保险英文论文参考文献

论文的参考资料怎么写问题一：论文参考文献标准格式如何写50分参考文献规范格式一、参考文献的类型参考文献（即引文出处）的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下：M――专著C――论文集N――报纸文章J――期刊文章D――学位论文R――报告对于不属于上述的文献类型，采用字母“Z”标识。对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点：①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则，具体格式是：姓，名字的首字母.如：MalcolmRichardCowley应为：Cowley,.，如果有两位作者，第一位作者方式不变，&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面，姓放在后面，如：FrankNorris与IrvingGordon应为：Norris,F.&.；②书名、报刊名使用斜体字，如：MasteringEnglishLiterature，EnglishWeekly。二、参考文献的格式及举例1.期刊类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名，出版年份，卷号（期号）：起止页码.【举例】[1]王海粟.浅议会计信息披露模式[J].财政研究，2004,21(1)：56-58.[2]夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业论文教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育，2004(1):46-52.[3]Heider,[J].ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearch,1999,(3):.专著类【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地：出版社，出版年份：起止页码.【举例】[4]葛家澍，林志军.现代西方财务会计理论[M].厦门：厦门大学出版社，2001：42.[5]Gill,[M].London:Macmillan,1985:.报纸类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名，出版日期（版次）.【举例】[6]李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N].光明日报，1998-12-27(3).[7]French,[N].AtlanticWeekly,1987-8-15(33).4.论文集【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[C].出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码.【举例】[8]伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C].上海：上海译文出版社，1979：12-17.[9]Spivak,G.“CantheSubalternSpeak?”[A].(eds.).VictoryinLimbo:Imigism[C].Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1988,.[10]Almarza,’sknowledgegrowth[A].(eds.).Teac......余下全文>>问题二：大学毕业论文选题指南中的主要参考资料怎么写毕业论文，泛指专科毕业论文、本科毕业论文（学士学位毕业论文）、硕士研究生毕业论文（硕士学位论文）、博士研究生毕业论文（博士学位论文）等，即需要在学业完成前写作并提交的论文，是教学或科研活动的重要组成部分之一。其主要目的是培养学生综合运用所学知识和技能，理论联系实际，独立分析，解决实际问题的能力，使学生得到从事本专业工作和进行相关的基本训练。其主要目的是培养学生综合运用所学知识和技能，理论联系实际，独立分析，解决实际问题的能力，使学生得到从事本专业工作和进行相关的基本训练。毕业论文应反映出作者能够准确地掌握所学的专业基础知识，基本学会综合运用所学知识进行科学研究的方法，对所研究的题目有一定的心得体会，论文题目的范围不宜过宽，一般选择本学科某一重要问题的一个侧面。毕业论文的基本教学要求是：1、培养学生综合运用、巩固与扩展所学的基础理论和专业知识，培养学生独立分析、解决实际问题能力、培养学生处理数据和信息的能力；2、培养学生正确的理论联系实际的工作作风，严肃认真的科学态度；3、培养学生进行社会调查研究；文献资料收集、阅读和整理、使用；提出论点、综合论证、总结写作等基本技能。毕业论文是毕业生总结性的独立作业，是学生运用在校学习的基本知识和基础理论，去分析、解决一两个实际问题的实践锻炼过程，也是学生在校学习期间学习成果的综合性总结，是整个教学活动中不可缺少的重要环节。撰写毕业论文对于培养学生初步的科学研究能力，提高其综合运用所学知识分析问题、解决问题能力有着重要意义。毕业论文在进行编写的过程中，需要经过开题报告、论文编写、论文上交评定、论文答辩以及论文评分五个过程，其中开题报告是论文进行的最重要的一个过程，也是论文能否进行的一个重要指标。问题三：论文的参考文献怎么写？列出参考文献的作用：①论证作者的论点，启发作者的思维；②同作者的实验结果相比较；③反映严肃的科学研究工作态度，亦为读者深入研究提供有关文献的线索所引用的参考文献篇数不宜过多，论著类论文要求在10篇左右，综述类文章以20篇左右为宜所引文献均应是作者亲自查阅过的，并注意多引用权威性、专业性杂志近年发表的相关论文参考文献列出时要按文献在文章中出现的先后，编数码，依次列出完整的参考文献（书籍）写法应列出文献的作者（译文注明译者）、书名、页数、出版者、出版时间、版次等完整的参考文献（论文）写法应列出文献的作者、文章标题、期刊名称、年/卷/期、起讫页数等问题四：论文结尾参考文献中，以网络文章作为参考资料的应当如何标明我也在想这个问题，有解的话通知我我找到了问题五：请问，科技论文中参考文献能否有来自于网络，比方说某网站。如果能的话，参考文献中书写的格式怎样的？谢可以！我是国外的硕士学位，就此问题专门问过导师，他说必须用网络上的资料时，copy并且paste网页地址栏里的整个链接地址，后面再注上你的copy日期，同时自己保存好考屏图片以供未来有可能碰到的质询或答辩！但是，有一种例外，只有在你确定该内容确实没有纸件出版物时才可以用，而且，教授告诉我说，这样的引用越少越好，因为这类资料通常不太具有论证力。格式：；2006年11月13日引自百度知道问题六：写论文如果是从百度文库找的资料，该怎么写参考文献啊？参考文献的类型划到划到网络资料一类。问题七：写论文时都是参考百度文库里的一些内容，那这个参考文献要怎么写呀？参考文献要写原文的名字，要具有权威性的。这样能增强自己论文的说服力。百度文库在学术上没有发言权，只能用来给自己参考。问题八：论文引用百度百科的资料怎么标注10分问题九：论文里引用百度文库的文章作为参考文献，那参考文献的作者应该怎么写论文里引用百度文库的文章作为参考文献，怎么可能文章上面没写作者？？？？？？论文题目下面都有作者的好不好！！！！！！1,2,3作者的都有。实在不行就换一篇文章嘛，现在论文泛滥，同类型的论文一堆堆，你可以去中国知网上面去找嘛，百度文库不是专业的学术网站。并且没有人去追究参考文献作者，只看参考文献的格式。参考文献作者乱写也没事，问题十：论文参考文献怎么写一篇文章的引用参考部分包括注释和参考文献两部分，注释是作者自己的解释（转引的参考文献也可以放在注释里），参考阀献仅需列出参考书或论文的名称、作者、出版社或发表的期刊、著作时间或期刊期数等。注释用圆圈12标注，放脚注，参考文献用[1][2]标注，放尾注。有的刊物要求注释和参考文献都要在内文标注，有的刊物对参考文献不要求内文标注，在尾注列出就行。按最新的CNKI规范的要求应是前者。为保险起见，你还是都标吧。注：参考文献如是著作要标页码，论文只要标出期刊是第几期。例：参考文献：[1]金福海.论建立我国的惩罚性赔偿制度[J].中国法学,1994,(3).[2]杨立新.“王海现象”的民法思考――论消费者权益保护中的惩罚性赔偿金[J].河北法学,1997,(5).[3]金福海.消费者法论[M].北京:北京大学出版社，2005:251.[4]闫玮.完善我国中的惩罚性赔偿制度[J].太原师范学院学报,2007,(1).[5]梁慧星.第49条的解释适用[J].民商法论丛,2001,(3).[6]王.论我国中的惩罚性赔偿[J].现代商业,194.[7]梁慧星.关于第49条的解释适用[N].人民法院报,2001-3-29.[8]孔祥俊.公平交易执法前沿问题研究[M].北京:工商出版社,1998:219.

(美)康斯坦斯·M.卢瑟亚特()等著,英勇,于小东总译校.财产与责任保险原理[M]. 北京大学出版社, 2003 (美)小哈罗德·斯凯博()等编著,荆涛等译.国际风险与保险[M]. 机械工业出版社, 1999 (美)所罗门·许布纳()等著,陈欣等译.财产和责任保险[M]. 中国人民大学出版社, 2002 【英】Malcolm A. Clarke 著、何美欢、吴志攀等译：《保险合同法》，北京大学出版社 2002 年版。 Mckendrick :“Contract Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2003 年版。 H. Whincup：“Contract Law and Practice—the EnglishSystem and Continental Comparisons” 中信出版社,2003 年版。 F. Dobbyn : “Insurance Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2001年版。 Lowry , Philip Rawlings : “Insurance Law :Doctrines andPrinciples” , Hart Publishing Ltd. (1999). Hodgin :“Insurance Law :Text and Materials” (SecondEdition) Cavendish Publishing Limited (2002) . L. Emanuel：“Contracts”，中信出版社 2003 年版。 A. Eisenberg:“Disclosure in Contract Law”，91 CaliforniaLaw Review （2003）. T. Kronman :“Mistake, Disclosure, Information, and theLaw of Contracts”,7(1) Journal of Legal Studies (1978). J :“Insurer’s breach of good faith——a newtort?”,(1992) 108 LQR 35.这些都是比较好的

写参考书的名称、作者、著作时间等，在论文的最后。

保险论文英文参考文献

下面是我整理的保险论文英文参考文献，希望对大家有所帮助。

[1]Syed ， Ali ，and NJohn Kurian. Toward a Theory of Agricultural Insurance[J] .American Journal of Agricultural Economics，Vol. 64，，Aug，1982

[2]Carl and Edna . Further Toward a Theory of Agricultural Insurance[ J] .American Journal of Agricultural Economics， Vol. 69’ ， Aug， 1987

[3] Barry . An Empirical Analysis of the Demand for Multiple Peril Crop Insurance [J].American Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 75，No. 2，May， 1993

[5] ， and . "Subsidized Crop Insurance and Extensive Margin"University of California，Berkeley，Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Policy，2

[6] Moschini G and Hennessy . Uncertainty，Risk Aversion and Risk Management for Agricultural Producers [J] .American Journal of Agricultural

[7] Barry ，Monte ，and John . An EmpiricalAnalysis of Acreage Effects of Participation In The Federal Crop Insurance Program[J].American Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 86， No. 4，Nov， 24

[8] Keith H. Coble，Thomas ， Rulon ，and Jeffery R. Expected-IndemnityApproach to the Measurement of Moral Hazard in Crop InsurancefJ] .American Journal of AgriculturalEconomics. Vol. 79，No. 1，Feb， 1997

保险论文的英文文献参考

insuranceHealth insurance works by estimating the overall risk of healthcare expenses and developing a routine finance structure (such as a monthly premium or annual tax) that will ensure that money is available to pay for the healthcare benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization, most often either a government agency or a private or not-for-profit entity operating a health it worksA Health insurance policy is a contract between an insurance company and an individual. The contract can be renewable annually or monthly. The type and amount of health care costs that will be covered by the health plan are specified in advance, in the member contract or Evidence of Coverage booklet. The individual policy-holder's payment obligations may take several forms[7]:Premium: The amount the policy-holder pays to the health plan each month to purchase health coverage. Deductible: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out-of-pocket before the health plan pays its share. For example, a policy-holder might have to pay a $500 deductible per year, before any of their health care is covered by the health plan. It may take several doctor's visits or prescription refills before the policy-holder reaches the deductible and the health plan starts to pay for care. Copayment: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out of pocket before the health plan pays for a particular visit or service. For example, a policy-holder might pay a $45 copayment for a doctor's visit, or to obtain a prescription. A copayment must be paid each time a particular service is obtained. Coinsurance: Instead of paying a fixed amount up front (a copayment), the policy-holder must pay a percentage of the total cost. For example, the member might have to pay 20% of the cost of a surgery, while the health plan pays the other 80%. Because there is no upper limit on coinsurance, the policy-holder can end up owing very little, or a significant amount, depending on the actual costs of the services they obtain. Exclusions: Not all services are covered. The policy-holder is generally expected to pay the full cost of non-covered services out of their own pocket. Coverage limits: Some health plans only pay for health care up to a certain dollar amount. The policy-holder may be expected to pay any charges in excess of the health plan's maximum payment for a specific service. In addition, some plans have annual or lifetime coverage maximums. In these cases, the health plan will stop payment when they reach the benefit maximum, and the policy-holder must pay all remaining costs. Out-of-pocket maximums: Similar to coverage limits, except that in this case, the member's payment obligation ends when they reach the out-of-pocket maximum, and the health plan pays all further covered costs. Out-of-pocket maximums can be limited to a specific benefit category (such as prescription drugs) or can apply to all coverage provided during a specific benefit year. Capitation: An amount paid by an insurer to a health care provider, for which the provider agrees to treat all members of the insurer. In-Network Provider: A health care provider on a list of providers preselected by the insurer. The insurer will offer discounted coinsurance or copayments, or additional benefits, to a plan member to see an in-network provider. Generally, providers in network are providers who have a contract with the insurer to accept rates further discounted from the "usual and customary" charges the insurer pays to out-of-network providers. Prescription drug plans are a form of insurance offered through some employer benefit plans in the US, where the patient pays a copayment and the prescription drug insurance part or all of the balance for drugs covered in the formulary of the , if not most, health care providers in the United States will agree to bill the insurance company if patients are willing to sign an agreement that they will be responsible for the amount that the insurance company doesn't pay. The insurance company pays out of network providers according to "reasonable and customary" charges, which may be less than the provider's usual fee. The provider may also have a separate contract with the insurer to accept what amounts to a discounted rate or capitation to the provider's standard charges. It generally costs the patient less to use an in-network plan vs. health insuranceHistorically, HMOs tended to use the term "health plan", while commercial insurance companies used the term "health insurance". A health plan can also refer to a subscription-based medical care arrangement offered through health maintenance organization, HMO, PPO, or POS plan. These plans are similar to pre-paid dental, pre-paid legal, and pre-paid vision plans. Pre-paid health plans typically pay for a fixed number of services (for instance, $300 in preventive care, a certain number of days of hospice care or care in a skilled nursing facility, a fixed number of home health visits, a fixed number of spinal manipulation charges, etc.) The services offered are usually at the discretion of a utilization review nurse who is often contracted through the managed care entity providing the subscription health plan. This determination may be made either prior to or after hospital admission (concurrent utilization review).[edit] Inherent problems with insuranceInsurance systems must typically deal with two inherent challenges: adverse selection, which affects any voluntary system, and ex-post moral hazard, which affects any insurance system in which a third party bears major responsibility for payment, whether that is an employer or the government. Some national systems with compulsory insurance utilize systems such as risk equalization and community rating to overcome these inherent problems.[edit] Adverse selectionInsurance companies use the term "adverse selection" to describe the tendency for only those who will benefit from insurance to buy it. Specifically when talking about health insurance, unhealthy people are more likely to purchase health insurance because they anticipate large medical bills. On the other side, people who consider themselves to be reasonably healthy may decide that medical insurance is an unnecessary expense; if they see the doctor once a year and it costs $250, that's much better than making monthly insurance payments of $40. (example figures).The fundamental concept of insurance is that it balances costs across a large, random sample of individuals (see risk pool). For instance, an insurance company has a pool of 1000 randomly selected subscribers, each paying $100 per month. One person becomes very ill while the others stay healthy, allowing the insurance company to use the money paid by the healthy people to pay for the treatment costs of the sick person. However, when the pool is self-selecting rather than random, as is the case with individuals seeking to purchase health insurance directly, adverse selection is a greater concern.[8] A disproportionate share of health care spending is attributable to individuals with high health care costs. In the US the 1% of the population with the highest spending accounted for 27% of aggregate health care spending in 1996. The highest-spending 5% of the population accounted for more than half of all spending. These patterns were stable through the 1970s and 1980s, and some data suggest that they may have been typical of the mid-to-early 20th century as well.[9][10] A few individuals have extremely high medical expenses, in extreme cases totaling a half million dollars or more.[11] Adverse selection could leave an insurance company with primarily sick subscribers and no way to balance out the cost of their medical expenses with a large number of healthy of adverse selection, insurance companies employ medical underwriting, using a patient's medical history to screen out those whose pre-existing medical conditions pose too great a risk for the risk pool. Before buying health insurance, a person typically fills out a comprehensive medical history form that asks whether the person smokes, how much the person weighs, whether the person has been treated for any of a long list of diseases and so on. In general, those who present large financial burdens are denied coverage or charged high premiums to compensate.[12] One large US industry survey found that roughly 13 percent of applicants for comprehensive, individually purchased health insurance who went through the medical underwriting in 2004 were denied coverage. Declination rates increased significantly with age, rising from 5 percent for individuals 18 and under to just under a third for individuals aged 60 to 64.[13] Among those who were offered coverage, the study found that 76% received offers at standard premium rates, and 22% were offered higher rates.[14] On the other side, applicants can get discounts if they do not smoke and are healthy.[15]Health insurance in CanadaMost health insurance in Canada is administered by each province, under the Canada Health Act, which requires all people to have free access to basic health services. Collectively, the public provincial health insurance systems in Canada are frequently referred to as Medicare. Private health insurance is allowed, but the provincial governments allow it only for services that the public health plans do not cover; for example, semi-private or private rooms in hospitals and prescription drug plans. Canadians are free to use private insurance for elective medical services such as laser vision correction surgery, cosmetic surgery, and other non-basic medical procedures. Some 65% of Canadians have some form of supplementary private health insurance; many of them receive it through their employers.[17] Private-sector services not paid for by the government account for nearly 30 percent of total health care spending.[18]In 2005, the Supreme Court of Quebec ruled, in Chaoulli v. Quebec, that the province's prohibition on private insurance for health care already insured by the provincial plan could constitute an infringement of the right to life and security if there were long wait times for treatment as happened in this case. Certain other provinces have legislation which financially discourages but does not forbid private health insurance in areas covered by the public plans. The ruling has not changed the overall pattern of health insurance across Canada but has spurred on attempts to tackle the core issues of supply and demand and the impact of wait times.[19]Health insurance in the NetherlandsIn the Netherlands in 2006, a new system of health insurance came into force. All insurance companies have to provide at least one policy which meets a government set minimum standard level of cover and all adult residents are obliged by law to purchase this cover from an insurance company of their new system avoids the two pitfalls of adverse selection and moral hazard associated with traditional forms of health the Dutch system, insurance companies are compensated for taking on high risk individuals because they receive extra funding for them. This funding comes from an insurance equalization pool run by a regulator which collects salary based contributions from employers (about 45% of all health care funding) and funding from the government for people whose means are such that they cannot afford health care (about 5% of all funding). Thus insurance companies find that insuring high risk individuals becomes an attractive proposition. All insurance companies receive from the pool, but those with more high risk individuals will receive more from the fund. The remaining 45% of health care funding comes from insurance premiums paid by the public. Insurance companies compete for this money on price alone. The insurance companies are not allowed to set down any co-payments or caps or deductibles. Neither are they allowed to deny coverage to any person applying for a policy or charge anything other than their nationally set and internet published standard policy premiums. Every person buying insurance from that company will pay the same price as everyone else buying that policy. And every person will get the minimum level of coverage. Children under 18 are insured for free (the funding coming from the equalization pool).In addition to this minimum level, companies are free to sell extra insurance for additional coverage over the national minimum, but extra risks for this are not covered from the insurance pool and must therefore be priced insurance in the United KingdomMain article: National Health ServiceGreat Britain's National Health Service (NHS) is a publicly funded healthcare system that provides coverage to everyone normally resident in the UK. The NHS provides the majority of health care in England, including primary care, in-patient care, long-term health care, ophthalmology and dentistry. Private health care has continued parallel to the NHS, paid for largely by private insurance, but it is used by less than 8% of the population, and generally as a top-up to NHS services. Recently the private sector has been increasingly used to increase NHS capacity despite a large proportion of the British public opposing such involvement.[20]. According to the World Health Organization, government funding covered 86% of overall health care expenditures in the UK as of 2004, with private expenditures covering the remaining 14%.[21] The costs of running the NHS (est. £104 billion in 2007-8)[22] are met directly from general National Health Service Act 1946 came into effect on 5 July 1948. The UK government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by a Secretary of State for Health (Health Secretary), who sits in the British Cabinet. The NHS is the world's largest health service, and the world's third largest employer[23] after the Chinese army and the Indian insurance in the United States

20000字左右？报酬也太低点了吧？建议你还是到专业汽车、保险等网站、论坛上去找吧！

If you'd like to get quick auto insurance quotes, or find a local car insurance agent, you're in the right place. But we offer much more than car insurance. Thousands of satisfied customers depend on us for insurance on their homes. Plus we are America's #1 RV insurance specialist. Health insuranceHealth insurance works by estimating the overall risk of healthcare expenses and developing a routine finance structure (such as a monthly premium or annual tax) that will ensure that money is available to pay for the healthcare benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization, most often either a government agency or a private or not-for-profit entity operating a health it worksA Health insurance policy is a contract between an insurance company and an individual. The contract can be renewable annually or monthly. The type and amount of health care costs that will be covered by the health plan are specified in advance, in the member contract or Evidence of Coverage booklet. The individual policy-holder's payment obligations may take several forms[7]:Premium: The amount the policy-holder pays to the health plan each month to purchase health coverage. Deductible: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out-of-pocket before the health plan pays its share. For example, a policy-holder might have to pay a $500 deductible per year, before any of their health care is covered by the health plan. It may take several doctor's visits or prescription refills before the policy-holder reaches the deductible and the health plan starts to pay for care. Copayment: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out of pocket before the health plan pays for a particular visit or service. For example, a policy-holder might pay a $45 copayment for a doctor's visit, or to obtain a prescription. A copayment must be paid each time a particular service is obtained. Coinsurance: Instead of paying a fixed amount up front (a copayment), the policy-holder must pay a percentage of the total cost. For example, the member might have to pay 20% of the cost of a surgery, while the health plan pays the other 80%. Because there is no upper limit on coinsurance, the policy-holder can end up owing very little, or a significant amount, depending on the actual costs of the services they obtain. Exclusions: Not all services are covered. The policy-holder is generally expected to pay the full cost of non-covered services out of their own pocket. Coverage limits: Some health plans only pay for health care up to a certain dollar amount. The policy-holder may be expected to pay any charges in excess of the health plan's maximum payment for a specific service. In addition, some plans have annual or lifetime coverage maximums. In these cases, the health plan will stop payment when they reach the benefit maximum, and the policy-holder must pay all remaining costs. Out-of-pocket maximums: Similar to coverage limits, except that in this case, the member's payment obligation ends when they reach the out-of-pocket maximum, and the health plan pays all further covered costs. Out-of-pocket maximums can be limited to a specific benefit category (such as prescription drugs) or can apply to all coverage provided during a specific benefit year. Capitation: An amount paid by an insurer to a health care provider, for which the provider agrees to treat all members of the insurer. In-Network Provider: A health care provider on a list of providers preselected by the insurer. The insurer will offer discounted coinsurance or copayments, or additional benefits, to a plan member to see an in-network provider. Generally, providers in network are providers who have a contract with the insurer to accept rates further discounted from the "usual and customary" charges the insurer pays to out-of-network providers. Prescription drug plans are a form of insurance offered through some employer benefit plans in the US, where the patient pays a copayment and the prescription drug insurance part or all of the balance for drugs covered in the formulary of the , if not most, health care providers in the United States will agree to bill the insurance company if patients are willing to sign an agreement that they will be responsible for the amount that the insurance company doesn't pay. The insurance company pays out of network providers according to "reasonable and customary" charges, which may be less than the provider's usual fee. The provider may also have a separate contract with the insurer to accept what amounts to a discounted rate or capitation to the provider's standard charges. It generally costs the patient less to use an in-network plan vs. health insuranceHistorically, HMOs tended to use the term "health plan", while commercial insurance companies used the term "health insurance". A health plan can also refer to a subscription-based medical care arrangement offered through health maintenance organization, HMO, PPO, or POS plan. These plans are similar to pre-paid dental, pre-paid legal, and pre-paid vision plans. Pre-paid health plans typically pay for a fixed number of services (for instance, $300 in preventive care, a certain number of days of hospice care or care in a skilled nursing facility, a fixed number of home health visits, a fixed number of spinal manipulation charges, etc.) The services offered are usually at the discretion of a utilization review nurse who is often contracted through the managed care entity providing the subscription health plan. This determination may be made either prior to or after hospital admission (concurrent utilization review).[edit] Inherent problems with insuranceInsurance systems must typically deal with two inherent challenges: adverse selection, which affects any voluntary system, and ex-post moral hazard, which affects any insurance system in which a third party bears major responsibility for payment, whether that is an employer or the government. Some national systems with compulsory insurance utilize systems such as risk equalization and community rating to overcome these inherent problems.[edit] Adverse selectionInsurance companies use the term "adverse selection" to describe the tendency for only those who will benefit from insurance to buy it. Specifically when talking about health insurance, unhealthy people are more likely to purchase health insurance because they anticipate large medical bills. On the other side, people who consider themselves to be reasonably healthy may decide that medical insurance is an unnecessary expense; if they see the doctor once a year and it costs $250, that's much better than making monthly insurance payments of $40. (example figures).The fundamental concept of insurance is that it balances costs across a large, random sample of individuals (see risk pool). For instance, an insurance company has a pool of 1000 randomly selected subscribers, each paying $100 per month. One person becomes very ill while the others stay healthy, allowing the insurance company to use the money paid by the healthy people to pay for the treatment costs of the sick person. However, when the pool is self-selecting rather than random, as is the case with individuals seeking to purchase health insurance directly, adverse selection is a greater concern.[8] A disproportionate share of health care spending is attributable to individuals with high health care costs. In the US the 1% of the population with the highest spending accounted for 27% of aggregate health care spending in 1996. The highest-spending 5% of the population accounted for more than half of all spending. These patterns were stable through the 1970s and 1980s, and some data suggest that they may have been typical of the mid-to-early 20th century as well.[9][10] A few individuals have extremely high medical expenses, in extreme cases totaling a half million dollars or more.[11] Adverse selection could leave an insurance company with primarily sick subscribers and no way to balance out the cost of their medical expenses with a large number of healthy of adverse selection, insurance companies employ medical underwriting, using a patient's medical history to screen out those whose pre-existing medical conditions pose too great a risk for the risk pool. Before buying health insurance, a person typically fills out a comprehensive medical history form that asks whether the person smokes, how much the person weighs, whether the person has been treated for any of a long list of diseases and so on. In general, those who present large financial burdens are denied coverage or charged high premiums to compensate.[12] One large US industry survey found that roughly 13 percent of applicants for comprehensive, individually purchased health insurance who went through the medical underwriting in 2004 were denied coverage. Declination rates increased significantly with age, rising from 5 percent for individuals 18 and under to just under a third for individuals aged 60 to 64.[13] Among those who were offered coverage, the study found that 76% received offers at standard premium rates, and 22% were offered higher rates.[14] On the other side, applicants can get discounts if they do not smoke and are healthy.[15]Health insurance in CanadaMost health insurance in Canada is administered by each province, under the Canada Health Act, which requires all people to have free access to basic health services. Collectively, the public provincial health insurance systems in Canada are frequently referred to as Medicare. Private health insurance is allowed, but the provincial governments allow it only for services that the public health plans do not cover; for example, semi-private or private rooms in hospitals and prescription drug plans. Canadians are free to use private insurance for elective medical services such as laser vision correction surgery, cosmetic surgery, and other non-basic medical procedures. Some 65% of Canadians have some form of supplementary private health insurance; many of them receive it through their employers.[17] Private-sector services not paid for by the government account for nearly 30 percent of total health care spending.[18]In 2005, the Supreme Court of Quebec ruled, in Chaoulli v. Quebec, that the province's prohibition on private insurance for health care already insured by the provincial plan could constitute an infringement of the right to life and security if there were long wait times for treatment as happened in this case. Certain other provinces have legislation which financially discourages but does not forbid private health insurance in areas covered by the public plans. The ruling has not changed the overall pattern of health insurance across Canada but has spurred on attempts to tackle the core issues of supply and demand and the impact of wait times.[19]Health insurance in the NetherlandsIn the Netherlands in 2006, a new system of health insurance came into force. All insurance companies have to provide at least one policy which meets a government set minimum standard level of cover and all adult residents are obliged by law to purchase this cover from an insurance company of their new system avoids the two pitfalls of adverse selection and moral hazard associated with traditional forms of health the Dutch system, insurance companies are compensated for taking on high risk individuals because they receive extra funding for them. This funding comes from an insurance equalization pool run by a regulator which collects salary based contributions from employers (about 45% of all health care funding) and funding from the government for people whose means are such that they cannot afford health care (about 5% of all funding). Thus insurance companies find that insuring high risk individuals becomes an attractive proposition. All insurance companies receive from the pool, but those with more high risk individuals will receive more from the fund. The remaining 45% of health care funding comes from insurance premiums paid by the public. Insurance companies compete for this money on price alone. The insurance companies are not allowed to set down any co-payments or caps or deductibles. Neither are they allowed to deny coverage to any person applying for a policy or charge anything other than their nationally set and internet published standard policy premiums. Every person buying insurance from that company will pay the same price as everyone else buying that policy. And every person will get the minimum level of coverage. Children under 18 are insured for free (the funding coming from the equalization pool).In addition to this minimum level, companies are free to sell extra insurance for additional coverage over the national minimum, but extra risks for this are not covered from the insurance pool and must therefore be priced insurance in the United KingdomMain article: National Health ServiceGreat Britain's National Health Service (NHS) is a publicly funded healthcare system that provides coverage to everyone normally resident in the UK. The NHS provides the majority of health care in England, including primary care, in-patient care, long-term health care, ophthalmology and dentistry. Private health care has continued parallel to the NHS, paid for largely by private insurance, but it is used by less than 8% of the population, and generally as a top-up to NHS services. Recently the private sector has been increasingly used to increase NHS capacity despite a large proportion of the British public opposing such involvement.[20]. According to the World Health Organization, government funding covered 86% of overall health care expenditures in the UK as of 2004, with private expenditures covering the remaining 14%.[21] The costs of running the NHS (est. £104 billion in 2007-8)[22] are met directly from general National Health Service Act 1946 came into effect on 5 July 1948. The UK government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by a Secretary of State for Health (Health Secretary), who sits in the British Cabinet. The NHS is the world's largest health service, and the world's third largest employer[23] after the Chinese army and the Indian insurance in the United States 参考资料：

我国金融衍生产品市场发展现状与对策[摘要] 金融衍生产品自20世纪80年代以来经历了一个迅速发展过程,国际金融市场因金融衍生产品的出现而异彩纷呈,金融衍生产品市场交易额的增长速度大大超过了传统金融产品,并逐步成为国际市场的重要组成部分和发展的驱动力。随着我国人民币汇率制度改革、利率市场化及资本市场股权分置改革等进程的不断加快,金融衍生产品在国内市场的发展契机已经到来。本文对国内金融衍生市场的现状、问题及发展前景进行分析,借鉴国际金融衍生市场经验对我国金融衍生产品市场发展提出对策建议。[关键词] 金融衍生产品风险规避金融创新金融衍生产品是在20世纪七八十年代初新一轮金融创新的背景下兴起和发展起来的. 近20年来,金融衍生产品市场的迅速发展已经成为国际金融市场最显着、最重要的特征之一。据国际清算银行(BIS)统计报告显示,从2004年中期至2007年中期,全球衍生品交易量,从220万亿美元升至516万亿美元;名义价值折合年率上升33%。我国金融衍生产品市场起步较晚,近些年来,随着我国利率市场化和汇率形成机制改革进程的不断深入,利率风险和汇率风险日益显现.同时,金融机构和企业面临的竞争日益加剧.完善我国金融市场体系,发展金融衍生产品市场,是我国金融业的必然选择。一、我国金融衍生产品市场发展现状1.我国金融衍生产品市场发展状况以上世纪90年代初少数机构开展地下期货交易为起点,我国金融衍生产品市场先后出现了外汇期货、国债期货、指数期货及配股权证等交易品种。1992年~1995年间,上海和海南的交易所曾推出过国债和股指期货; 2004年推出的买断式回购,2005年推出的银行间债券远期交易、人民币远期产品、人民币互换和远期结算的机构安排等,意味着中国衍生品市场已小荷初露。此后,伴随着股权分置改革而创立的各式权证使衍生品开始进入普通投资者的视野,权证市场成为仅次于香港的全球第二大市场。2006年9月8日,中国金融期货交易所在上海挂牌成立,拉开了我国金融衍生品市场发展的大幕。黄金期货于2008年1月9日在上海期货交易所的鸣锣上市,使得期货市场品种体系进一步健全,除石油外,国外成熟市场主要的大宗商品期货品种基本上都在我国上市交易。2.我国金融衍生产品市场存在的主要问题尽管我国金融衍生品市场发展较快,目前仍处于起步阶段,存在许多问题.(1)市场规范化建设不足一般而言,各金融衍生市场的具体管理制度依各自情况而定,但就其总的原则章程来讲,又是一致的、规范的。这种规范化便于交易,并能够促进衍生产品的进一步发展。我国金融衍生产品的发展不仅没有做到规范起步,而且其监督管理也处于混乱的状态。首先表现在多头管理上,证监会、人行、国家发改会、财政部、地方政府以及沪深证券交易所都享有一定的管理权。导致政出多门、市场政策缺乏稳定性、交易所之间不平等竞争,管理混乱。其次,交易制度、交易程序不规范。(2)现货市场规模不匹配由于衍生产品的派生性,任何衍生产品市场的发展,都要有成熟完善的现货市场作保证。没有合理的现货市场规模,就不会有合理的市场价格。市场容量越小,就越易造成价格的人为控制。表现在国债期货市场上就是多方利用现券流通不足的“瓶颈效应”,在期市上做多的同时,凭借其资金优势,拉升现券价格加以配合,使空方卖空的保证金不断追加并流入自己的户头,造成“多逼空”的市场格局,“314风波”、“327风波”、“319风波”的原因都是在“多逼空”的布场环境下,空方不得已而巨额抛售合约打压价格造成的。(3)产品设计不尽合理金融衍生产品的基本功能是转移风险。然而实践表明,多个品种的运用中风险并未有效转移反而扩大。这是由于金融衍生品“双刃剑”自身特点决定的,而导致我们实践应用中无益而害的导火索即是不尽合理的产品设计。举例说明:国债期货。此产品的设计功能之一就是规避利率风险,但由于我国利率的非市场化,国债到期价格是固定的,这使国债现货的买卖并无风险可避。在这种情况下,推出的国债期货就变成了一种投机手段,国债期货市场变成了各大券商赌博的场所。股票权证。股票权证市场是我国最大的的金融衍生产品市场.它推出的目的,主要是为了满足股权分置改革中非流通股股东降低对价等当期综合成本需要而设计的,带有较浓的行政和福利色彩。该产品并不具备规避市场系统性风险的对冲作用和价格发现功能,自上市以来就被作为搏傻游戏工具。(4)缺少真正市场均衡价格在我国金融市场上,大多数金融价格还不是完全的市场均衡价格,相差于均衡价格之间的价差,即是游资和投机者的争夺之战,这将加大风险范围,削弱其规避风险、发现价格的功能。国家对外汇管制仍然较严,人民币资本项目下自由兑换和利率市场化都还未实现。1996年全国银行间统一拆借利率CHIBOR已经出现,但还远未像英国LIBOR利率那样具有权威性指导作用,还称不上是真正的市场均衡利率。另外,国家对银行存贷款利率、国债发行利率还实行管制,真正的市场利率也还不能形成。(5)信息披露制度不健全金融衍生产品的价格与利率、汇率、股票价格等基础性金融衍生产品价格有密切的关系。我国是一个对金融价格管制较紧的国家,金融产品价格市场化程度不高,国家政策对金融产品价格变化影响很大,并且与重大信息的披露和财政金融政策的公布有密切关系。在市场经济比较成熟的国家,重大的信息披露及有关政策的公布均有严格的程序,泄密者和传播谣言者将会受到严惩,以保证交易公平、公正、公开。我国证券法规将发行人澄清谣传的义务仅限于澄清“公共传播媒介”中出现的谣传,这显然过于狭窄;对“重要问题”的标准界定不清,概念外延很大。另外,在信息披露频率过低。二、我国金融衍生产品发展对策建议1.我国发展金融衍生品市场基本原则和模式选择对于发展我国金融衍生产品市场的指导思想,从宏观上讲,应坚持以市场主导、行政助力的基本原则。金融衍生产品的推进次序处于微观层面,要与我国经济和金融市场改革的进程相适应、相协调。同时金融衍生产品市场的发展,需要市场基础、投资者结构、法律法规的完善等多方面的协调,谨防风险反向作用。从微观上看,需坚持控制风险优先,投机获利次之的原则。我国金融衍生品市场的发展的模式选择应从强制性演进开始,形成强制性演进模式到诱致性演进模式的良性循环和互动。美国和英国采取的诱致性演进模式经验表明,在先发国家的金融衍生品市场上,金融创新者由于满足了市场规模庞大的避险需求而得到垄断利润,因此可以弥补创新的成本,金融衍生品市场发展很快。但是由于金融衍生品的公共产品特性,诱致性演进到了一定的阶段之后也许无法确保市场形成足够的创新。而对于后发国家而言,韩国和新加坡采取的强制性演进模式的经验表明,在先发国家已经取得成功经验的情况下,采用强制性演进模式也许是一个更好的选择,这样可以使后发国家能够以更快的速度发展。2.我国发展金融衍生市场具体措施(1)稳步推进我国金融衍生市场的国际化金融衍生市场本质上是国际化的竞争性市场。一国衍生市场的对外开放通过两种方式实现:一是允许外国资本参与本国衍生产品交易;二是允许本国企业直接进入国际衍生市场,或通过经纪公司代理国外业务。从我国未来的衍生市场的发展来看,实现国际化的目标,需要经过两个发展阶段:一是以开拓国内金融衍生市场为中心的国内经营阶段。这是起步阶段,应重点发展合乎社会需要的衍生产品,完善交易规则和监管体系,培育衍生市场的交易主体。二是金融衍生市场的国际化阶段。在这个阶段上,应当放开对企业和金融机构参与国际衍生市场的限制,同时允许外国资本在规定条件下参与中国衍生市场。(2)科学安排发展金融衍生产品交易顺序金融衍生产品种类繁多,不同的衍生产品所需要的发展基础和条件不尽相同,也不可能同时具备和成熟。因此,发展金融衍生产品交易应科学地安排顺序,时机成熟的先行推出,时机尚不成熟的则积极创造条件,既要积极又要稳妥。首先,优先发展场内交易,适度利用场外交易。场外交易的优势在于更能够适应大型投资机构的需要。与场外市场相比,交易所在资信程度、风险控制、市场组织、制度设计、交易结算等方面有更大的优势,交易所交易的标准化衍生产品透明性更好,流动性更强、成本低,既有利于参与者防范和规避风险,也有利于市场监管。因此,优先发展交易所主导的标准化金融衍生产品符合国内金融市场的实际。与此同时,可以允许更多的金融机构和企业适度地开展场外交易。其次,金融期货的发展先于期权和互换。从期货市场的发展顺序来看,期权是在期货之后发展而来。从某种程度上讲,期权是期货的高级形式,其目的是为期货交易提供一种保值工具。我国应该在总结商品期货运作多年经验的基础上,首先推出金融期货产品,再确定时机逐步推出金融期权、互换等衍生产品,最终形成较为完备的金融衍生产品市场体系。再次,在金融衍生产品发展方面,应以国债期货和股指期货为突破口。我国国债和股票规模都相当大,当前股票市场即使完全规范,其价格波动仍然不可避免,推出股指期货不仅有市场需求,也可减少价格的不合理、非理性波动。我国国债品种多、期限长、数量大,只要利率波动,避险需求就强烈。另外,国债期货也有利于发现远期利率,促进长期投资。

养老保险论文英文文献参考

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书名：Social security and public pension pitfalls好像是美国政府的作品

关于保险论文的英文参考文献

保险的定义及体现的经济关系保险(insurance)(仅指商业保险)是指投保人根据合同约定，向保险人支付保险费，保险人对于合同约定的可能发生的事故因其发生所造成的财产损失承担赔偿保险金责任，或者当被保险人死亡、伤残、疾病或者达到合同约定的年龄、期限时承担给付保险金责任的商业保险行为。保险是以契约形式确立双方经济关系，以缴纳保险费建立起来的保险基金，对保险合同规定范围内的灾害事故所造成的损失，进行经济补偿或给付的一种经济形式。保险是最古老的风险管理方法之一。保险和约中，被保险人支付一个固定金额（保费）给保险人，前者获得保证：在指定时期内，后者对特定事件或事件组造成的任何损失给予一定补偿。保险属于经济范畴，它所揭示的是保险的属性，是保险的本质性的东西。从本质上讲，保险体现的是一种经济关系，表现在：(1)保险人与被保险人的商品交换关系；(2)保险人与被保险人之间的收入再分配关系。从经济角度来看，保险是一种损失分摊方法，以多数单位和个人缴纳保费建立保险基金，使少数成员的损失由全体被保险人分担。从法律意义上说，保险是一种合同行为，即通过签订保险合同，明确双方当事人的权利与义务，被保险人以缴纳保费获取保险合同规定范围内的赔偿，保险人则有收受保费的权利和提供赔偿的义务。由此可见，保险乃是经济关系与法律关系的统一。保险是一种经济制度，同时也是一种法律关系。保险源于海上借贷。到中世纪，意大利出现了冒险借贷，冒险借贷的利息类似于今天的保险费，但因其高额利息被教会禁止而衰落。1384年，比萨出现世界上第一张保险单，现代保险制度从此诞生。保险首先是一种经济制度。保险是为了确保经济生活的安定，对特定危险事故或特定的事件的发生所导致的损失，运用多数单位的集体力量，根据合理的计算，共同建立基金。以为补偿或给付的经济制度构成保险应具备4个要件：①保险必须有危险存在。建立保险制度的目的是对付特定危险事故的发生，无危险则无保险。②保险必须对危险事故造成的损失给以经济补偿。所谓经济补偿是指这种补偿不是恢复已毁灭的原物，也不是赔偿实物，而是进行货币补偿。因此，意外事故所造成的损失必须是在经济上能计算价值的。在人身保险中，人身本身是无法计算价值的，但人的劳动可以创造价值，人的死亡和伤残，会导致劳动力的丧失，从而使个人或者其家庭的收入减少而开支增加，所以人身保险是用经济补偿或给付的办法来弥补这种经济上增加的负担，并非保证人们恢复已失去的劳动力或生命。③保险必须有互助共济关系。保险制度是采取将损失分散到众多单位分担的办法，减少遭灾单位的损失。通过保险，投保人共同交纳保险费，建立保险补偿基金，共同取得保障。④保险的分担金必须合理。保险的补偿基金是由参加保险的人分担的，为使各人负担公平合理，就必须科学地计算分担金。保险是一种法律关系。保险是根据法律规定或当事人双方约定，一方承担支付保险费的义务，换取另一方对其因意外事故或特定事件的出现所导致的损失负责经济补偿或给付的权利的法律关系。

保险投资管理研究/Insurance Investment Management中文关键词保险投资投资方式选择投资阶段选择投资风险控制英文关键词 insurance investment choice of investment mold choice of investment stages investment risk control摘要随着保险市场竞争的日趋加剧，投资收益已经成为保险公司最为主要的利润来源，是保险公司偿付能力额度增强的重要手段、是保险险种产品创新的重要推动力量、是提高保险企业竞争优势的关键举措。因此，对保险投资管理研究极具重要性。从国际资本市场发展情况看，在资本市场的发展与完善以及资本市场和保险投资管制的放松因素驱动的推动下，美国、日本的保险投资得到了大力的发展。发达国家保险投主体模式组建主要有三种，其一是，公司内设投资机构运作模式；其二是，委托专业的投资机构运作模式；其三是，投资管理公司运作模式。从我国的具体发展情况看，我国保险投资起始于1984年。20世纪90年代，由于保险市场的主体的增加，竞争的加剧，保险投资的现状得到了一定的改善。进入新世纪后，我国保险投资开始逐步取得较好的成绩。当前我国现有保险投资工具主要有：银行存款；债券，主要包括国库券、金融债券、企业债券；以及证券投资基金。当前，我国保险投资存在的主要问题是：第一，保险投资过分依赖于银行存款、债券，加剧寿险公司的利率风险；第二，保险投资限制过多使保险费率居高不下，不仅增加被保险人的负担，而且容易导致保险人的费率恶性竞争；第三，保险投资的限制影响了保险投资组合管理策略的实施；第四，保险投资的限制在一定程度上制约了我国保险监管方式由静态监管向动态监管发展；第五，保险投资限制和资本市场的缺陷严重阻碍了保险投资资产负债管理方式的运用。因此，我国保险投资管理的重点是加强对保险投资方式选择和相关的策略研究。在保险投资方式上，要根据我国的具体国情、保险历史、法律环境情况，充分考虑本国经济发展的现实，不能盲目地与发达国家接轨。此外，根据我国资本市场和保险市场的现状，保险投资渠道必须积极稳妥的扩大，保险投资必须有步骤分阶段地进行。在不同阶段应该实施不同的保险投资重点。具体说来，保险投资第一阶段的重点是，加大金融债券的投资力度，扩大企业债券的投资比例；投资于稳定的基础设施参与住房金融业；从事住房抵押贷款；开展保单质押贷款业务。保险投资第二阶段的重点要转移是，提高证券投资基金的投资比例、设立证券投资保险基金或资产管理公司、保险资金直接入市保险资金投资于不动产。保险投资第三阶段重点则要定位为，保险投资与国际接轨，实现投资的国际化。此外，保险投资管理还必须加强风险管理的策略研究，一方面，要加强对保险公司投资风险的宏观监管，要建立现金流量测试模型，公司现金流量测试要由各保险公司的精算师独立完成，对财务比率分析、风险资本要求等指标进行静态监管。另一方面，要加强保险公司对投资风险的管理。保险公司加强保险投资主体模式建设，防范保险投资风险；保险公司应该以内控机制为基础，加强投资风险的防范；保险公司应该将投资管理从传统的财务管理中分离出来，实行专业化的基金管理；灵活运用现代证券投资组合理论，充分发挥投资组合分散投资风险的功能。Abstract In company with more and more cutthroat competition in insurance market, investment yield became the uppermost source of profits, promoted as the important measure for solvency, acted as the force power of product innovation, played as the key for improving the enterprise’s competitive edge. Thereby, investment management of insurance is very important work. In term of international capital market, America and Japan have made a great progress in investment management of insurance under a boost in perfect capital market and relaxing the control of investment management of insurance. The mode of investment in western countries had three patterns: section of a enterprise which contain the investment organization; entrusting the professional organization; investment administration organization. In term of national capital market, China first went about investment management of insurance in 1984. The situation of investment management of insurance improved due to the increasing insurance market subject and the intensifying competition from 1990’s. Nowadays, the development of investment management of insurance getting better and better progressively. The object of insurance investment involved the bank deposit and bond, which including treasury bill, financial bond, corporate bond and security investment fund. The insurance investment in china concerned with the following problems for the present. First, the insurance investment overly dependent upon the bank deposit and bond, which led to increasing interest rate risk of life insurance corporation. Second, the insurance investment overly regulated the rate of premium, which give rise to high rate of premium, piling the pressure on insurants and conducting the cut throat competition among the insurers. Third, the regulation on the insurance investment affected executing the stratagem of portfolio management. Fourth, the regulation on the insurance investment restricted the mold of supervise developing dynamically. Fifth, the regulation on the insurance investment and the imperfect market restricted the mold of the assets and liabilities operation. The key of managing the insurance investment is how to selecting the mold of investment and correlated strategies. In aspect of the mold of investment, we should select the strategies which approached to inhabitant. According to our capital market and insurance market status, the insurance investment should widen the channel step by step. First, the investment section of financial bond and corporate bond should increase. Second, the investment section of security investment fund should increase. Third, the insurance investment should make international. Moreover, the insurance investment should pay attention to risk management, which including macro-supervise and micro-supervise.什么是保险投资保险投资指保险企业在组织经济补偿过程中，将积聚的各种保险资金加以运用，使资金增值的活动。保险企业可运用的保险资金是由资本金、各项准备金和其他可积聚的资金组成。运用暂时闲置的大量准备金是保险资金运动的重要一环。投资能增加收入、增强赔付能力，使保险资金进入良性循环。[编辑]保险投资的原则保险投资原则是保险投资的依据。早在1862年，英国经济学家贝利（）就提出了寿险业投资的五大原则，即：安全性；最高的实际收益率；部分资金投资于能迅速变现的证券；另一部分资金可投资于不能迅速变现的证券；投资应有利于寿险事业的发展。随着资本主义经济发展，金融工具的多样化，以及保险业竞争的加剧，保险投资面临的风险性、收益性也同时提高，投资方式的选择范围更加广阔。1948年英国精算师佩格勒（）修正贝利的观点，提出寿险投资的四大原则：获得最高预期收益；投资应尽量分散；投资结构多样化；投资应将经济效益和社会效益并重。理论界一般认为保险投资有三大原则：安全性；收益性；流动性。1、安全性原则保险企业可运用的资金，除资本金外，主要是各种保险准备金，它们是资产负债表上的负债项目，是保险信用的承担者。因此，保险投资应以安全为第一条件。安全性，意味着资金能如期收回，利润或利息能如数收回。为保证资金运用的安全，必须选择安全性较高的项目。为减少风险，要分散投资。2、收益性原则保险投资的目的，是为了提高自身的经济效益，使投资收入成为保险企业收入的重要来源，增强赔付能力，降低费率和扩大业务。但在投资中，收益与风险是同增的，收益率高，风险也大，这就要求保险投资，把风险限制在一定程度内，实现收益最大化。3、流动性原则保险资金用于赔偿给付，受偶然规律支配。因此，要求保险投资在不损失价值的前提下，能把资产立即变为现金，支付赔款或给付保险金。保险投资要设计多种方式，寻求多种渠道，按适当比例投资，从量的方面加以限制。要按不同险种特点，选择方向。如人寿保险一般是长期合同，保险金额给付也较固定，流动性要求可低一些。国外人寿保险资金投资的相当部分是长期的不动产抵押贷款。财产险和责任险，一般是短期的，理赔迅速，赔付率变动大，应特别强调流动性原则。国外财产和责任保险资金投资的相当部分是商业票据、短期债券等。在我国，保险公司的资金运用必须稳健，遵循安全性原则，并保证资产的保值增值。[编辑]保险投资的形式保险投资的形式是保险公司保险资金投放在哪些具体项目上。合理的投资形式，一方面可以保持保险企业财务稳定性和赔付的可靠性、及时性；另一方面可以避免资金的过份集中从而影响产业结构的合理性。一般而言，保险资金可以投资于：1、有价证券有价证券主要有二种：1）债券。包括政府债券、公司债券和金融债券等。一般地说，投资债券风险较小，尤其是政府债券。投资公司债券时，要特别注重该公司的资信和收益的可靠性。2）股票。投资股票是有风险的，如果企业经营不善，效益不好，预期利息减少，以及影响股市的其他因素不佳，股票就会跌价。在国外对保险企业投资股票都有多种限制，如日本政府保险业法中规定购买股票不得超过总资产的30％。2、抵押贷款抵押贷款是指期限较长又较稳定的业务，特别适合寿险资金的长期运用。世界各国保险企业对住宅楼实行长期抵押贷款，大都采用分期偿还、本金递减的方式，收益较好。3、寿险保单贷款寿险保单具有现金价值。保险合同规定，保单持有人可以本人保单抵押向保险企业申请贷款，但需负担利息，这种贷款属保险投资性质。保单贷款金额限于保单当时的价值，贷款人不用偿贷款，保单会失效，保险企业无需给付保险金。实际上，在这种贷款中保险人不担任何风险。在寿险发达国家，此项业务十分普遍。4、不动产投资不动产投资是指保险资金用于购买土地、房屋等不动产。此项投资的变现性较差，故只能限制在一定的比例之内。日本对保险企业购买不动产，规定不得超过其总资产的10％。5、向为保险配套服务的企业投资比如为保险汽车提供修理服务的汽车修理厂；为保险事故赔偿服务的公证行或查勘公司等。这些企业与保险事业相关，把保险资金投向于这些企业，有利于保险事业的发展。在我国，保险公司的资金运用，限于银行存款、买卖政府债券、金融债券和国务院规定的其他资金运用等形式。并且特别明确规定，保险公司的资金不得用于设立证券经营机构和向企业投资。

参考文献保险期刊

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