract Law and Practice—the EnglishSystem and Continental Comparisons” 中信出版社,2003 年版。 F. Dobbyn : “Insurance Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2001年版。 Lowry , Philip Rawlings : “Insurance Law :Doctrines andPrinciples” , Hart Publishing Ltd. (1999). Hodgin :“Insurance Law :Text and Materials” (SecondEdition) Cavendish Publishing Limited (2002) . L. Emanuel：“Contracts”，中信出版社 2003 年版。 A. Eisenberg:“Disclosure in Contract Law”，91 CaliforniaLaw Review （2003）. T. Kronman :“Mistake, Disclosure, Information, and theLaw of Contracts”,7(1) Journal of Legal Studies (1978). J :“Insurer’s breach of good faith——a newtort?”,(1992) 108 LQR 35.这些都是比较好的
20000字左右？报酬也太低点了吧？建议你还是到专业汽车、保险等网站、论坛上去找吧！
Insurance, in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of potential financial loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care. there are a few principles of insurance, which are considered as the uncertain losses, the predictable rate and distribution of losses,the sinificant of loss and the loss must be catastrophic. A property or liability insurance policy is a "personal contract," a "conditional contract," a "unilateral contract," a "contract of adhesion," a "contract of indemnity," and a contract which requires that the person insured have an insurable interest at the time of the insured-against contingency. Further: An Insurance Contract is one of Uberrima fides. This is a Latin phrase meaning "utmost good faith" (or translated literally, "most abundant faith"). It is the name of a legal doctrine which governs insurance contracts. This means that all parties to an insurance contract must deal in good faith, making a full declaration of all material facts in the insurance proposal. This contrasts with the legal doctrine of caveat emptor (let the buyer beware). An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a contract, defined as an insurance 'policy'. This legal contract sets out terms and conditions specifying the amount of coverage (compensation) to be rendered to the insured, by the insurer upon assumption of risk, in the event of a loss, and all the specific perils covered against (indemnified), for the term of the contract. When insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the amount of loss as specified by the policy contract. The fee paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many clients are used to fund accounts set aside for later payment of claims—in theory for a relatively few claimants—and for overhead costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses, the remaining margin becomes their profit. Insurers make money in two ways. Through underwriting, the process through which insurers select what risks to insure and decide how much premium to charge for accepting those risks and by investing the premiums they have collected from insureds Some people consider insurance a type of wager (particularly as associated with moral hazard) that executes over the policy period. The insurance company bets that you or your property will not suffer a loss while you put money on the opposite outcome. The difference in the fees paid to the insurance company versus the amount for which they can be held liable if an accident happens is roughly analogous to the odds one might expect when betting on a racehorse (for example, 10 to 1). For this reason, a number of religious groups, including the Amish and some Muslim groups, avoid insurance and instead depend on support provided by their communities when disasters strike. This can be thought of as "social insurance," as the risk of any given person is assumed collectively by the community who will all bear the cost of rebuilding. In closed, supportive communities where others can be trusted to step in to rebuild lost property, this arrangement can work. Any risk that can be quantified probably has a type of insurance to protect it. Among the different types of insurance are: Automobile insurance, also known as auto insurance, car insurance and in the UK as motor insurance, is probably the most common form of insurance and may cover both legal liability claims against the driver and loss of or damage to the vehicle itself. Over most of the United States purchasing an auto insurance policy is required to legally operate a motor vehicle on public roads. Recommendations for which policy limits should be used are specified in a number of books. In some jurisdictions, bodily injury compensation for automobile accident victims has been changed to No Fault systems, which reduce or eliminate the ability to sue for compensation but provide automatic eligibility for benefits. Boiler insurance (also known as Boiler and Machinery insurance or Equipment Breakdown Insurance) Casualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property. Credit insurance pays some or all of a loan back when certain things happen to the borrower such as unemployment, disability, or death. Financial loss insurance protects individuals and companies against various financial risks. For example, a business might purchase cover to protect it from loss of sales if a fire in a factory prevented it from carrying out its business for a time. Insurance might also cover failure of a creditor to pay money it owes to the insured. Fidelity bonds and surety bonds are included in this category. Health insurance covers medical bills incurred because of sickness or accidents. Liability insurance covers legal claims against the insured. For example, a homeowner's insurance policy provides the insured with protection in the event of a claim brought by someone who slips and falls on the property, and brings a lawsuit for her injuries. Similarly, a doctor may purchase liability insurance to cover any legal claims against him if his negligence (carelessness) in treating a patient caused the patient injury and/or monetary harm. The protection offered by a liability insurance policy is two-fold: a legal defense in the event of a lawsuit commenced against the policyholder, plus indemnification (payment on behalf of the insured) with respect to a settlement or court verdict. Life insurance provides a cash benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for burial, funeral and other final expenses. Annuities provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance. Total permanent disability insurance insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. Locked Funds Insurance is a little known hybrid insurance policy jointly issued by governments and banks. It is used to protect public funds from tamper by unauthorised parties. In special cases, a government may authorise its use in protecting semi-private funds which are liable to tamper. Terms of this type of insurance are usually very strict. As such it is only used in extreme cases where maximum security of funds is required. Marine Insurance covers the loss or damage of goods at sea. Marine insurance typically compensates the owner of merchandise for losses sustained from fire, shipwreck, etc., but excludes losses that can be recovered from the carrier. Nuclear incident insurance — damages resulting from an incident involving radioactivive materials is generally arranged at the national level. (For the United States, see Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act.) Environmental Liability Insurance protects the insured from bodily injury, property damage and cleanup costs as a result of the dispersal, release or escape of a pollutant. Political risk insurance can be taken out by businesses with operations in countries in which there is a risk that revolution or other political conditions will result in a loss. Professional Indemnity Insurance is normally a mandatory requirement for professional practitioners such as Architects, Lawyers, Doctors and Accountants to provide insurance cover against potential negligence claims. Non licensed professionals may also purchase malpractice insurance, it is commonly called Errors and Omissions Insurance and covers a service provider for claims made against them that arise out of the performance of specified professional services. For instance, a web site designer can obtain E&O insurance to cover them for certain claims made by third parties that arise out of negligent performance of web site development services. Property insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance. Terrorism insurance Title insurance provides a guarantee that title to real property is vested in the purchaser and/or mortgagee, free and clear of liens or encumbrances. It is usually issued in conjunction with a search of the public records done at the time of a real estate transaction. Travel insurance is an insurance cover taken by those who travel abroad, which covers certain losses such as medical expenses, lost of personal belongings, travel delay, personal liabilities.. etc. Workers' compensation insurance replaces all or part of a worker's wages lost and accompanying medical expense incurred due to a job-related injury. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the above categories. For example, car insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from say, causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the . typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property. Potential sources of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". Examples of perils might be fire, theft, earthquake, hurricane and many other potential risks. An insurance policy will set out in details which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Insurance companies may be classified as Life insurance companies, who sell life insurance, annuities and pensions products. Non-life or general insurance companies, who sell other types of insurance. In most countries, life and non-life insurers are subject to different regulations, tax and accounting rules. The main reason for the distinction between the two types of company is that life business is very long term in nature — coverage for life assurance or a pension can cover risks over many decades. By contrast, non-life insurance cover usually covers a shorter period, such as one year.
失业保险金的英文：
Unemployment insurance benefits
参考例句：
The number of people who did not draw unemployment insurance money was million in 2001.
2001年末领取失业保险金的人数为312万人。unemployment是什么意思：
n. 失业，失业人数
Article19 The unemployed who receive medical treatment during the period of receiving unemployment insurance compensation, may apply for medical subvention from social insurance agencies.
第十九条失业人员在领取失业保险金期间患病就医的，可以按照规定向社会保险经办机构申请领取医疗补助金。 We should posit unemployed.
我们应安置未聘人员。The workshop has shut down and the workers are unemployed.
作坊关闭后工人失业了。insurance是什么意思：
n. 保险；保险费；预防措施
The amount of a claim on an insurer by an insured.
险损赔偿额保险人从承保人获得的赔偿数量。An insurance company will insure your house against fire.
保险公司愿为你的房屋保火险。I have insured my car with a Japanese insurance company
我已向一家日本保险公司投了我的汽车保险。benefits是什么意思：
n. 利益，好处；救济金，津贴；利润
v. 有益于，受益
benefit of the doubt
裁判员对可疑情况无把握时不对有关运动员作不利判定 It is possible to overstate the benefits of stabilization.
稳定性带来的好处有可能被夸大。The flowers were a fringe benefit.
这些鲜花可算是额外的报酬。
1 “五统一”结出统筹硕果——河南省新乡市推进失业保险市级统筹纪实 中国劳动保障 2007/01 2 从保障生活到促进就业——国外失业保险制度改革综述 中国劳动保障 2007/01 3 我国失业保险制度存在的问题及对策研究 经济师 2007/02 4 失业保险基金审计的难点及其解决途径 会计之友(上) 2007/02 5 国外改革失业保险促进就业措施 中国劳动 2007/01 6 论转型期中国失业保险制度的完善 法制与社会 2007/02 7 浅析中国失业保险制度 北方经贸 2007/01 8 美国失业保险管理体制及其对我国的借鉴 湖北经济学院学报(人文社会科学版) 2007/01 9 论我国失业保险立法的完善 牡丹江师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 2007/01 10 美国失业保险:特点、绩效与问题 上海保险 2007/02 11 从福利到工作:中国失业保险制度的理性选择 沈阳大学学报 2007/01 12 失业保险递减支付与固定支付模式的比较研究 中国海洋大学学报(社会科学版) 2007/02 13 西方失业保险理论:评述与启示 江西财经大学学报 2007/02 14 农民工能享受失业保险待遇吗 农业知识 2007/08 15 国外失业保险在促进就业方面采取的措施及对我国的启示 人口与经济 2007/S1 16 试论失业保险与养老保险的合并 市场周刊(理论研究) 2007/03 17 对建立大学生失业保险制度的思考 陕西青年职业学院学报 2007/01 18 大处着眼 小处着手——试论当前失业保险工作需要破解的问题 中国劳动保障 2007/04 19 高新科技管理 “四化”开路——湖南省平江县劳动就业服务局失业保险改革创新纪实 中国劳动保障 2007/04 20 对非公有制经济单位参加失业保险问题的思考和对策建议 探索与创新——浙江省劳动保障理论研究论文选集（第四辑） 200521 中国现阶段失业保险问题研究 东北师范大学 2006 中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库 22 中国失业保险制度：反思与重构 厦门大学 2006 23 我国现行失业保险制度存在的主要问题 经济研究参考 2007/24 24 失业保险制度要破三大难题 了望 2007/23 25 我国目前失业保险政策存在的缺陷及修改建议 企业技术开发 2007/05 26 失业保险基金缴费低的成因及其对策 审计月刊 2007/02 27 失业保险制度促进就业功能综合评价 社会科学论坛(学术研究卷) 2007/04 28 刍议大学生失业保险制度的建立 新西部(下半月) 2007/06 29 改革终结收支倒挂——江苏省兴化市失业保险改革纪实 中国劳动保障 2007/06 30 浅谈我国失业保险存在的主要问题 甘肃科技 2007/05 31 美国失业保险的最新改革举措 红旗文稿 2007/09 32 借鉴国外经验 完善我国失业保险制度 中国集体经济(下半月) 2007/04 33 我国流动人口的失业保险问题探讨 无锡商业职业技术学院学报 2007/03 34 农四师农牧团场职工失业保险问题研究 新疆农业科学 2007/S2 35 失业保险混合策略模型与政策建议 合作经济与科技 2007/13 36 保障失业人员基本生活 促进全市经济发展 海门市实施城乡统一失业保险制度 中国劳动 2007/06 37 农民工能享受失业保险待遇吗? 人才资源开发 2007/05 38 黑龙江省失业保险条例 佳木斯政报 2007/03 39 失业保险法律关系概念探析 社会科学家 2007/03 40 对我国失业保险法律制度的思考 天府新论 2007/S1
我国社会保障制度存在的问题与对策研究一、社会保障的内容和功能《中共中央关于建立社会主义市场经济体制若干问题的决定》中指出：社会保障体系包括社会保险、社会救助、社会福利、优抚安置、社会互助和个人储蓄积累保障。并指出，发展商业保险，作为社会保障的补充。其中，社会保险是核心，社会救助属于最低层次的社会保障，社会福利是社会保障的最高层次，优抚安置起着安定特定阶层的生活的功能。这是对我国社会保障体系全面而具体的阐述。社会保障制度在现代社会中具有举足轻重的作用，被誉为社会的。稳定器”、经济运行的。减震器”、实现社会公平的。调节器”。相应地。社会保障具有以下主要功能：保障基本生活，维护社会稳定；调节经济运行，促进经济发展；实现社会的公平。二、我国社会保障制度特点及缺失（一）社会保障费用的增长速度向低于经济发展速度转变社会保障费用的增速度应低于经济的增长速度，两者保持一种适当的比例，这样才有利于经济持续增长与社会稳定。由于我国原有社会保障严重滞后于经济发展，社会保障费用自改革开放以来一直是以超过经济增长的速度发展。但随着经济的发展，生产力水平的进一步提高，它应逐渐转为低于经济发展速度。（二）社会保障水平地区发展不平衡我国经济发展呈东、中、西梯度发展态势，东部地区经济发展水平明显高于中西部地区。社会保障的地区发展亦极不平衡。发达地区人均全年离退休金比欠发达地区高。经济发达地区与欠发达地区的城乡社会保障水平差距也是前者远比后者高。社会保障的地区差异与经济发展水平之间的内在联系，说明要提高社会保障水平必须大力发展经济，提高经济效益。但是在短期内这种地区发展的极不平衡性还不会有很大的改变.而且还可能扩大，经济发达的沿海地区的社会保障水平高于西北、西南边远区仍然是大趋势。（三）二元经济结构决定我国社会保障的二元化格局我国近60%人口在农村，但农业所创造的国民收入仅占国民收入总额的30%。而近40%的城市人口却创造国民收人的70%。发达的城市经济与欠发达的农村经济同时并存，现代工业与传统农业同时并存。这是典型的二元经济结构，这种二元经济结构决定，我国过大的城乡差别制约着社会保障总体水平的提高。城乡社会保障发展水平的客观差距，具有深刻的经济和社会背景，在一个相当长的时期内无法改变。因此，城乡社会保障的改革和建设还应从实际出发，分别发展与生产力水平相适应的社会保障模式。在解决了城乡二元经济结构问题，使农业人口按照现代化的国家标志降到30%以下时，我国社会保障城乡一体化才可能实现。三、我国社会保障制度存在的主要问题伴随着计划经济体制向市场经济体制的转轨。特别是在以市场为导向的经济体制改革日益深化、社会主义市场经济体制成为我国经济改革的目标模式以后，社会保障制度存在着一些问题，具体表现在以下方面：（一）社会保障管理体制尚未理顺我国社会保障制度发展中长期存在的问题之一就是管理体制不顺。主要是行政管理政出多门，社会保障项目之间协调困难。在养老保险制度中，企业职工基本养老保险和机关事业单位养老保险由于长期分属国家劳动部、人事部管理，离退休人员待遇差别过大。因此要适时分步地建立起覆盖所有城镇职工的统一的基本养老保险制度、统一管理透明执行。对基本养老保险和补充保险界定不清，发生按所有制性质分部门管理基本养老保险的现象要逐步理清，实现和谐、公正的养老保险制度。（二）社会保障部分项目改革滞后社会保障的国家单一保障模式改革滞后。在这种情况下，要建立适应社会主义市场经济要求的社会保障制度，除改革原国家保障项目外，还必须建立企业补充保险和个人储蓄性保险。在社会保障中对于仍应完全由国家财政负担的社会救济等项目来说，基本不存在多层次保障的问题，而对养老、医疗保险则必须尽快建立多层次的保障制度。（三）社会保障覆盖范围不全我国传统的社会保障项目主要覆盖国有企业，而社会保障体制改革也仍然是在国有企业进行。现行的失业保险制度只适用于国有企业，医疗保险改革试点实际上也局限在国有企业，要提高非正规部门就业人口和灵活就业人口的参保比率，在制度上为他们增加参保的机会。因此实行拥有良好“便携性”和统筹水平较高的个人账户制度，既可以促进劳动力的自由流动，消除企业、部门和地区之间的障碍，为建立全国范围的统一大市场开辟了道路，扩大养老保险参保率和覆盖面。（四）社会保障统筹层次偏低，属地原则未能落实完全由政府负担的保障项目和国家强制的社会保险项目，统筹的层次高，抵御风险的能力强，而目前我国养老、失业、医疗保险的统筹层次都不同程度地偏低。基本养老保险以市县级统筹为主，保障的共济性受到制约。社会救济、优抚安置、社会福利等一直是按属地进行管理的。属地管理问题突出表现在养老、医疗保险项目方面。从“企业自保”向社会保障转变的过程中，基本养老保险制度行业统筹与地方统筹分割。易贫富不均，削弱了基本养老保险基金的社会共济作用。因此，要在发展社会主义市场经济的条件下更好地保持社会长治久安，基本养老保险、医疗保险就必须坚持实行属地原则。（五）社会保障资金的筹措及管理尚不到位在我国现阶段，社会保障基金筹资困难。社会保险基金主要来源于企业、劳动者和政府三方。其中。企业担负着筹资的大部分责任。然而，目前大部分企业尤其是在社会保险统筹中占主体地位的国有企业经营很不景气。在收缴比例相对较高的情况下，企业无法按时足额缴纳其所应缴纳的社会保险费用，出现了实缴率逐年下降而拒缴率或欠缴率逐年上升的现象。同时据审计和财政、劳动部检查的情况表明，挤占、挪用基金的形式多种多样，有的投资房地产血本无归；有的超标准提取和滥支管理费挥霍浪费；有的对存入财政专户的基金截留利息；有的公款私存、化公为私，甚至失业保险基金也出现被挪用的现象。对此要加强保险缴费与未来给付之间的联系，以较高的透明度重塑和强化劳动的激励机制。设立专项保管账户。杜绝挤占挪用现象。（六）社会保障社会化服务发展缓慢在社会主义社会市场经济的条件下。职工与企业关系是一种劳动契约关系，企业与职工双向选择，通过劳动合同实现就业。职工与企业解除劳动关系后，企业没有任何义务再承担他们与生产经营无关的生活事务。只有这样，国有企业才能从企业办社会的事务中解脱出来，与其它经济类型的企业平等竞争。从总体上看，与社会保障基金管理方面的社会化程度相比，社会保障事务管理的社会化进程更为缓慢。将企业退休人员纳入社区管理，社会化管理服务各项基础性工作进一步加强。城镇居民基本医疗保险试点城市拓展社区平台职能，为居民的参保登记、缴费、就医管理提供基础性服务。（七）社会保障亟待加强立法社会保障立法是关系保障制度改革的一个根本性问题。只有完善立法，才能使社会保障制度规范化，并覆盖到全社会。现在我国社会保障制度改革主要是靠国务院和有关部门的行政规章以及地方行政规章推行。我国近年来社会保障各项目标进展情况差异较大。有的比较成熟，有的尚在探索阶段。目前我国要进行总体社会保障立法还比较困难。因此。现在应当根据社会保障制度中各个具体项目的难易程度和实际进展情况先分别制定法规。在制定单项法规的基础上，逐步形成完整的社会保障立法。四、完善我国社会保障制度的对策（一）改革和完善现行管理体制首先，立足现状走社会化管理模式。社会保障应实行集中统一的社会化管理，由中央政府的社会保障职能部门统一制定社会保障基本制度，并由各级政府的社会保障专管机构统一管理社会保障基金和社会保障对象。其次，打破部门分割，实现集中管理。由政府的职能机构对社会保障实行集中统一管理，只有实行集中统一管理。才能站在社会保障事业的全局乃至国民经济社会发展的全局保证社会保障制度能够有效地运行，发挥其“安全网”和“减震器”的作用，保持社会稳定。（二）扩大社会保障覆盖范围要认清当前城乡社会保障工作面临的新形势，正确估量未来发展的战略前景，把握住改革大潮带来的新机遇，大胆探索，逐步建立城乡一体化社会保障管理体制，要提高非正规部门就业人口和灵活就业人口的参保比率，在制度上为他们增加参保的机会，实行拥有良好“便携性”和统筹水平较高的个人账户制度，可以促进劳动力的自由流动，消除企业、部门和地区之间的障碍，为建立全国范围的统一社会保障大市场开辟道路，扩大养老保险参保率和覆盖面。（三）提高社会保险统筹层次社会保险具有社会性、互济性、长久性和自我保障性的本质特征，要求社会保险基金必须是全社会统筹，不能条块分割.画地为牢，搞行业自我保险、部门自我保险或企业自我保险。在进行社会保险基金的社会化统筹时。也要依据生产力的发展水平，逐步实施。提高社会统筹的层次将有助于发挥社会保险的共济性，扩大社会保险的社会性，使社会保险更具长久性，降低社会保险自身的风险，提高社会保险的统筹层次。（四）加强社会保险资金的筹集与管理要扩大社会保障资金的筹资渠道，建立稳定可靠的资金筹措机制。要继续扩大社会保障基金的征缴覆盖面和提高社会保障基金的征缴率，相关的社会成员都必须按规定参加社会保险，并依法足额缴纳社会保险费用，以较高的透明度重塑和强化劳动的激励机制。设立专项保管账户，杜绝挤占挪用现象；提高社会保障费用在国家财政支出中所占的比重，提高国家财政对社会保障事业的支持力度；要采取各种有效的措施来补充社会保障基金，如变现部分国有资产、发行社会保障债券、发行福利彩票等等。（五）发展社区化的社会保障服务随着市场经济的发展，把社会保险的服务功能从政府和企业分离出来，使其走向社区载体，真正实现社会保障以家庭为基础的社区化。将企业退休人员纳入社区管理，社会化管理服务各项基础性工作迸一步加强。城镇居民基本医疗保险试点城市拓展社区平台职能，为居民的参保登记、缴费、就医管理提供基础性服务。（六）加强社会保障法制建设尽快制定《社会保障法》。应将社会保障立法作为建立社会主义市场经济法律体系的主要组成部分。完善社会保障制度的配套法律法规体系。社会保障立法工作是一项复杂的系统工程，应在制定《社会保障法》的同时，注意配套出台相关的法律法规，与其他法律部门相结合，建立强有力的制约机制，保证社会保障法律规范的有效实施。（七）发挥政府在社会保障中的职能作用要求政府提高决策人员职业道德修养，完善人才结构，提升业务透明度。充分尊重多数人的利益需求、吸纳群众意见和建议，实现听证制。依照《社会保障法》、《投资基金法》等法律法规的规定，对社会保障制度的运行、社会保险基金的营运投资实施监督管理，以解决“外部性”、“信息不对称”、“逆选择和道德风险”等市场失效问题，减少并消除行政非效率以及“腐败”、“寻租”行为，保证社会保障制度的健康运行.
扩展阅读：【保险】怎么买，哪个好，手把手教你避开保险的这些"坑"
书名：Social security and public pension pitfalls好像是美国政府的作品
第一 这个可以去大学保险学系的图书馆里查询到 第二 或者登录外国的信息网站查询 第三 还可以去相关的外国大学查询目录 都可以 第四 祝福你工作顺利 事业发达 生活安康 家庭幸福
2]凌文豪.人口老龄化对养老保障体系的挑战及对策[J].求索.2009(10)[3]李衡,周一.人口老龄化背景下的养老保险制度改革[J].中国商界(下半月).2008(12)[4]郑少春.我国人口老龄化与养老保险体系的完善[J].福建论坛(人文社会科学版).2008(02)[5]王亚柯.中国养老保险制度改革的研究现状及趋势[J].学术界.2008(03)[6]师振华.人口老龄化对我国养老保险制度的影响及对策[J].经济问题.2008(07)[7]孙祁祥,朱俊生.人口转变、老龄化及其对中国养老保险制度的挑战[J].财贸经济.2008(04)[8]张文学.人口老龄化背景下的中国养老保险制度分析[J].统计与决策.2013(16)[9]张运刚.人口老龄化与我国养老保险制度改革[J].四川师范大学学报(社会科学版).2013(02)[1]杨颖新.人口老龄化与养老保险效应分析[J].商场现代化.2010(04)[2]郑少春.我国人口老龄化与养老保险体系的完善[J].福建论坛(人文社会科学版).2008(02)[3]师振华.人口老龄化对我国养老保险制度的影响及对策[J].经济问题.2008(07)[4]孟庆平.人口老龄化与中国养老保险制度改革[J].山东财政学院学报.2007(03)[5]郝向东.关于我国人口老龄化及养老保险的思考[J].特区经济.2013(01)[6]史维良.人口老龄化与我国社会养老保险的实证分析[J].全国商情.经济理论研究.2013(08)[7]成海霞.走出人口老龄化的困境——人口老龄化对养老保险基金的影响及对策[J].中国劳动保障.2013(08)[8]朱卫东,姚建平.人口老龄化对我国未来养老保险制度的影响及其对策[J].经纪人学报.2013(02)[9]张运刚.人口老龄化与我国养老保险制度改革[J].四川师范大学学报(社会科学版).2013(02)[1]杨颖新.人口老龄化与养老保险效应分析[J].商场现代化.2010(04)[2]李晓霞,郝国喜.上海人口老龄化与养老保险基金缺口偿还[J].中国集体经济.2010(06)[3]郑少春.我国人口老龄化与养老保险体系的完善[J].福建论坛(人文社会科学版).2008(02)[4]郑少春.我国人口老龄化与养老保险体系的完善[J].福建行政学院福建经济管理干部学院学报.2007(03)[5]刘雄英,黄纯波.中国人口老龄化与养老保险[J].金融理论与实践.2004(12)[6]班茂盛,朱连忠.城市人口老龄化对养老保险筹资模式的影响及政策建议[J].浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版).2013(06)[7]马斌,程贯平,刘文军.广东省人口老龄化趋势及养老保险对策[J].北京市计划劳动管理干部学院学报.2013(02)[8]王金安.人口老龄化与我国农村社会养老保险制度缺陷分析[J].数量经济技术经济研究.2013(07)[9]宋科凡.人口老龄化与养老保险筹款模式选择[J].辽宁工学院学报(社会科学版).2002(03)
论文的参考资料怎么写问题一：论文参考文献标准格式如何写50分参考文献规范格式一、参考文献的类型参考文献（即引文出处）的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下：M――专著C――论文集N――报纸文章J――期刊文章D――学位论文R――报告对于不属于上述的文献类型，采用字母“Z”标识。对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点：①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则，具体格式是：姓，名字的首字母.如：MalcolmRichardCowley应为：Cowley,.，如果有两位作者，第一位作者方式不变，&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面，姓放在后面，如：FrankNorris与IrvingGordon应为：Norris,F.&.；②书名、报刊名使用斜体字，如：MasteringEnglishLiterature，EnglishWeekly。二、参考文献的格式及举例1.期刊类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名，出版年份，卷号（期号）：起止页码.【举例】[1]王海粟.浅议会计信息披露模式[J].财政研究，2004,21(1)：56-58.[2]夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业论文教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育，2004(1):46-52.[3]Heider,[J].ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearch,1999,(3):.专著类【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地：出版社，出版年份：起止页码.【举例】[4]葛家澍，林志军.现代西方财务会计理论[M].厦门：厦门大学出版社，2001：42.[5]Gill,[M].London:Macmillan,1985:.报纸类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名，出版日期（版次）.【举例】[6]李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N].光明日报，1998-12-27(3).[7]French,[N].AtlanticWeekly,1987-8-15(33).4.论文集【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[C].出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码.【举例】[8]伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C].上海：上海译文出版社，1979：12-17.[9]Spivak,G.“CantheSubalternSpeak?”[A].(eds.).VictoryinLimbo:Imigism[C].Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1988,.[10]Almarza,’sknowledgegrowth[A].(eds.).Teac......余下全文>>问题二：大学毕业论文选题指南中的主要参考资料怎么写毕业论文，泛指专科毕业论文、本科毕业论文（学士学位毕业论文）、硕士研究生毕业论文（硕士学位论文）、博士研究生毕业论文（博士学位论文）等，即需要在学业完成前写作并提交的论文，是教学或科研活动的重要组成部分之一。其主要目的是培养学生综合运用所学知识和技能，理论联系实际，独立分析，解决实际问题的能力，使学生得到从事本专业工作和进行相关的基本训练。其主要目的是培养学生综合运用所学知识和技能，理论联系实际，独立分析，解决实际问题的能力，使学生得到从事本专业工作和进行相关的基本训练。毕业论文应反映出作者能够准确地掌握所学的专业基础知识，基本学会综合运用所学知识进行科学研究的方法，对所研究的题目有一定的心得体会，论文题目的范围不宜过宽，一般选择本学科某一重要问题的一个侧面。毕业论文的基本教学要求是：1、培养学生综合运用、巩固与扩展所学的基础理论和专业知识，培养学生独立分析、解决实际问题能力、培养学生处理数据和信息的能力；2、培养学生正确的理论联系实际的工作作风，严肃认真的科学态度；3、培养学生进行社会调查研究；文献资料收集、阅读和整理、使用；提出论点、综合论证、总结写作等基本技能。毕业论文是毕业生总结性的独立作业，是学生运用在校学习的基本知识和基础理论，去分析、解决一两个实际问题的实践锻炼过程，也是学生在校学习期间学习成果的综合性总结，是整个教学活动中不可缺少的重要环节。撰写毕业论文对于培养学生初步的科学研究能力，提高其综合运用所学知识分析问题、解决问题能力有着重要意义。毕业论文在进行编写的过程中，需要经过开题报告、论文编写、论文上交评定、论文答辩以及论文评分五个过程，其中开题报告是论文进行的最重要的一个过程，也是论文能否进行的一个重要指标。问题三：论文的参考文献怎么写？列出参考文献的作用：①论证作者的论点，启发作者的思维；②同作者的实验结果相比较；③反映严肃的科学研究工作态度，亦为读者深入研究提供有关文献的线索所引用的参考文献篇数不宜过多，论著类论文要求在10篇左右，综述类文章以20篇左右为宜所引文献均应是作者亲自查阅过的，并注意多引用权威性、专业性杂志近年发表的相关论文参考文献列出时要按文献在文章中出现的先后，编数码，依次列出完整的参考文献（书籍）写法应列出文献的作者（译文注明译者）、书名、页数、出版者、出版时间、版次等完整的参考文献（论文）写法应列出文献的作者、文章标题、期刊名称、年/卷/期、起讫页数等问题四：论文结尾参考文献中，以网络文章作为参考资料的应当如何标明我也在想这个问题，有解的话通知我我找到了问题五：请问，科技论文中参考文献能否有来自于网络，比方说某网站。如果能的话，参考文献中书写的格式怎样的？谢可以！我是国外的硕士学位，就此问题专门问过导师，他说必须用网络上的资料时，copy并且paste网页地址栏里的整个链接地址，后面再注上你的copy日期，同时自己保存好考屏图片以供未来有可能碰到的质询或答辩！但是，有一种例外，只有在你确定该内容确实没有纸件出版物时才可以用，而且，教授告诉我说，这样的引用越少越好，因为这类资料通常不太具有论证力。格式：；2006年11月13日引自百度知道问题六：写论文如果是从百度文库找的资料，该怎么写参考文献啊？参考文献的类型划到划到网络资料一类。问题七：写论文时都是参考百度文库里的一些内容，那这个参考文献要怎么写呀？参考文献要写原文的名字，要具有权威性的。这样能增强自己论文的说服力。百度文库在学术上没有发言权，只能用来给自己参考。问题八：论文引用百度百科的资料怎么标注10分问题九：论文里引用百度文库的文章作为参考文献，那参考文献的作者应该怎么写论文里引用百度文库的文章作为参考文献，怎么可能文章上面没写作者？？？？？？论文题目下面都有作者的好不好！！！！！！1,2,3作者的都有。实在不行就换一篇文章嘛，现在论文泛滥，同类型的论文一堆堆，你可以去中国知网上面去找嘛，百度文库不是专业的学术网站。并且没有人去追究参考文献作者，只看参考文献的格式。参考文献作者乱写也没事，问题十：论文参考文献怎么写一篇文章的引用参考部分包括注释和参考文献两部分，注释是作者自己的解释（转引的参考文献也可以放在注释里），参考阀献仅需列出参考书或论文的名称、作者、出版社或发表的期刊、著作时间或期刊期数等。注释用圆圈12标注，放脚注，参考文献用[1][2]标注，放尾注。有的刊物要求注释和参考文献都要在内文标注，有的刊物对参考文献不要求内文标注，在尾注列出就行。按最新的CNKI规范的要求应是前者。为保险起见，你还是都标吧。注：参考文献如是著作要标页码，论文只要标出期刊是第几期。例：参考文献：[1]金福海.论建立我国的惩罚性赔偿制度[J].中国法学,1994,(3).[2]杨立新.“王海现象”的民法思考――论消费者权益保护中的惩罚性赔偿金[J].河北法学,1997,(5).[3]金福海.消费者法论[M].北京:北京大学出版社，2005:251.[4]闫玮.完善我国中的惩罚性赔偿制度[J].太原师范学院学报,2007,(1).[5]梁慧星.第49条的解释适用[J].民商法论丛,2001,(3).[6]王.论我国中的惩罚性赔偿[J].现代商业,194.[7]梁慧星.关于第49条的解释适用[N].人民法院报,2001-3-29.[8]孔祥俊.公平交易执法前沿问题研究[M].北京:工商出版社,1998:219.
(美)康斯坦斯·M.卢瑟亚特()等著,英勇,于小东总译校.财产与责任保险原理[M]. 北京大学出版社, 2003 (美)小哈罗德·斯凯博()等编著,荆涛等译.国际风险与保险[M]. 机械工业出版社, 1999 (美)所罗门·许布纳()等著,陈欣等译.财产和责任保险[M]. 中国人民大学出版社, 2002 【英】Malcolm A. Clarke 著、 何美欢、吴志攀等译：《保险合同法》，北京大学出版社 2002 年版。 Mckendrick :“Contract Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2003 年版。 H. Whincup：“Contract Law and Practice—the EnglishSystem and Continental Comparisons” 中信出版社,2003 年版。 F. Dobbyn : “Insurance Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2001年版。 Lowry , Philip Rawlings : “Insurance Law :Doctrines andPrinciples” , Hart Publishing Ltd. (1999). Hodgin :“Insurance Law :Text and Materials” (SecondEdition) Cavendish Publishing Limited (2002) . L. Emanuel：“Contracts”，中信出版社 2003 年版。 A. Eisenberg:“Disclosure in Contract Law”，91 CaliforniaLaw Review （2003）. T. Kronman :“Mistake, Disclosure, Information, and theLaw of Contracts”,7(1) Journal of Legal Studies (1978). J :“Insurer’s breach of good faith——a newtort?”,(1992) 108 LQR 35.这些都是比较好的
写参考书的名称、作者、著作时间等，在论文的最后。
保险论文英文参考文献
下面是我整理的保险论文英文参考文献，希望对大家有所帮助。
[1]Syed ， Ali ，and NJohn Kurian. Toward a Theory of Agricultural Insurance[J] .American Journal of Agricultural Economics，Vol. 64， ，Aug，1982
[2]Carl and Edna . Further Toward a Theory of Agricultural Insurance[ J] .American Journal of Agricultural Economics， Vol. 69’ ， Aug， 1987
[3] Barry . An Empirical Analysis of the Demand for Multiple Peril Crop Insurance [J].American Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 75，No. 2，May， 1993
[5] ， and . "Subsidized Crop Insurance and Extensive Margin"University of California，Berkeley，Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Policy，2
[6] Moschini G and Hennessy . Uncertainty，Risk Aversion and Risk Management for Agricultural Producers [J] .American Journal of Agricultural
[7] Barry ，Monte ，and John . An EmpiricalAnalysis of Acreage Effects of Participation In The Federal Crop Insurance Program[J].American Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 86， No. 4，Nov， 24
[8] Keith H. Coble，Thomas ， Rulon ，and Jeffery R. Expected-IndemnityApproach to the Measurement of Moral Hazard in Crop InsurancefJ] .American Journal of AgriculturalEconomics. Vol. 79，No. 1，Feb， 1997
insuranceHealth insurance works by estimating the overall risk of healthcare expenses and developing a routine finance structure (such as a monthly premium or annual tax) that will ensure that money is available to pay for the healthcare benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization, most often either a government agency or a private or not-for-profit entity operating a health it worksA Health insurance policy is a contract between an insurance company and an individual. The contract can be renewable annually or monthly. The type and amount of health care costs that will be covered by the health plan are specified in advance, in the member contract or Evidence of Coverage booklet. The individual policy-holder's payment obligations may take several forms[7]:Premium: The amount the policy-holder pays to the health plan each month to purchase health coverage. Deductible: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out-of-pocket before the health plan pays its share. For example, a policy-holder might have to pay a $500 deductible per year, before any of their health care is covered by the health plan. It may take several doctor's visits or prescription refills before the policy-holder reaches the deductible and the health plan starts to pay for care. Copayment: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out of pocket before the health plan pays for a particular visit or service. For example, a policy-holder might pay a $45 copayment for a doctor's visit, or to obtain a prescription. A copayment must be paid each time a particular service is obtained. Coinsurance: Instead of paying a fixed amount up front (a copayment), the policy-holder must pay a percentage of the total cost. For example, the member might have to pay 20% of the cost of a surgery, while the health plan pays the other 80%. Because there is no upper limit on coinsurance, the policy-holder can end up owing very little, or a significant amount, depending on the actual costs of the services they obtain. Exclusions: Not all services are covered. The policy-holder is generally expected to pay the full cost of non-covered services out of their own pocket. Coverage limits: Some health plans only pay for health care up to a certain dollar amount. The policy-holder may be expected to pay any charges in excess of the health plan's maximum payment for a specific service. In addition, some plans have annual or lifetime coverage maximums. In these cases, the health plan will stop payment when they reach the benefit maximum, and the policy-holder must pay all remaining costs. Out-of-pocket maximums: Similar to coverage limits, except that in this case, the member's payment obligation ends when they reach the out-of-pocket maximum, and the health plan pays all further covered costs. Out-of-pocket maximums can be limited to a specific benefit category (such as prescription drugs) or can apply to all coverage provided during a specific benefit year. Capitation: An amount paid by an insurer to a health care provider, for which the provider agrees to treat all members of the insurer. In-Network Provider: A health care provider on a list of providers preselected by the insurer. The insurer will offer discounted coinsurance or copayments, or additional benefits, to a plan member to see an in-network provider. Generally, providers in network are providers who have a contract with the insurer to accept rates further discounted from the "usual and customary" charges the insurer pays to out-of-network providers. Prescription drug plans are a form of insurance offered through some employer benefit plans in the US, where the patient pays a copayment and the prescription drug insurance part or all of the balance for drugs covered in the formulary of the , if not most, health care providers in the United States will agree to bill the insurance company if patients are willing to sign an agreement that they will be responsible for the amount that the insurance company doesn't pay. The insurance company pays out of network providers according to "reasonable and customary" charges, which may be less than the provider's usual fee. The provider may also have a separate contract with the insurer to accept what amounts to a discounted rate or capitation to the provider's standard charges. It generally costs the patient less to use an in-network plan vs. health insuranceHistorically, HMOs tended to use the term "health plan", while commercial insurance companies used the term "health insurance". A health plan can also refer to a subscription-based medical care arrangement offered through health maintenance organization, HMO, PPO, or POS plan. These plans are similar to pre-paid dental, pre-paid legal, and pre-paid vision plans. Pre-paid health plans typically pay for a fixed number of services (for instance, $300 in preventive care, a certain number of days of hospice care or care in a skilled nursing facility, a fixed number of home health visits, a fixed number of spinal manipulation charges, etc.) The services offered are usually at the discretion of a utilization review nurse who is often contracted through the managed care entity providing the subscription health plan. This determination may be made either prior to or after hospital admission (concurrent utilization review).[edit] Inherent problems with insuranceInsurance systems must typically deal with two inherent challenges: adverse selection, which affects any voluntary system, and ex-post moral hazard, which affects any insurance system in which a third party bears major responsibility for payment, whether that is an employer or the government. Some national systems with compulsory insurance utilize systems such as risk equalization and community rating to overcome these inherent problems.[edit] Adverse selectionInsurance companies use the term "adverse selection" to describe the tendency for only those who will benefit from insurance to buy it. Specifically when talking about health insurance, unhealthy people are more likely to purchase health insurance because they anticipate large medical bills. On the other side, people who consider themselves to be reasonably healthy may decide that medical insurance is an unnecessary expense; if they see the doctor once a year and it costs $250, that's much better than making monthly insurance payments of $40. (example figures).The fundamental concept of insurance is that it balances costs across a large, random sample of individuals (see risk pool). For instance, an insurance company has a pool of 1000 randomly selected subscribers, each paying $100 per month. One person becomes very ill while the others stay healthy, allowing the insurance company to use the money paid by the healthy people to pay for the treatment costs of the sick person. However, when the pool is self-selecting rather than random, as is the case with individuals seeking to purchase health insurance directly, adverse selection is a greater concern.[8] A disproportionate share of health care spending is attributable to individuals with high health care costs. In the US the 1% of the population with the highest spending accounted for 27% of aggregate health care spending in 1996. The highest-spending 5% of the population accounted for more than half of all spending. These patterns were stable through the 1970s and 1980s, and some data suggest that they may have been typical of the mid-to-early 20th century as well.[9][10] A few individuals have extremely high medical expenses, in extreme cases totaling a half million dollars or more.[11] Adverse selection could leave an insurance company with primarily sick subscribers and no way to balance out the cost of their medical expenses with a large number of healthy of adverse selection, insurance companies employ medical underwriting, using a patient's medical history to screen out those whose pre-existing medical conditions pose too great a risk for the risk pool. Before buying health insurance, a person typically fills out a comprehensive medical history form that asks whether the person smokes, how much the person weighs, whether the person has been treated for any of a long list of diseases and so on. In general, those who present large financial burdens are denied coverage or charged high premiums to compensate.[12] One large US industry survey found that roughly 13 percent of applicants for comprehensive, individually purchased health insurance who went through the medical underwriting in 2004 were denied coverage. Declination rates increased significantly with age, rising from 5 percent for individuals 18 and under to just under a third for individuals aged 60 to 64.[13] Among those who were offered coverage, the study found that 76% received offers at standard premium rates, and 22% were offered higher rates.[14] On the other side, applicants can get discounts if they do not smoke and are healthy.[15]Health insurance in CanadaMost health insurance in Canada is administered by each province, under the Canada Health Act, which requires all people to have free access to basic health services. Collectively, the public provincial health insurance systems in Canada are frequently referred to as Medicare. Private health insurance is allowed, but the provincial governments allow it only for services that the public health plans do not cover; for example, semi-private or private rooms in hospitals and prescription drug plans. Canadians are free to use private insurance for elective medical services such as laser vision correction surgery, cosmetic surgery, and other non-basic medical procedures. Some 65% of Canadians have some form of supplementary private health insurance; many of them receive it through their employers.[17] Private-sector services not paid for by the government account for nearly 30 percent of total health care spending.[18]In 2005, the Supreme Court of Quebec ruled, in Chaoulli v. Quebec, that the province's prohibition on private insurance for health care already insured by the provincial plan could constitute an infringement of the right to life and security if there were long wait times for treatment as happened in this case. Certain other provinces have legislation which financially discourages but does not forbid private health insurance in areas covered by the public plans. The ruling has not changed the overall pattern of health insurance across Canada but has spurred on attempts to tackle the core issues of supply and demand and the impact of wait times.[19]Health insurance in the NetherlandsIn the Netherlands in 2006, a new system of health insurance came into force. All insurance companies have to provide at least one policy which meets a government set minimum standard level of cover and all adult residents are obliged by law to purchase this cover from an insurance company of their new system avoids the two pitfalls of adverse selection and moral hazard associated with traditional forms of health the Dutch system, insurance companies are compensated for taking on high risk individuals because they receive extra funding for them. This funding comes from an insurance equalization pool run by a regulator which collects salary based contributions from employers (about 45% of all health care funding) and funding from the government for people whose means are such that they cannot afford health care (about 5% of all funding). Thus insurance companies find that insuring high risk individuals becomes an attractive proposition. All insurance companies receive from the pool, but those with more high risk individuals will receive more from the fund. The remaining 45% of health care funding comes from insurance premiums paid by the public. Insurance companies compete for this money on price alone. The insurance companies are not allowed to set down any co-payments or caps or deductibles. Neither are they allowed to deny coverage to any person applying for a policy or charge anything other than their nationally set and internet published standard policy premiums. Every person buying insurance from that company will pay the same price as everyone else buying that policy. And every person will get the minimum level of coverage. Children under 18 are insured for free (the funding coming from the equalization pool).In addition to this minimum level, companies are free to sell extra insurance for additional coverage over the national minimum, but extra risks for this are not covered from the insurance pool and must therefore be priced insurance in the United KingdomMain article: National Health ServiceGreat Britain's National Health Service (NHS) is a publicly funded healthcare system that provides coverage to everyone normally resident in the UK. The NHS provides the majority of health care in England, including primary care, in-patient care, long-term health care, ophthalmology and dentistry. Private health care has continued parallel to the NHS, paid for largely by private insurance, but it is used by less than 8% of the population, and generally as a top-up to NHS services. Recently the private sector has been increasingly used to increase NHS capacity despite a large proportion of the British public opposing such involvement.[20]. According to the World Health Organization, government funding covered 86% of overall health care expenditures in the UK as of 2004, with private expenditures covering the remaining 14%.[21] The costs of running the NHS (est. £104 billion in 2007-8)[22] are met directly from general National Health Service Act 1946 came into effect on 5 July 1948. The UK government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by a Secretary of State for Health (Health Secretary), who sits in the British Cabinet. The NHS is the world's largest health service, and the world's third largest employer[23] after the Chinese army and the Indian insurance in the United States
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If you'd like to get quick auto insurance quotes, or find a local car insurance agent, you're in the right place. But we offer much more than car insurance. Thousands of satisfied customers depend on us for insurance on their homes. Plus we are America's #1 RV insurance specialist. Health insuranceHealth insurance works by estimating the overall risk of healthcare expenses and developing a routine finance structure (such as a monthly premium or annual tax) that will ensure that money is available to pay for the healthcare benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization, most often either a government agency or a private or not-for-profit entity operating a health it worksA Health insurance policy is a contract between an insurance company and an individual. The contract can be renewable annually or monthly. The type and amount of health care costs that will be covered by the health plan are specified in advance, in the member contract or Evidence of Coverage booklet. The individual policy-holder's payment obligations may take several forms[7]:Premium: The amount the policy-holder pays to the health plan each month to purchase health coverage. Deductible: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out-of-pocket before the health plan pays its share. For example, a policy-holder might have to pay a $500 deductible per year, before any of their health care is covered by the health plan. It may take several doctor's visits or prescription refills before the policy-holder reaches the deductible and the health plan starts to pay for care. Copayment: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out of pocket before the health plan pays for a particular visit or service. For example, a policy-holder might pay a $45 copayment for a doctor's visit, or to obtain a prescription. A copayment must be paid each time a particular service is obtained. Coinsurance: Instead of paying a fixed amount up front (a copayment), the policy-holder must pay a percentage of the total cost. For example, the member might have to pay 20% of the cost of a surgery, while the health plan pays the other 80%. Because there is no upper limit on coinsurance, the policy-holder can end up owing very little, or a significant amount, depending on the actual costs of the services they obtain. Exclusions: Not all services are covered. The policy-holder is generally expected to pay the full cost of non-covered services out of their own pocket. Coverage limits: Some health plans only pay for health care up to a certain dollar amount. The policy-holder may be expected to pay any charges in excess of the health plan's maximum payment for a specific service. In addition, some plans have annual or lifetime coverage maximums. In these cases, the health plan will stop payment when they reach the benefit maximum, and the policy-holder must pay all remaining costs. Out-of-pocket maximums: Similar to coverage limits, except that in this case, the member's payment obligation ends when they reach the out-of-pocket maximum, and the health plan pays all further covered costs. Out-of-pocket maximums can be limited to a specific benefit category (such as prescription drugs) or can apply to all coverage provided during a specific benefit year. Capitation: An amount paid by an insurer to a health care provider, for which the provider agrees to treat all members of the insurer. In-Network Provider: A health care provider on a list of providers preselected by the insurer. The insurer will offer discounted coinsurance or copayments, or additional benefits, to a plan member to see an in-network provider. Generally, providers in network are providers who have a contract with the insurer to accept rates further discounted from the "usual and customary" charges the insurer pays to out-of-network providers. Prescription drug plans are a form of insurance offered through some employer benefit plans in the US, where the patient pays a copayment and the prescription drug insurance part or all of the balance for drugs covered in the formulary of the , if not most, health care providers in the United States will agree to bill the insurance company if patients are willing to sign an agreement that they will be responsible for the amount that the insurance company doesn't pay. The insurance company pays out of network providers according to "reasonable and customary" charges, which may be less than the provider's usual fee. The provider may also have a separate contract with the insurer to accept what amounts to a discounted rate or capitation to the provider's standard charges. It generally costs the patient less to use an in-network plan vs. health insuranceHistorically, HMOs tended to use the term "health plan", while commercial insurance companies used the term "health insurance". A health plan can also refer to a subscription-based medical care arrangement offered through health maintenance organization, HMO, PPO, or POS plan. These plans are similar to pre-paid dental, pre-paid legal, and pre-paid vision plans. Pre-paid health plans typically pay for a fixed number of services (for instance, $300 in preventive care, a certain number of days of hospice care or care in a skilled nursing facility, a fixed number of home health visits, a fixed number of spinal manipulation charges, etc.) The services offered are usually at the discretion of a utilization review nurse who is often contracted through the managed care entity providing the subscription health plan. This determination may be made either prior to or after hospital admission (concurrent utilization review).[edit] Inherent problems with insuranceInsurance systems must typically deal with two inherent challenges: adverse selection, which affects any voluntary system, and ex-post moral hazard, which affects any insurance system in which a third party bears major responsibility for payment, whether that is an employer or the government. Some national systems with compulsory insurance utilize systems such as risk equalization and community rating to overcome these inherent problems.[edit] Adverse selectionInsurance companies use the term "adverse selection" to describe the tendency for only those who will benefit from insurance to buy it. Specifically when talking about health insurance, unhealthy people are more likely to purchase health insurance because they anticipate large medical bills. On the other side, people who consider themselves to be reasonably healthy may decide that medical insurance is an unnecessary expense; if they see the doctor once a year and it costs $250, that's much better than making monthly insurance payments of $40. (example figures).The fundamental concept of insurance is that it balances costs across a large, random sample of individuals (see risk pool). For instance, an insurance company has a pool of 1000 randomly selected subscribers, each paying $100 per month. One person becomes very ill while the others stay healthy, allowing the insurance company to use the money paid by the healthy people to pay for the treatment costs of the sick person. However, when the pool is self-selecting rather than random, as is the case with individuals seeking to purchase health insurance directly, adverse selection is a greater concern.[8] A disproportionate share of health care spending is attributable to individuals with high health care costs. In the US the 1% of the population with the highest spending accounted for 27% of aggregate health care spending in 1996. The highest-spending 5% of the population accounted for more than half of all spending. These patterns were stable through the 1970s and 1980s, and some data suggest that they may have been typical of the mid-to-early 20th century as well.[9][10] A few individuals have extremely high medical expenses, in extreme cases totaling a half million dollars or more.[11] Adverse selection could leave an insurance company with primarily sick subscribers and no way to balance out the cost of their medical expenses with a large number of healthy of adverse selection, insurance companies employ medical underwriting, using a patient's medical history to screen out those whose pre-existing medical conditions pose too great a risk for the risk pool. Before buying health insurance, a person typically fills out a comprehensive medical history form that asks whether the person smokes, how much the person weighs, whether the person has been treated for any of a long list of diseases and so on. In general, those who present large financial burdens are denied coverage or charged high premiums to compensate.[12] One large US industry survey found that roughly 13 percent of applicants for comprehensive, individually purchased health insurance who went through the medical underwriting in 2004 were denied coverage. Declination rates increased significantly with age, rising from 5 percent for individuals 18 and under to just under a third for individuals aged 60 to 64.[13] Among those who were offered coverage, the study found that 76% received offers at standard premium rates, and 22% were offered higher rates.[14] On the other side, applicants can get discounts if they do not smoke and are healthy.[15]Health insurance in CanadaMost health insurance in Canada is administered by each province, under the Canada Health Act, which requires all people to have free access to basic health services. Collectively, the public provincial health insurance systems in Canada are frequently referred to as Medicare. Private health insurance is allowed, but the provincial governments allow it only for services that the public health plans do not cover; for example, semi-private or private rooms in hospitals and prescription drug plans. Canadians are free to use private insurance for elective medical services such as laser vision correction surgery, cosmetic surgery, and other non-basic medical procedures. Some 65% of Canadians have some form of supplementary private health insurance; many of them receive it through their employers.[17] Private-sector services not paid for by the government account for nearly 30 percent of total health care spending.[18]In 2005, the Supreme Court of Quebec ruled, in Chaoulli v. Quebec, that the province's prohibition on private insurance for health care already insured by the provincial plan could constitute an infringement of the right to life and security if there were long wait times for treatment as happened in this case. Certain other provinces have legislation which financially discourages but does not forbid private health insurance in areas covered by the public plans. The ruling has not changed the overall pattern of health insurance across Canada but has spurred on attempts to tackle the core issues of supply and demand and the impact of wait times.[19]Health insurance in the NetherlandsIn the Netherlands in 2006, a new system of health insurance came into force. All insurance companies have to provide at least one policy which meets a government set minimum standard level of cover and all adult residents are obliged by law to purchase this cover from an insurance company of their new system avoids the two pitfalls of adverse selection and moral hazard associated with traditional forms of health the Dutch system, insurance companies are compensated for taking on high risk individuals because they receive extra funding for them. This funding comes from an insurance equalization pool run by a regulator which collects salary based contributions from employers (about 45% of all health care funding) and funding from the government for people whose means are such that they cannot afford health care (about 5% of all funding). Thus insurance companies find that insuring high risk individuals becomes an attractive proposition. All insurance companies receive from the pool, but those with more high risk individuals will receive more from the fund. The remaining 45% of health care funding comes from insurance premiums paid by the public. Insurance companies compete for this money on price alone. The insurance companies are not allowed to set down any co-payments or caps or deductibles. Neither are they allowed to deny coverage to any person applying for a policy or charge anything other than their nationally set and internet published standard policy premiums. Every person buying insurance from that company will pay the same price as everyone else buying that policy. And every person will get the minimum level of coverage. Children under 18 are insured for free (the funding coming from the equalization pool).In addition to this minimum level, companies are free to sell extra insurance for additional coverage over the national minimum, but extra risks for this are not covered from the insurance pool and must therefore be priced insurance in the United KingdomMain article: National Health ServiceGreat Britain's National Health Service (NHS) is a publicly funded healthcare system that provides coverage to everyone normally resident in the UK. The NHS provides the majority of health care in England, including primary care, in-patient care, long-term health care, ophthalmology and dentistry. Private health care has continued parallel to the NHS, paid for largely by private insurance, but it is used by less than 8% of the population, and generally as a top-up to NHS services. Recently the private sector has been increasingly used to increase NHS capacity despite a large proportion of the British public opposing such involvement.[20]. According to the World Health Organization, government funding covered 86% of overall health care expenditures in the UK as of 2004, with private expenditures covering the remaining 14%.[21] The costs of running the NHS (est. £104 billion in 2007-8)[22] are met directly from general National Health Service Act 1946 came into effect on 5 July 1948. The UK government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by a Secretary of State for Health (Health Secretary), who sits in the British Cabinet. The NHS is the world's largest health service, and the world's third largest employer[23] after the Chinese army and the Indian insurance in the United States 参考资料：
我国金融衍生产品市场发展现状与对策[摘要] 金融衍生产品自20世纪80年代以来经历了一个迅速发展过程,国际金融市场因金融衍生产品的出现而异彩纷呈,金融衍生产品市场交易额的增长速度大大超过了传统金融产品,并逐步成为国际市场的重要组成部分和发展的驱动力。随着我国人民币汇率制度改革、利率市场化及资本市场股权分置改革等进程的不断加快,金融衍生产品在国内市场的发展契机已经到来。本文对国内金融衍生市场的现状、问题及发展前景进行分析,借鉴国际金融衍生市场经验对我国金融衍生产品市场发展提出对策建议。[关键词] 金融衍生产品 风险规避 金融创新金融衍生产品是在20世纪七八十年代初新一轮金融创新的背景下兴起和发展起来的. 近20年来,金融衍生产品市场的迅速发展已经成为国际金融市场最显着、最重要的特征之一。据国际清算银行(BIS)统计报告显示,从2004年中期至2007年中期,全球衍生品交易量,从220万亿美元升至516万亿美元;名义价值折合年率上升33%。我国金融衍生产品市场起步较晚,近些年来,随着我国利率市场化和汇率形成机制改革进程的不断深入,利率风险和汇率风险日益显现.同时,金融机构和企业面临的竞争日益加剧.完善我国金融市场体系,发展金融衍生产品市场,是我国金融业的必然选择。一、我国金融衍生产品市场发展现状1.我国金融衍生产品市场发展状况以上世纪90年代初少数机构开展地下期货交易为起点,我国金融衍生产品市场先后出现了外汇期货、国债期货、指数期货及配股权证等交易品种。1992年~1995年间,上海和海南的交易所曾推出过国债和股指期货; 2004年推出的买断式回购,2005年推出的银行间债券远期交易、人民币远期产品、人民币互换和远期结算的机构安排等,意味着中国衍生品市场已小荷初露。此后,伴随着股权分置改革而创立的各式权证使衍生品开始进入普通投资者的视野,权证市场成为仅次于香港的全球第二大市场。2006年9月8日,中国金融期货交易所在上海挂牌成立,拉开了我国金融衍生品市场发展的大幕。黄金期货于2008年1月9日在上海期货交易所的鸣锣上市,使得期货市场品种体系进一步健全,除石油外,国外成熟市场主要的大宗商品期货品种基本上都在我国上市交易。2.我国金融衍生产品市场存在的主要问题尽管我国金融衍生品市场发展较快,目前仍处于起步阶段,存在许多问题.(1)市场规范化建设不足一般而言,各金融衍生市场的具体管理制度依各自情况而定,但就其总的原则章程来讲,又是一致的、规范的。这种规范化便于交易,并能够促进衍生产品的进一步发展。我国金融衍生产品的发展不仅没有做到规范起步,而且其监督管理也处于混乱的状态。首先表现在多头管理上,证监会、人行、国家发改会、财政部、地方政府以及沪深证券交易所都享有一定的管理权。导致政出多门、市场政策缺乏稳定性、交易所之间不平等竞争,管理混乱。其次,交易制度、交易程序不规范。(2)现货市场规模不匹配由于衍生产品的派生性,任何衍生产品市场的发展,都要有成熟完善的现货市场作保证。没有合理的现货市场规模,就不会有合理的市场价格。市场容量越小,就越易造成价格的人为控制。表现在国债期货市场上就是多方利用现券流通不足的“瓶颈效应”,在期市上做多的同时,凭借其资金优势,拉升现券价格加以配合,使空方卖空的保证金不断追加并流入自己的户头,造成“多逼空”的市场格局,“314风波”、“327风波”、“319风波”的原因都是在“多逼空”的布场环境下,空方不得已而巨额抛售合约打压价格造成的。(3)产品设计不尽合理金融衍生产品的基本功能是转移风险。然而实践表明,多个品种的运用中风险并未有效转移反而扩大。这是由于金融衍生品“双刃剑”自身特点决定的,而导致我们实践应用中无益而害的导火索即是不尽合理的产品设计。举例说明:国债期货。此产品的设计功能之一就是规避利率风险,但由于我国利率的非市场化,国债到期价格是固定的,这使国债现货的买卖并无风险可避。在这种情况下,推出的国债期货就变成了一种投机手段,国债期货市场变成了各大券商赌博的场所。股票权证。股票权证市场是我国最大的的金融衍生产品市场.它推出的目的,主要是为了满足股权分置改革中非流通股股东降低对价等当期综合成本需要而设计的,带有较浓的行政和福利色彩。该产品并不具备规避市场系统性风险的对冲作用和价格发现功能,自上市以来就被作为搏傻游戏工具。(4)缺少真正市场均衡价格在我国金融市场上,大多数金融价格还不是完全的市场均衡价格,相差于均衡价格之间的价差,即是游资和投机者的争夺之战,这将加大风险范围,削弱其规避风险、发现价格的功能。国家对外汇管制仍然较严,人民币资本项目下自由兑换和利率市场化都还未实现。1996年全国银行间统一拆借利率CHIBOR已经出现,但还远未像英国LIBOR利率那样具有权威性指导作用,还称不上是真正的市场均衡利率。另外,国家对银行存贷款利率、国债发行利率还实行管制,真正的市场利率也还不能形成。(5)信息披露制度不健全金融衍生产品的价格与利率、汇率、股票价格等基础性金融衍生产品价格有密切的关系。我国是一个对金融价格管制较紧的国家,金融产品价格市场化程度不高,国家政策对金融产品价格变化影响很大,并且与重大信息的披露和财政金融政策的公布有密切关系。在市场经济比较成熟的国家,重大的信息披露及有关政策的公布均有严格的程序,泄密者和传播谣言者将会受到严惩,以保证交易公平、公正、公开。我国证券法规将发行人澄清谣传的义务仅限于澄清“公共传播媒介”中出现的谣传,这显然过于狭窄;对“重要问题”的标准界定不清,概念外延很大。另外,在信息披露频率过低。二、我国金融衍生产品发展对策建议1.我国发展金融衍生品市场基本原则和模式选择对于发展我国金融衍生产品市场的指导思想,从宏观上讲,应坚持以市场主导、行政助力的基本原则。金融衍生产品的推进次序处于微观层面,要与我国经济和金融市场改革的进程相适应、相协调。同时金融衍生产品市场的发展,需要市场基础、投资者结构、法律法规的完善等多方面的协调,谨防风险反向作用。从微观上看,需坚持控制风险优先,投机获利次之的原则。我国金融衍生品市场的发展的模式选择应从强制性演进开始,形成强制性演进模式到诱致性演进模式的良性循环和互动。美国和英国采取的诱致性演进模式经验表明,在先发国家的金融衍生品市场上,金融创新者由于满足了市场规模庞大的避险需求而得到垄断利润,因此可以弥补创新的成本,金融衍生品市场发展很快。但是由于金融衍生品的公共产品特性,诱致性演进到了一定的阶段之后也许无法确保市场形成足够的创新。而对于后发国家而言,韩国和新加坡采取的强制性演进模式的经验表明,在先发国家已经取得成功经验的情况下,采用强制性演进模式也许是一个更好的选择,这样可以使后发国家能够以更快的速度发展。2.我国发展金融衍生市场具体措施(1)稳步推进我国金融衍生市场的国际化金融衍生市场本质上是国际化的竞争性市场。一国衍生市场的对外开放通过两种方式实现:一是允许外国资本参与本国衍生产品交易;二是允许本国企业直接进入国际衍生市场,或通过经纪公司代理国外业务。从我国未来的衍生市场的发展来看,实现国际化的目标,需要经过两个发展阶段:一是以开拓国内金融衍生市场为中心的国内经营阶段。这是起步阶段,应重点发展合乎社会需要的衍生产品,完善交易规则和监管体系,培育衍生市场的交易主体。二是金融衍生市场的国际化阶段。在这个阶段上,应当放开对企业和金融机构参与国际衍生市场的限制,同时允许外国资本在规定条件下参与中国衍生市场。(2)科学安排发展金融衍生产品交易顺序金融衍生产品种类繁多,不同的衍生产品所需要的发展基础和条件不尽相同,也不可能同时具备和成熟。因此,发展金融衍生产品交易应科学地安排顺序,时机成熟的先行推出,时机尚不成熟的则积极创造条件,既要积极又要稳妥。首先,优先发展场内交易,适度利用场外交易。场外交易的优势在于更能够适应大型投资机构的需要。与场外市场相比,交易所在资信程度、风险控制、市场组织、制度设计、交易结算等方面有更大的优势,交易所交易的标准化衍生产品透明性更好,流动性更强、成本低,既有利于参与者防范和规避风险,也有利于市场监管。因此,优先发展交易所主导的标准化金融衍生产品符合国内金融市场的实际。与此同时,可以允许更多的金融机构和企业适度地开展场外交易。其次,金融期货的发展先于期权和互换。从期货市场的发展顺序来看,期权是在期货之后发展而来。从某种程度上讲,期权是期货的高级形式,其目的是为期货交易提供一种保值工具。我国应该在总结商品期货运作多年经验的基础上,首先推出金融期货产品,再确定时机逐步推出金融期权、互换等衍生产品,最终形成较为完备的金融衍生产品市场体系。再次,在金融衍生产品发展方面,应以国债期货和股指期货为突破口。我国国债和股票规模都相当大,当前股票市场即使完全规范,其价格波动仍然不可避免,推出股指期货不仅有市场需求,也可减少价格的不合理、非理性波动。我国国债品种多、期限长、数量大,只要利率波动,避险需求就强烈。另外,国债期货也有利于发现远期利率,促进长期投资。