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The urban river embankment discuss the ecological constructionAnonymous XXXXXXXXAbstract: the urban river embankment construction as the object, discuss the current social background, analyses and compares the river embankment design of traditional methods and characteristics of ecological methods, and puts forward three modes of ecological design and their advantages and disadvantages, and expounds the present situation of the ecological construction in domestic bank and future : the bank; Ecology; Design way; Domestic situationText:A, backgroundRiver Banks part is the amphibious interlaced transition belt, has the remarkable edge effect. Here are active substances, nutrient and energy flow, offer a habitat for a variety of creatures. Natural state Banks often species richness, productivity traditional embankment design often single ?一、背景河流的堤岸部分是水陆交错的过渡地带，具有显著的边缘效应。这里有活跃的物质、养分和能量的流动，为多种生物提供了栖息地。自然状态下的堤岸往往物种丰富、生产力高。传统的堤岸设计往往会单纯从防洪角度出发，采用土堤或者土石混合堆砌起来高高的堤岸。它的优点在于高度的可靠性，结构设计后加起防护堤岸抗流水冲刷能力显著增强。对于洪水暴发频繁、侵蚀严重的区段，这样的设计无可厚非，而对于一般河流堤岸的修建，这样的设计则显得缺乏环境的美化和绿化，同时也破坏许多对生态起重要作用的自然因素，如破坏植被与河床间的联系，造成冲刷侵蚀转移等。另外，河流作为城市风貌不可多得的珍惜资源，也是城市风貌的特色要素，它的景观塑造显得十分必要。同时，堤岸景观建设必然使滨河地区土地价值提升，滨水开发的高投资回报的特点更增强了对城市堤岸景观建设的需求。二、需求——堤岸的生态化建设河流堤岸作为城市中最邻近河流的区域，是城市与河流的衔接线，它的景观规划是提高城市生活品质的需要，也是丰富城市景观的需要。生态化建设，它的根本思路是运用自然本身抗干扰和自我修复的能力来处理人与自然的关系。生态设计方法不同于传统用人工的结构和形式来取代自然的方法，而是用自然的结构和形式来顺应自然的进程。将河岸与河道在生态上联系起来，也就实现了物质、养分、能量的交流：对于生物，它提供了合适的栖息地；植物根系可固着土壤，枝叶可截留雨水，过滤地表迳流，抵抗流水冲刷，从而起到保护堤岸、增加堤岸结构的稳定性、净化水质、涵养水源的作用，而且随着时间的推移，这些作用被不断加强。同时，生态化建设以自然的外貌出现，容易与环境取得协调，造价也较低，不需要长期的维护管理。三、河流堤岸生态化设计方式河流堤岸生态化设计，要遵守生态设计的原则，注重地方性、保护与节约自然资本、让自然做功、显露自然，主要体现在对地域气候环境、河流地质地貌、水文变化的适应，对河流生态环境的考虑，对堤岸地形的处理和对筑堤材料的选择和构造方式方面。1） 人工类：传统方法是采用块石或混凝土块砖等堆砌。可在此基础上加以改进以适应河流景观设计的需求。a) 块石或混凝土块砖干砌，不用砂浆。这样在砌块之间就留有空隙，为后期滨河植物的生长提供了空间。随着时间的推移，堤岸会逐渐呈现出自然的风貌。b) 堤岸采用台阶式分级，台阶面上的空间加以利用，种植植物。当然这两种改进方法对于河岸处现有植被仍存在一定的不良影响，人工痕迹也过于明显。2） 自然类：充分利用堤岸植被原型，可直接将适用于滨河地带生长的植被种植于堤岸上，利用植物的根、茎、叶来稳固堤岸，防止侵蚀、控制沉积的同时也为生物提供了栖息地。3） 人工自然相结合综合了以上两种方法的优点，具有人工结构的稳定性和自然的外貌，见效快、生态效益好，以下为常见的两种类型：a) 种植植物的堆石将由大小不同的石块组成的堆石置于与水接触的土壤表面，再把活体切枝插入石堆中使斜坡更加稳定。根系可提高强度，植被可遮盖石块，使堤岸外貌更加自然。b) 与植物结合使用的插孔式混凝土块将预制的混凝土块以连锁的形式置于岸底的浅渠中，再将植物切枝或植株扦插于混凝土块之间和堤岸上部，其上覆土压实，再播种草本植物。堤岸生态化建设也存在一定的局限性。如：选用的材料及建造方法不同，堤岸的防护能力相差很大，需要运用多学科知识认真分析，这就为设计人员提出了更大的挑战；建造初期若受到强烈干扰，则会影响到以后防护作用的发挥等。这也就对河流堤岸的生态化设计提出了更高的要求。四、国内现状1）省会城市在我国省会城市及计划单列市中有近80％进行了堤岸景观规划。（参考文献[3]）城 市 项目名称 城 市 项目名称北 京 长河城市水系统综合治理 南 宁 堤岸园工程长 沙 湘江风光带 宁 波 滨江大道沿江景观工程成 都 府南河绿化工程 上 海 外滩、陆家嘴滨江大道福 州 闵江江滨公园 沈 阳 浑河观光旅游带广 州 珠江二沙段堤岸景观、芳村长堤建设 太 原 汾河公园贵 阳 南明河景观绿化工程 天 津 海河堤岸改造工程哈尔滨 松花江南岸沿江风景长廊 武 汉 汉口江滩一二期工程昆 明 盘龙江中段滨水生态景观建设 西 安 灞河大水大绿工程兰 州 黄河风情线 重 庆 南滨路滨江旅游观光大道从规划后建成情况看，这些城市河流堤岸景观项目都得到了当地政府与市民的肯定。在这些项目中，堤岸既可成为当地最具吸引力的城市公园，如太原的汾河公园和福州的江滨公园；堤岸也可成为市民日常休闲活动的热点地段，如南宁的堤路园和武汉的汉口江滩工程；堤岸还可成为城市最具特色的地段，如重庆的南滨路滨江旅游观光大道；堤岸更可成为城市旅游的热点，如上海的外滩和陆家嘴滨江大道。总之，经过景观规划的堤岸已成为当地最具特色的地区。从建设效果看，相对堤岸的原来面貌而言，统计资料中的这些景观工程都是较成功的，都成为当地城市关注的热点，成为当地政府的政绩工程，成为当地的民心工程。城市河流堤岸通过景观规划，有效地改善了滨河地段的环境，并带动滨河地段的开发。但必须清醒地认识到，这些城市堤岸景观项目规划并非尽善尽美，也存在这样或那样的问题，仍有待完善。2）中小城市城市经济实力的强大决定了其城市建设水平的高标准和高水平。中小城市河流堤岸景观与统计资料中的城市存在较大的差距，存在更多的问题。特别是由于资金问题，堤岸景观是，纯人工，状态的钢筋混凝土防洪堤，或保持自然防洪状态的土石堤，没有经过景观规划，易造成城市资源的极大浪费。五、前景目前，河流景观建设，特别是城市河流景观建设，在中国正方兴未艾；在发达国家中也是一个久盛不衰的话题。 回顾发达国家河流景观建设的历史，自20世纪70年代以来，随着人们环境意识的普遍增强，重视河流景观的生态功能已成为一个时代的呼唤，河流景观建设的生态设计方法也已得到了空前的重视和发展。他山之石可以攻玉，借鉴发达国家已经形成的成熟的理念和做法，可以使我们少走弯路，搭上隆隆前进的生态建设之车。
Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schedule. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general , in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schedule. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions. Such inspections may be made at frequent addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to proceed. The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the project. Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local conditions. A survey is then made to lay out offices for the contractor are erected on or near the site. If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted , the site is prepared to receive the building. This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility piping. For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building rests. This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural framing. Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the roof. Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper levels. If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are installed. Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are constructed. At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are installed. If required, fireproofing is placed for steel framing. Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,Finishing operations follow. There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and specifications. Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the site. Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the building. The sit is landscaped and paved. Finally, the building interior is painted and owner’s representatives then give the building a final inspection. If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code requirements.传统的施工程序众所周知，在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。尽管他们想满足业主和建筑设计师的要求，但是最终还是以赚取利润为主要目标的。因此，他们最初的任务是对编写投标价格的建筑成本进行准确的估计。这就需要进行前期调查的工作并且做出施工时间表。等合约批出后，施工方必须提供所有材料并支付其费用，设备，电力，劳动力。业主此时需要进行必要的监督。一个总承包商承担一个建筑整体的责任。从事分包的承建商则需承担建造工程所需的各个工作。例如，管道承包商安装水管，电业承办商安装电气系统，电梯则由电梯承包商安装。他们与总承包商签订合同，费用由总承包商支付。有时候，除了一个总承包商，还有各种专业承包商，如电气和机械承包商，执行工作时需要与业主签订合同。这种承包商被称为间接承包商。他们的工作，由总承包商协调，但它们都是由业主直接联系。还有些时候，业主可以使用设计建造方法同时兼有设计和建筑施工单位的职能。这些单位被称为设计建造承包商。这方面的一个类型的合同聘用的变化是由一户住宅或低层住宅建筑群的开发。在房屋建筑设计和建造的住房，但设计之前需要由购买房屋的业主完成。施工过程管理往往是困难的。因此，一些业主会去寻求专家的协助，这些专家被称为专业施工经理，他们具有丰富的施工经验。施工经理与总承包商进行谈判，并选择其中一个项目。施工经理通常还监督分包商。在施工期间，它们有助于控制成本，加快运送设备和材料，并保持工作的进度。在依法行政，协助设计和建设的情况下，业主可以选择从事建筑项目经理。建筑承包商雇用的劳动力，一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中从事技术活，如木工，管道工，工会成员和电工工会，小工则执行了分配给他们的工作。在施工期间，一切工作都要验收。因此，业主通过建筑师和监理经常进行督查。可能是名为工程员，建筑师或驻地工程师。作为业主的代表实地视察。核查人员必须确保工程符合合同文件的要求，并在安全的条件下进行的责任。这种检查可作出重复。此外，验收还是需要一个或多个政府机构的代表。他们必须确保工程符合法律要求，并负责检查与合同文件是否一致。这种视察一般定期或在某些阶段施工结束以后进行。地方或国家建设部门具有管辖权。这些检查的目的是确保符合当地或国家的建筑规范。以下是传统多层建筑施工的基本程序。建造开始后合同授予开发商，业主可要求开发商开始施工之前签约给或之后签约发出书面通知的同时另一部分工作继续进行。紧接着施工方根据需要获取建筑许可证，例如当地的建设，供水，污水处理，政府机构和公路部门。总承包商的计划和进度详细施工作业以及动员项目设备和人员。分包商得到通知后，做出签订合同的意向或授予分包合同书，然后给出在适当的时候进行通知。在施工前启动，总承包商要进行的一项调查就是邻近结构和地形，这些都要记录在案，并要熟悉当地情况。这项调查结束以后，随即进行布局建设。承建商的现场办事处都建在施工现场或附近。为了安全起见，必须从脚手架上移除的东西，产生的碎片都要运走。下一步，该网架是为建设工程准备的。这项工作为地下室开挖和基础开挖的深度，以及公用事业管道转移找到正确的标高。深挖掘，土方支撑，底部排出。建筑开始于基础上，然后是承重墙和结构框架的施工。梯子，楼梯，或电梯的安装，可让施工人员往返于各个楼层。此外，可安装卷扬机来运送材料。由于建筑高度的上升，管道，电力管道和线路安装以及永久地板，外墙，窗户和构造的影响。在适当的时候，永久的电梯安装。再需要的情况下可以安装防火卷帘。其次，屋顶等地方也需要安装。精加工工序安装有包括以下内容：天花板，瓷砖，墙板，墙壁镶板，水管装置，加热炉，空气调节设备，加热和冷却室装置;自动扶梯;地板，窗户玻璃;活动板，门;电气设备和仪器，包括照明灯具，开关，变压器，控制器，遵照项目的图纸和规格。外地办事处，围栏，桥梁和其他临时建筑，公共设备，如天然气，电力管道，水管，都连接到建筑上。最后，是建筑物内部的打扫和清洗。业主的代表，会给建设工程作最后检查。如果他们满意并认为符合合同文件，那么业主接受该项目，并交给总承包商的一个占用证书，这表明，总承包商已完成建设，建设部门再根据建筑规范的要求发放最后付款。
有一篇施工监控的论文，你查收一下吧，希望对你有用！
Civil engineering in the long history of mankind "science and technology" as a system of civil engineering activity a substantial production processCivil engineering and construction of engineering science and technology it refers to the engineering construction collectively objects, namely, ground, built in underground engineering facilities also refers to water used materials, equipment and inspection in design, construction, maintenance, repair, etcAs an important basis for civil engineering discipline is the important attribute: comprehensive social economic and practical technology with human society advances art unity and development of civil engineering has been turned into a large-scale integrated disciplines and have many branches such as: the railway engineering construction engineering construction bridge engineering specialty structure of water and wastewater engineering of port engineering environment engineering disciplines such as water conservancy project consists of six major in civil engineering, architecture, city planning and civil engineering construction environment and water drainage engineering and equipment engineering road and bridge projectThrough a semester civil engineering introduction lessons I have deeply felt civil engineering covers a wide appreciates the previous achievements also realized as a civil engineer major responsibility, of course, we can't make brilliant achievements is immersed in the immobilized we shall also keep pace with The Times to go to think to dig the imagination to innovation in China's future as a civil engineer I want with civil engineering history with China's national conditions and the situation of the world talk of civil engineering road of the future!
毕业论文外文翻译：将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。
翻译要求：
1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。
2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。
3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的，并非中国的。
原文就是指原作品,原件，即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。
译文就是翻译过来的文字，如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本，这个中文版本就称为译文。
主要标准
翻译是语际交流过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁。一般来说，翻译的标准主要有两条：忠实和通顺。
忠实
是指忠实于原文所要传递的信息，也就是说，把原文的信息完整并且准确地表达出来，使译文读者得到的信息与原文读者得到的信息大致相同。
通顺
是指译文规范、明白易懂，没有文理不通、结构混乱、逻辑不清的现象。
实践产生理论，欧美许多国家的翻译理论是五花八门的。从大的方面来看，可以分为两大派：一派是翻译可能论，一派是翻译不可能论。其实，完完全全百分之百的可能是没有的，完完全全百分之百的不可能也是没有的。
世界上一切翻译活动都是在这两个极端之间进行的。欧洲许多著名的人物，比如马丁·路德、M.阿诺德、.纽曼、.波斯特加特、H.白洛克、.诺克斯、V.那巴可夫等等，都对翻译提出了自己的理论。据《开塞尔世界文学百科全书》的意见，这些理论中有些是刚愎自用的。
外文翻译要求：（1）选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。（2）选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。（3）外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
毕业设计用的 3000字左右 外文和翻译 谢谢啦
building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同，建筑物可以分为两类：工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型：单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是，工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房：起居室，厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，剧院，体育馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等。他们都有着不同的职能，这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的内容，但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道，现有住房不仅要符合其安全，健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施，如食品市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅，这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房，即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房，因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音，拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素，因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型，房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前，要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中，布局可考虑以下三个方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅，起居室和厨房，但其他房间可能会增加，如书房，并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一个餐厅，也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房，浴室，储藏室 ，和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起，以方便其房间功能的使用。此外，还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题，当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而，在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素，往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题，还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施，人口密度，建筑物高度，绿化面积，建筑红线等的要求，还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况，等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂，可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶，把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。
等我下,我帮你重新翻译下
1979年一座独立的跨度桥阿拉巴马多芬岛被飓风弗雷德里克摧毁。浪花和海浪移动了135个桩位并塌陷到桥（1981年美国陆军工程兵团通讯设施）东面的水域里。弗雷德里克也毁坏了相同的坡道到附近通讯设施的I-10个桩位，阿拉巴马飓风卡特里娜毁坏了。多个坡道桩位挪向北部（1981年美国陆军工程兵团通讯设施）
Zhuzhou rocky bridge preliminary design for construction of a simply-supported (turn) continuous beamPick toThis design is mainly zhuzhou bozez, preliminary design of the structure of the bridge. Zhuzhou rocky bridge using simply-supported turn construction method of continuous girder hoisting, prefabricated after construction, then into supported beam cast-in-situ dismantle temporary pedestal, formed by the continuous girder girder altitude box girder, span of 30 design of the first chapter 11 points, the introduction, this paper describes the project for the surrounding environment, the bad design requirements, construction methods, The second chapter for bridge and longitudinal and transverse layout, The third chapter for section geometry, DiSiWuLiu chapter for internal force calculation and internal combination times, Chapter 7 for prestressing tendons estimation, layout, DiBaJiu chapter for loss of prestress and internal force calculation after reinforcement, Chapter 10 of intensity for deck. Chapter 11 for stress, deformation and other : prestressed concrete continuous girder bridge construction in turn for internal force combined times advance arch
building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同，建筑物可以分为两类：工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型：单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是，工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房：起居室，厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，剧院，体育馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等。他们都有着不同的职能，这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的内容，但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道，现有住房不仅要符合其安全，健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施，如食品市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅，这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房，即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房，因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音，拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素，因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型，房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前，要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中，布局可考虑以下三个方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅，起居室和厨房，但其他房间可能会增加，如书房，并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一个餐厅，也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房，浴室，储藏室 ，和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起，以方便其房间功能的使用。此外，还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题，当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而，在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素，往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题，还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施，人口密度，建筑物高度，绿化面积，建筑红线等的要求，还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况，等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂，可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶，把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。
既然你这么急，给你推荐一个人吧 他能帮你的，很快Q9281 06483
毕业论文怎么写？首先要弄明白作格式，其次是选题，再次是确定立意，最后是材料搜集和写作。一、毕业论文格式：1、标题。首行居中，字号一般比正文大两号。2、作者。标题下一行，居中，字号比标题小一号。3、摘要。一般100-200字内。字号同正文。4、关键词。即文章核心词的提炼，能体现文章中心。字号同正文。5、正文。毕业论文字数一般不低于3000字。字号5号。6、参考文献。二、毕业论文选题。你可以到百度上搜一搜与你相关的学科论文题目，你会从中获得很大启迪。三、毕业论文立意。你可以在比较中找到别人还没说到或说得不全面的地方作为自己的立意方向。四、材料搜集。就是搜集能证明自己立意的素材。可以通过图书搜集，也可以通过百度查找。五、毕业论文写作。要注意格式正确，用语规范，条理清晰，论证充分。
你去找下（土木工程、或者、交通技术）吧~
不能完全复制。按照规定，超过200字完全复制的，就可以定义为抄袭了！也就是说，你要整合引用段落的意思，还要标注出处。不过专科生毕业论文相对要求每那么高，但是一定不要抄袭。毕竟是对你三年知识的检验，如果你认真，毕业论文是可以学到很多东西的。
我就是学土木的，我来回答你。桥梁是土木工程的一个重要分支。大学本科的教育是基础教育，因此，无论你是桥梁，道路还是建工，需要学的基础知识都差不多。大一大二是打基础的时候，一般的学校到了大三才开始有深入的专业课。因此不必从现在开始就过于靠向桥梁方向，应该广泛的看书，了解土木到底是什么以后再决定自己的专业方向。与高中数学的联系：这个不仅仅限于土木工程，事实上大学本科生都必须学习高等数学（某些文科专业可能不学），土木工程学的是最难的数学，也就是数学一，包括微积分，无穷级数，空间解析几何等，内容和高中的差不多只是更加深入更加抽象了。一般大一一入学就会开始学的，要学一年的高数。除此之外，还需要学习线性代数和概率论。和物理的联系：土木工程里面，物理比数学还要重要，因为土木工程学的就是力学。你进入大学后，基本会把所有力学学个遍：比如，材料力学，结构力学，理论力学，流体力学，土力学，水力学。大三开始会学习专业课：混凝土结构基本原理，地质工程，钢结构，桥梁水文等等，不同学校的具体设置不尽相同，你也可以根据自己的需要选择喜欢的课程。打基础的话，先不必看太艰深的理论，培养兴趣是关键，建议你目前只要平时多看看各种土木建筑的网站，了解最新技术和近况，也可以上土木建筑论坛（随便一搜就是一堆），最初看不懂是非常正常的，不要有压力，我的建议就是三个字：多了解。读书百遍其义自见，你还没上大学就有这种意识是很好的，那就提前开始准备吧，土木这个行业就是越老越值钱，可钻研的东西多了，祝你成功。
你这样的话要去花钱找写手吧……
我是土木的，虽然学的是结构，但是土木的都差不多。大学要学习高等数学，那个要学好，因为以后的力学，物理什么的都要用到哪些知识。高中数学基础好的话，学起来相对容易些。如果以前数学不是很好，只要认真学，也能学好。物理基本没多大关系了，大学的物理课程基本上没多大用。土木专业主要是要学好各种力学：理论力学（专业基础课），材料力学，结构力学，弹性力学，土力学，水力学。。。反正物理里面我们的重点就是学号各种力学。现在你看什么资料也没多大用，专业点的你看不懂。了解下世界各种桥梁，比如说世界最著名的十座桥梁，培养下专业兴趣还行。然后就是英语别丢了。
关于桥梁工程施工质量问题及对策研究论文摘要：主要对桥梁工程施工质量存在的问题进行了研究，首先概述了质量评定标准，然后分析了桥梁工程常见的质量问题，最后探讨了桥梁工程中关键工程的质量控制措施。 论文关键词：桥梁工程；施工；质量；分析 1 桥梁质量评定概述 质量评定标准 桥梁建设具有投资大、造价高、技术复杂、机械化程度高等特点，所以工程检测和评定较为复杂，因此国家制定了相应的规范强化质量评定管理，目前有市政标准和交通部标准两套标准，市政标准为每一个工序都制定了检查项目，并对所有检查项目都进行了主要检查项目和非主要检查项目的分类，具体而言，工序可分为模板、钢筋、预应力筋、水泥混凝土、桩基、沉井基础、钢结构、构件安装、砌体、装饰等内容。每个工序首先要进行外观检查，外观检查合格后方可进行质量检测评定，同一工序的合格点数与该项目的检测点数之比乘以100%为该工序的合格率，主要检查项目合格率达到100%，非主要检查项目合格率达到70%以上时该项目可评定为合格，交通部的标准对桥梁施工质量的评定采用100分制，对于分项工程的质量检查项目包括基本要求、实测项目、外观鉴定和质量保证资料四个方面。基本要求和实测项目的满分为100分，如果外观鉴定、质量保证资料存在缺陷，则在前面的基础上扣分，如果最终分数小于70分则为不合格，介于70分到85分之间为合格，85分以上为优良。 质量评定的意义 加强质量评定有助于施工单位按照施工规范严格施工、保质保量的完成桥梁建设任务，桥梁工程的质量不仅影响着工程项目投资的成败，更重要的是会影响到国家财产和人民生命安全，所以通过施工项目的质量评定可以为工程质量提供最有效的保证，减少严重后果发生的可能性。 2 桥梁工程常见的质量问题分析 钻孔灌注桩的质量问题 钻孔灌注桩的质量问题主要体现在断桩上面，断桩是严重的质量事故，又必须要在施工时预防该事故的发生，一般来说，以下几个施工问题可能会产生断桩现象：（1）灌注时间过长或者导管在混凝土中埋入过深，都会导致混凝土在导管内外壁上初凝，造成混凝土与导管间摩擦阻力过大，上拔导管后混凝土不能及时填充，从而填入泥浆产生了断桩；（2）混凝土自身的原因，由于混凝土在拌和过程中不均匀或者在运输过程中产生离析现象，都会导致在灌注过程中出现粗集料集中的现象，造成导管堵塞而出现断桩；（3）如果在灌注过程中护筒底脚周围出现漏水或者由于缺乏施工经验，都有可能出现坍孔现象也会引起断桩；（4）在施工过程中，由于各种原因无法保证施工连续进行，比如导管进水、机械故障、停电等也会导致断桩的发生。 桥台处的质量问题 当桥头填土的沉降与桥台的沉降出现了差异，就有可能在桥台处形成台阶，该台阶不仅影响了行车安全，同时汽车轮胎也会给桥梁不断的产生巨大的冲击力，该质量问题可以通过规范施工来避免：（1）回填材料的选择，要选择压实性好和透水性好的回填材料，另外在施工过程中要严格压实，这样可以减少路堤填土的沉降量；（2）桩柱式桥台的施工应该先进行填方，然后在填方充分沉降后再修建桥台，这样做可以尽可能的减少结构物与填土之间的沉降差；（3）根据技术规范要求采用相应措施减少桥面铺装层的裂缝，另外要选择性能好的伸缩缝材料，以保证桥面伸缩缝处的平整度。 钢筋施工的质量问题 钢筋加工的质量问题存在于多个方面，在材料选择方面，如果钢筋品种的规格、形状、尺寸不符合要求，或者钢筋有严重的腐蚀问题，都会影响到工程质量。在钢筋加工方面，钢筋的下料和成型尺寸的准确度差、钢筋骨架变形或者钢盘网变形都会造成结构构件的性能下降；在钢筋安装方面，安装位置偏差过大、钢筋少放或漏放、垫块位置固定方法不当、钢筋绑扎接头不正确等都会引起钢筋的严重错位；在钢筋焊接方面，钢筋焊接头的机械性能达不到施工规范的要求、焊条品种存在质量问题，性能不符合要求等都会存在问题。焊接过程中如果焊缝尺寸偏差过大、咬边焊缝与钢筋交接处有缺口、咬边焊缝与钢筋交接处有缺口、电弧烧伤钢筋表面等都会造成钢筋断面局部削弱，或对钢筋产生脆化作用，都会对钢筋的使用性能造成影响。 3 桥梁工程中关键工程的质量控制措施 承台及系梁 首先要对有可能出现断桩情况的桩进行重点监测，对于进行过故障处理的桩也要重点监测，对于所有桩都要进行无破坏检测，使所有桩最终都要达到无断层、无夹层，并且强度要符合设计要求。桩头混凝土要凿出密实的层面，并进行大面平整，要求达到无残留混凝土以及其他杂物，另外标高必须符合施工设计要求。需嵌入承台或系梁内的桩头及锚固钢筋长度要符合设计要求，在验收钢筋时，要注意重点验收钢筋骨架以及桩柱钢筋的焊接质量，桩顶锚固筋要与设计角度保持一致，并采用螺旋筋进行缠绕固定。砂浆垫层在平整度方面以及标高方面要符合要求，其尺寸必须满足支立承台、系梁模板的要求，模板板面之间要求不漏浆、接缝严密、支撑牢靠，其各项指标比如位置、几何尺寸、保护层厚度等数据都要符合设计要求。在浇筑混凝土之前，应该为模板涂刷脱模剂，外露面混凝土模板的脱模剂应采用同一品种，在涂刷过程中不能污染钢筋及混凝土的施工缝，这样才能够保证外露面美观，线条流畅。 墩柱与台帽 墩柱的质量控制重点要做好以下工作：首先要检查柱中心位置施工放样，验收墩柱钢筋笼，使其符合设计标准；然后对支模前接触面的松散混凝土进行凿除处理，如果有其他杂物则一并冲洗干净；接下来对立柱模板进行质量检查，要求接缝处必须圆滑平整，拼接严密，模板的定位精度、竖直度以及钢筋保护层厚度必须符合质量要求指标。脱模剂的涂刷一定要均匀，并且定位钢丝绳要求拉紧，以达到受力一致的要求；对混凝土施工的基本要求与承台或系梁施工要求相同，要求用串筒下料，串筒底部距浇筑的混凝土面不超过2米，浇筑完毕将柱顶混凝土面拉毛。台帽的质量控制重点有两个方面，分别是立模工序质量控制和混凝土浇筑工序质量控制，在检验模板时，要对模板的平整性、刚度、尺寸和角度进行重点检测，同时要看模板的支撑是否符合要求，另外还要观察模板接头处的处理情况。混凝土浇筑要求控制好混凝土的制作质量，主要包括原材料质量、混凝土配合比等，另外还要控制好振捣施工工艺，如果振捣时间太长则有可能出现混凝土分层与走模，而振捣时间不足则会出现混凝土的气泡不能完全排出，从而导致形成蜂窝、麻面等病害。 盖梁与箱梁 盖梁要检查柱顶中心及盖梁轴线，以及钢筋骨架放样，盖梁钢筋骨架在成型后要进行验收，验收时要特别注意检查焊缝质量及弯起筋位置，在安装盖梁钢筋后要对骨架定位进行检查，按设计角度调整柱顶锚固筋，好箍筋。另外还要检查查钢筋保护层厚度，预埋件、预埋筋位置是否正确，模板是否采取措施已加固牢靠，箱梁要检查底板是否清洗干净，接缝处是否用腻子打平，采用塑料板时，要求粘贴紧密、无破洞、无鼓包以及无皱折，伸缩缝梁端要注意设置楔形块，预埋支座钢板，腹板、底板钢筋重点检查正弯矩波纹管定位，确保混凝土浇筑过程中不移位，钢绞线须事先进行编束，整束穿过波纹管，并保证在管内不缠绕。