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桥梁毕业论文外文翻译

毕业论文外文翻译:将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。

翻译要求:

1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看,得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。

2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章,可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。

3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上,从外文文章起始处开始翻译,不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译,翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。

参考文献是在学术研究过程中,对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的,并非中国的。

原文就是指原作品,原件,即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。

译文就是翻译过来的文字,如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本,这个中文版本就称为译文。

主要标准

翻译是语际交流过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁。一般来说,翻译的标准主要有两条:忠实和通顺。

忠实

是指忠实于原文所要传递的信息,也就是说,把原文的信息完整并且准确地表达出来,使译文读者得到的信息与原文读者得到的信息大致相同。

通顺

是指译文规范、明白易懂,没有文理不通、结构混乱、逻辑不清的现象。

实践产生理论,欧美许多国家的翻译理论是五花八门的。从大的方面来看,可以分为两大派:一派是翻译可能论,一派是翻译不可能论。其实,完完全全百分之百的可能是没有的,完完全全百分之百的不可能也是没有的。

世界上一切翻译活动都是在这两个极端之间进行的。欧洲许多著名的人物,比如马丁·路德、M.阿诺德、.纽曼、.波斯特加特、H.白洛克、.诺克斯、V.那巴可夫等等,都对翻译提出了自己的理论。据《开塞尔世界文学百科全书》的意见,这些理论中有些是刚愎自用的。

外文翻译要求:(1)选定外文文献后先给指导老师看,得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。(2)选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章,可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。(3)外文翻译字数要求3000字以上,从外文文章起始处开始翻译,不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译,翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。

毕业设计用的 3000字左右 外文和翻译 谢谢啦

building types and designA building is closely bound up with people,for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译:建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系,他为人们提供必要的空间,用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同,建筑物可以分为两类:工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑,民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住,就业,教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业,冶金工业,机械制造,化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型:单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是,工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类:住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房:起居室,厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治,文化活动,管理工作和其他服务,如学校,写字楼,公园,医院,商店,车站,剧院,体育馆,宾馆,展览馆,洗浴池,等等。他们都有着不同的职能,这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的内容,但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道,现有住房不仅要符合其安全,健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施,如食品市场,学校,商店,图书馆,电影院,以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅,这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家,许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房,即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房,因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音,拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素,因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型,房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前,要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局,其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中,布局可考虑以下三个方面: “白天” , “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅,起居室和厨房,但其他房间可能会增加,如书房,并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的,往往是一个餐厅,也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房,浴室,储藏室 ,和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起,以方便其房间功能的使用。此外,还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题,当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而,在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素,往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题,还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施,人口密度,建筑物高度,绿化面积,建筑红线等的要求,还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况,等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂,可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶,把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。

桥梁工程专业毕业论文外文翻译

The urban river embankment discuss the ecological constructionAnonymous XXXXXXXXAbstract: the urban river embankment construction as the object, discuss the current social background, analyses and compares the river embankment design of traditional methods and characteristics of ecological methods, and puts forward three modes of ecological design and their advantages and disadvantages, and expounds the present situation of the ecological construction in domestic bank and future : the bank; Ecology; Design way; Domestic situationText:A, backgroundRiver Banks part is the amphibious interlaced transition belt, has the remarkable edge effect. Here are active substances, nutrient and energy flow, offer a habitat for a variety of creatures. Natural state Banks often species richness, productivity traditional embankment design often single ?一、背景河流的堤岸部分是水陆交错的过渡地带,具有显著的边缘效应。这里有活跃的物质、养分和能量的流动,为多种生物提供了栖息地。自然状态下的堤岸往往物种丰富、生产力高。传统的堤岸设计往往会单纯从防洪角度出发,采用土堤或者土石混合堆砌起来高高的堤岸。它的优点在于高度的可靠性,结构设计后加起防护堤岸抗流水冲刷能力显著增强。对于洪水暴发频繁、侵蚀严重的区段,这样的设计无可厚非,而对于一般河流堤岸的修建,这样的设计则显得缺乏环境的美化和绿化,同时也破坏许多对生态起重要作用的自然因素,如破坏植被与河床间的联系,造成冲刷侵蚀转移等。另外,河流作为城市风貌不可多得的珍惜资源,也是城市风貌的特色要素,它的景观塑造显得十分必要。同时,堤岸景观建设必然使滨河地区土地价值提升,滨水开发的高投资回报的特点更增强了对城市堤岸景观建设的需求。二、需求——堤岸的生态化建设河流堤岸作为城市中最邻近河流的区域,是城市与河流的衔接线,它的景观规划是提高城市生活品质的需要,也是丰富城市景观的需要。生态化建设,它的根本思路是运用自然本身抗干扰和自我修复的能力来处理人与自然的关系。生态设计方法不同于传统用人工的结构和形式来取代自然的方法,而是用自然的结构和形式来顺应自然的进程。将河岸与河道在生态上联系起来,也就实现了物质、养分、能量的交流:对于生物,它提供了合适的栖息地;植物根系可固着土壤,枝叶可截留雨水,过滤地表迳流,抵抗流水冲刷,从而起到保护堤岸、增加堤岸结构的稳定性、净化水质、涵养水源的作用,而且随着时间的推移,这些作用被不断加强。同时,生态化建设以自然的外貌出现,容易与环境取得协调,造价也较低,不需要长期的维护管理。三、河流堤岸生态化设计方式河流堤岸生态化设计,要遵守生态设计的原则,注重地方性、保护与节约自然资本、让自然做功、显露自然,主要体现在对地域气候环境、河流地质地貌、水文变化的适应,对河流生态环境的考虑,对堤岸地形的处理和对筑堤材料的选择和构造方式方面。1) 人工类:传统方法是采用块石或混凝土块砖等堆砌。可在此基础上加以改进以适应河流景观设计的需求。a) 块石或混凝土块砖干砌,不用砂浆。这样在砌块之间就留有空隙,为后期滨河植物的生长提供了空间。随着时间的推移,堤岸会逐渐呈现出自然的风貌。b) 堤岸采用台阶式分级,台阶面上的空间加以利用,种植植物。当然这两种改进方法对于河岸处现有植被仍存在一定的不良影响,人工痕迹也过于明显。2) 自然类:充分利用堤岸植被原型,可直接将适用于滨河地带生长的植被种植于堤岸上,利用植物的根、茎、叶来稳固堤岸,防止侵蚀、控制沉积的同时也为生物提供了栖息地。3) 人工自然相结合综合了以上两种方法的优点,具有人工结构的稳定性和自然的外貌,见效快、生态效益好,以下为常见的两种类型:a) 种植植物的堆石将由大小不同的石块组成的堆石置于与水接触的土壤表面,再把活体切枝插入石堆中使斜坡更加稳定。根系可提高强度,植被可遮盖石块,使堤岸外貌更加自然。b) 与植物结合使用的插孔式混凝土块将预制的混凝土块以连锁的形式置于岸底的浅渠中,再将植物切枝或植株扦插于混凝土块之间和堤岸上部,其上覆土压实,再播种草本植物。堤岸生态化建设也存在一定的局限性。如:选用的材料及建造方法不同,堤岸的防护能力相差很大,需要运用多学科知识认真分析,这就为设计人员提出了更大的挑战;建造初期若受到强烈干扰,则会影响到以后防护作用的发挥等。这也就对河流堤岸的生态化设计提出了更高的要求。四、国内现状1)省会城市在我国省会城市及计划单列市中有近80%进行了堤岸景观规划。(参考文献[3])城 市 项目名称 城 市 项目名称北 京 长河城市水系统综合治理 南 宁 堤岸园工程长 沙 湘江风光带 宁 波 滨江大道沿江景观工程成 都 府南河绿化工程 上 海 外滩、陆家嘴滨江大道福 州 闵江江滨公园 沈 阳 浑河观光旅游带广 州 珠江二沙段堤岸景观、芳村长堤建设 太 原 汾河公园贵 阳 南明河景观绿化工程 天 津 海河堤岸改造工程哈尔滨 松花江南岸沿江风景长廊 武 汉 汉口江滩一二期工程昆 明 盘龙江中段滨水生态景观建设 西 安 灞河大水大绿工程兰 州 黄河风情线 重 庆 南滨路滨江旅游观光大道从规划后建成情况看,这些城市河流堤岸景观项目都得到了当地政府与市民的肯定。在这些项目中,堤岸既可成为当地最具吸引力的城市公园,如太原的汾河公园和福州的江滨公园;堤岸也可成为市民日常休闲活动的热点地段,如南宁的堤路园和武汉的汉口江滩工程;堤岸还可成为城市最具特色的地段,如重庆的南滨路滨江旅游观光大道;堤岸更可成为城市旅游的热点,如上海的外滩和陆家嘴滨江大道。总之,经过景观规划的堤岸已成为当地最具特色的地区。从建设效果看,相对堤岸的原来面貌而言,统计资料中的这些景观工程都是较成功的,都成为当地城市关注的热点,成为当地政府的政绩工程,成为当地的民心工程。城市河流堤岸通过景观规划,有效地改善了滨河地段的环境,并带动滨河地段的开发。但必须清醒地认识到,这些城市堤岸景观项目规划并非尽善尽美,也存在这样或那样的问题,仍有待完善。2)中小城市城市经济实力的强大决定了其城市建设水平的高标准和高水平。中小城市河流堤岸景观与统计资料中的城市存在较大的差距,存在更多的问题。特别是由于资金问题,堤岸景观是,纯人工,状态的钢筋混凝土防洪堤,或保持自然防洪状态的土石堤,没有经过景观规划,易造成城市资源的极大浪费。五、前景目前,河流景观建设,特别是城市河流景观建设,在中国正方兴未艾;在发达国家中也是一个久盛不衰的话题。 回顾发达国家河流景观建设的历史,自20世纪70年代以来,随着人们环境意识的普遍增强,重视河流景观的生态功能已成为一个时代的呼唤,河流景观建设的生态设计方法也已得到了空前的重视和发展。他山之石可以攻玉,借鉴发达国家已经形成的成熟的理念和做法,可以使我们少走弯路,搭上隆隆前进的生态建设之车。

Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schedule. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general , in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schedule. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions. Such inspections may be made at frequent addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to proceed. The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the project. Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local conditions. A survey is then made to lay out offices for the contractor are erected on or near the site. If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted , the site is prepared to receive the building. This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility piping. For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building rests. This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural framing. Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the roof. Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper levels. If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are installed. Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are constructed. At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are installed. If required, fireproofing is placed for steel framing. Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,Finishing operations follow. There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and specifications. Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the site. Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the building. The sit is landscaped and paved. Finally, the building interior is painted and owner’s representatives then give the building a final inspection. If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code requirements.传统的施工程序众所周知,在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。尽管他们想满足业主和建筑设计师的要求,但是最终还是以赚取利润为主要目标的。因此,他们最初的任务是对编写投标价格的建筑成本进行准确的估计。这就需要进行前期调查的工作并且做出施工时间表。等合约批出后,施工方必须提供所有材料并支付其费用,设备,电力,劳动力。业主此时需要进行必要的监督。一个总承包商承担一个建筑整体的责任。从事分包的承建商则需承担建造工程所需的各个工作。例如,管道承包商安装水管,电业承办商安装电气系统,电梯则由电梯承包商安装。他们与总承包商签订合同,费用由总承包商支付。有时候,除了一个总承包商,还有各种专业承包商,如电气和机械承包商,执行工作时需要与业主签订合同。这种承包商被称为间接承包商。他们的工作,由总承包商协调,但它们都是由业主直接联系。还有些时候,业主可以使用设计建造方法同时兼有设计和建筑施工单位的职能。这些单位被称为设计建造承包商。这方面的一个类型的合同聘用的变化是由一户住宅或低层住宅建筑群的开发。在房屋建筑设计和建造的住房,但设计之前需要由购买房屋的业主完成。施工过程管理往往是困难的。因此,一些业主会去寻求专家的协助,这些专家被称为专业施工经理,他们具有丰富的施工经验。施工经理与总承包商进行谈判,并选择其中一个项目。施工经理通常还监督分包商。在施工期间,它们有助于控制成本,加快运送设备和材料,并保持工作的进度。在依法行政,协助设计和建设的情况下,业主可以选择从事建筑项目经理。建筑承包商雇用的劳动力,一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中从事技术活,如木工,管道工,工会成员和电工工会,小工则执行了分配给他们的工作。在施工期间,一切工作都要验收。因此,业主通过建筑师和监理经常进行督查。可能是名为工程员,建筑师或驻地工程师。作为业主的代表实地视察。核查人员必须确保工程符合合同文件的要求,并在安全的条件下进行的责任。这种检查可作出重复。此外,验收还是需要一个或多个政府机构的代表。他们必须确保工程符合法律要求,并负责检查与合同文件是否一致。这种视察一般定期或在某些阶段施工结束以后进行。地方或国家建设部门具有管辖权。这些检查的目的是确保符合当地或国家的建筑规范。以下是传统多层建筑施工的基本程序。建造开始后合同授予开发商,业主可要求开发商开始施工之前签约给或之后签约发出书面通知的同时另一部分工作继续进行。紧接着施工方根据需要获取建筑许可证,例如当地的建设,供水,污水处理,政府机构和公路部门。总承包商的计划和进度详细施工作业以及动员项目设备和人员。分包商得到通知后,做出签订合同的意向或授予分包合同书,然后给出在适当的时候进行通知。在施工前启动,总承包商要进行的一项调查就是邻近结构和地形,这些都要记录在案,并要熟悉当地情况。这项调查结束以后,随即进行布局建设。承建商的现场办事处都建在施工现场或附近。为了安全起见,必须从脚手架上移除的东西,产生的碎片都要运走。下一步,该网架是为建设工程准备的。这项工作为地下室开挖和基础开挖的深度,以及公用事业管道转移找到正确的标高。深挖掘,土方支撑,底部排出。建筑开始于基础上,然后是承重墙和结构框架的施工。梯子,楼梯,或电梯的安装,可让施工人员往返于各个楼层。此外,可安装卷扬机来运送材料。由于建筑高度的上升,管道,电力管道和线路安装以及永久地板,外墙,窗户和构造的影响。在适当的时候,永久的电梯安装。再需要的情况下可以安装防火卷帘。其次,屋顶等地方也需要安装。精加工工序安装有包括以下内容:天花板,瓷砖,墙板,墙壁镶板,水管装置,加热炉,空气调节设备,加热和冷却室装置;自动扶梯;地板,窗户玻璃;活动板,门;电气设备和仪器,包括照明灯具,开关,变压器,控制器,遵照项目的图纸和规格。外地办事处,围栏,桥梁和其他临时建筑,公共设备,如天然气,电力管道,水管,都连接到建筑上。最后,是建筑物内部的打扫和清洗。业主的代表,会给建设工程作最后检查。如果他们满意并认为符合合同文件,那么业主接受该项目,并交给总承包商的一个占用证书,这表明,总承包商已完成建设,建设部门再根据建筑规范的要求发放最后付款。

有一篇施工监控的论文,你查收一下吧,希望对你有用!

Civil engineering in the long history of mankind "science and technology" as a system of civil engineering activity a substantial production processCivil engineering and construction of engineering science and technology it refers to the engineering construction collectively objects, namely, ground, built in underground engineering facilities also refers to water used materials, equipment and inspection in design, construction, maintenance, repair, etcAs an important basis for civil engineering discipline is the important attribute: comprehensive social economic and practical technology with human society advances art unity and development of civil engineering has been turned into a large-scale integrated disciplines and have many branches such as: the railway engineering construction engineering construction bridge engineering specialty structure of water and wastewater engineering of port engineering environment engineering disciplines such as water conservancy project consists of six major in civil engineering, architecture, city planning and civil engineering construction environment and water drainage engineering and equipment engineering road and bridge projectThrough a semester civil engineering introduction lessons I have deeply felt civil engineering covers a wide appreciates the previous achievements also realized as a civil engineer major responsibility, of course, we can't make brilliant achievements is immersed in the immobilized we shall also keep pace with The Times to go to think to dig the imagination to innovation in China's future as a civil engineer I want with civil engineering history with China's national conditions and the situation of the world talk of civil engineering road of the future!

有关桥梁专业毕业论文翻译

等我下,我帮你重新翻译下

1979年一座独立的跨度桥阿拉巴马多芬岛被飓风弗雷德里克摧毁。浪花和海浪移动了135个桩位并塌陷到桥(1981年美国陆军工程兵团通讯设施)东面的水域里。弗雷德里克也毁坏了相同的坡道到附近通讯设施的I-10个桩位,阿拉巴马飓风卡特里娜毁坏了。多个坡道桩位挪向北部(1981年美国陆军工程兵团通讯设施)

Zhuzhou rocky bridge preliminary design for construction of a simply-supported (turn) continuous beamPick toThis design is mainly zhuzhou bozez, preliminary design of the structure of the bridge. Zhuzhou rocky bridge using simply-supported turn construction method of continuous girder hoisting, prefabricated after construction, then into supported beam cast-in-situ dismantle temporary pedestal, formed by the continuous girder girder altitude box girder, span of 30 design of the first chapter 11 points, the introduction, this paper describes the project for the surrounding environment, the bad design requirements, construction methods, The second chapter for bridge and longitudinal and transverse layout, The third chapter for section geometry, DiSiWuLiu chapter for internal force calculation and internal combination times, Chapter 7 for prestressing tendons estimation, layout, DiBaJiu chapter for loss of prestress and internal force calculation after reinforcement, Chapter 10 of intensity for deck. Chapter 11 for stress, deformation and other : prestressed concrete continuous girder bridge construction in turn for internal force combined times advance arch

building types and designA building is closely bound up with people,for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译:建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系,他为人们提供必要的空间,用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同,建筑物可以分为两类:工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑,民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住,就业,教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业,冶金工业,机械制造,化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型:单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是,工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类:住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房:起居室,厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治,文化活动,管理工作和其他服务,如学校,写字楼,公园,医院,商店,车站,剧院,体育馆,宾馆,展览馆,洗浴池,等等。他们都有着不同的职能,这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的内容,但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道,现有住房不仅要符合其安全,健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施,如食品市场,学校,商店,图书馆,电影院,以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅,这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家,许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房,即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房,因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音,拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素,因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型,房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前,要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局,其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中,布局可考虑以下三个方面: “白天” , “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅,起居室和厨房,但其他房间可能会增加,如书房,并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的,往往是一个餐厅,也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房,浴室,储藏室 ,和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起,以方便其房间功能的使用。此外,还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题,当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而,在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素,往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题,还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施,人口密度,建筑物高度,绿化面积,建筑红线等的要求,还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况,等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂,可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶,把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。

路桥毕业论文设计外文翻译

外文翻译是你上网上查询一篇文章,和你的设计题目相似的英文文章,然后自己翻译过来,这就是外文翻译,篇幅必须长一点,因为一般毕业设计都要有字数限制。 文献综述一般就是把你所用到的资料都一一介绍一下,不要很具体,因为论文是文献综述的具体介绍,文献综述中还包括一些与设计题目有关的现实描述。

自然和科学两个免费的文学呢! !您的图书馆也可能是多啊,还有,你应该有一个专业的外国文学! ! 一些外文网站,但我一直没能降低我的老师说要免费的! ! MPMI,植物病理学,植物病害,PNAS,科学1,细胞的公共图书馆,

去中国知网看看

财系统的设计与实现的外文翻译和文献综 肯定知道

翻译 :老师出的? 很难的。要知道要写翻译程式,必须写一下几个子程式: 词法分析->语法分析->语言优化. 你必须深入理解 汉语和 英语的语法. 根本不用去做,应为这是专业人员写的

文献综述就是用资料,只不多有一个比较固定的格式。 主要是,关于你的论文主题,国内外学者提出多点看法和主张。某某学者在某某文章中,就你的论文主题,提出看法认为如何如何 都是这样的语句,写出来就ok了。需要大概七八篇文章的论述,最好是高阶的人物写的文章,发表在高阶期刊上的。 知网搜寻文章,搜出来的文章,看看摘要就能写进综述里了,不用下载,中国知网,自己搜寻 合适采纳啊 外文翻译,如果学校图书馆上网有购买国外资料库,例如springerlink或者sci的,可以资料库找 如果没在学校可以谷歌学术搜寻相关英文关键词

涉及论文上的翻译可以在相应的翻译机构中完成即可。例如翻译达人,也是不错的选择,涉及的业务广而语种多,适合每种需求的客户

既然叫做外文文献综述,那就是根据相关课题的研究进展的相关文献(包括中文,英文)进行英文书写综述,若果只是要求中文文献综述,那也可以找一篇相关外文综述进行翻译。 望采纳,谢谢楼主

推荐你到 三七毕业设计网看看 真的不错~他们那里有专门的文献综述专区,参考一下肯定能搞定

毕业论文外文翻译:将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。

翻译要求:

1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看,得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。

2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章,可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。

3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上,从外文文章起始处开始翻译,不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译,翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。

参考文献是在学术研究过程中,对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴.征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的,并非中国的。

原文就是指原作品,原件,即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。 译文就是翻译过来的文字,如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本,这个中文版本就称为译文 。

扩展资料:

外文翻译需要注意的问题

1、外文文献的出处不要翻译成中文,且写在中文译文的右上角(不是放在页眉处);会议要求:名称、地点、年份、卷(期),等 。

2、作者姓名以及作者的工作单位也不用必须翻译。

3、abstract翻译成“摘要”,不要翻译成“文章摘要”等其他词语。

4、Key words翻译成“关键词” 。

5、introduction 翻译成“引言”(不是导言)。

6、各节的标号I、II等可以直接使用,不要再翻译成“第一部分”“第二部分”,等。

7、注意排版格式,都是单排版,行距,字号小4号,等(按照格式要求)。

8、里面的图可以拷贝粘贴,但要将图标、横纵指标的英文标注翻译成中文。

9、里面的公式、表不可以拷贝粘贴,要自己重新录入、重新画表格。

外文翻译要求:(1)选定外文文献后先给指导老师看,得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。(2)选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章,可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。(3)外文翻译字数要求3000字以上,从外文文章起始处开始翻译,不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译,翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。

在毕业论文写作过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节,尤其是研究生同学,一般导师都会要求阅读一定数量的英文文献,这是因为许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献,借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。

如何写开题报告,如何写文献综述,如何阅读外文文献,可以说,阅读一定数量的外文文献是毕业论文写作的必经之路。

要求如下:

1、前言

简要说明写作的目的,有关的概念以及综述范围,说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点,所要解决的问题等。一般以 100~200 字为宜,使读者在读完前言后对有关问题获得一个初步的轮廓。

2、主体

主体部分是全文的主要部分,具体写法以能较好地表达综述的内容为准则。通常根据内容的多少,将主体部分分为几段,每段有小标题。

可按年代顺序综述。也可按不同的问题进行综述,还可按不同的观点进行比较综述,不管用那一种格式综述,都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较,阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向,以及对这些问题的评述。

主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。

主体部分每一段落的开始应是综合提炼出来的观点,即论点;接着是文献所提出的实验结果或调查事实,即论据,可见主体部分是按论点和论据组织材料的。

总之,综述主体部分是以综合概括的论点开头引路,继之以诸家的资料、实验结果为论据展开层次论证。所以,综述也是一种论证文章的体裁,只是论点与论据都是前人文献所提供。

如果前人的观点分散或不甚明确,则需作者整理概括,成为开头。在论述某些观点时,作者可有倾向性,但对相反的观点也应简要如实列出。对存在的矛盾和问题应充分如实描述。

3、总结

常见的方式有:

①扼要的概括、精练主题部分的主要内容;

②介绍尚待解决的问题及对前景的展望;

③某些篇幅较小的综述,也可以省略结束语。

4、参考文献

通常凡引述的资料和主要的论点都应注明文献出处,以便使读者检索查阅。所引文献应以近 3 年内者为主;另外,未公开发表的资料不宜作为参考文献。

在我国许多期刊希望列出重要的参考文献,一般限为 20~30 条为宜;但国际上许多生物医学期刊的综述文章,其参考文献甚多,全篇所列文献常达数百条之多。参考文献的著录格式国内尚不统一,应按各刊「投稿须知」要求撰写。

扩展资料:

1、如何查询国内专利文献

可通过中国国家知识产权局()和中国专利信息中心()网站上的「专利检索」。

可以免费检索全部中国专利信息(有文摘)。如需获取专利全文,则需前去中国国家知识产权局查阅,也可通过 CSDL 馆际互借和原文传递系统代为办理。

2、如何查询国外专利文献

科学院用户可首先选择查询 Web of Knowledge 中Derwent Innovations Index (德温特世界专利索引),它是检索专利的权威数据库,收录全球了 40 多个专利机构的 900 万条基本专利,1800 万项专利,该库大部分有文摘,小部分有全文。

3、其它可供利用的网上免费数据库

欧洲专利局专利数据库:

 (免费 文摘)

美国专利商标局专利数据库:

(免费 文摘、全文)

WTO知识产权组织:

(免费 文摘)

IBM专利数据库资源:

(免费 文摘、部分全文)

更多请参见中国专利信息网上的(国外)专利网站:

路桥毕业论文翻译

毕业论文用英语的翻译:毕业 论文 迅捷在线翻译:Graduation (毕业) thesis(论文)参考一下

毕业论文外文翻译:将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。

翻译要求:

1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看,得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。

2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章,可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。

3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上,从外文文章起始处开始翻译,不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译,翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。

参考文献是在学术研究过程中,对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的,并非中国的。

原文就是指原作品,原件,即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。

译文就是翻译过来的文字,如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本,这个中文版本就称为译文。

主要标准

翻译是语际交流过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁。一般来说,翻译的标准主要有两条:忠实和通顺。

忠实

是指忠实于原文所要传递的信息,也就是说,把原文的信息完整并且准确地表达出来,使译文读者得到的信息与原文读者得到的信息大致相同。

通顺

是指译文规范、明白易懂,没有文理不通、结构混乱、逻辑不清的现象。

实践产生理论,欧美许多国家的翻译理论是五花八门的。从大的方面来看,可以分为两大派:一派是翻译可能论,一派是翻译不可能论。其实,完完全全百分之百的可能是没有的,完完全全百分之百的不可能也是没有的。

世界上一切翻译活动都是在这两个极端之间进行的。欧洲许多著名的人物,比如马丁·路德、M.阿诺德、.纽曼、.波斯特加特、H.白洛克、.诺克斯、V.那巴可夫等等,都对翻译提出了自己的理论。据《开塞尔世界文学百科全书》的意见,这些理论中有些是刚愎自用的。

毕业论文的英文翻译是thesis,音标是英 [ˈθi:sɪs]   美 [ˈθisɪs]  。

n.论文,毕业论文;论点,论题;命题

1、There is no empirical evidence to support his thesis.

他的论文缺乏实验证据的支持。

2、How well does this thesis stand up to close examination?

这个命题经得起推敲吗?

3、He has finished his thesis.

他的论文完成了。

4、She's finished writing her thesis.

她那篇论文写出来了。

5、Please write an abstract of this article 〔 thesis 〕.

请写一份这本书〔这篇论文〕的摘要。

The article has a clear-cut thesis and arguments, but lacks reasoning.

文章论点、论据鲜明,但缺乏论证。

论文(Paper)或:dissertation(论文)或:thesis(论文)经常说的:)~Englishdissertation(英语论文)Graduationthesis(毕业论文)

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