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Along with the our country economic development rapid development, the lives of the people level unceasing enhancement, the city uses to be day by day anxious, urges the building to face the direction is developing. This kind of high level civil construction repair needed materials and the way also more hasten the diversification, and along with uses electricity the load and coal gas consumption quantity enlarging, proposed to the fire auto-alarm system design is higher, a stricter request. In order to guarantee the people life and property the security, the fire auto-alarm system design has become in the high level civil construction design one of most important design contents. Presently based on the author fire of auto-alarm system design overseeing work in the high level civil building experience, proposed in present national related standard and standard unclear true detail shallow opinion, by for the colleagues to discuss and to point out , design basis The fire auto-alarm system design is a specialized very strong technology work, at the same time also has the very strong policy-type. Therefore, first should be clear about the following design basis: 1st, must grasp the architectural design fire protection standard, the system design standard, the equipment manufacture standard, the installment construction approval standard and the administration laws and regulations and so on five big aspects fire laws and regulations, and in practical understanding present country related standard and standard positive word: "Must", "be supposed", "to be suitable", "may" and the reverse side word: "Strictly prohibits", "should not", "not have", "not to be suitable" the , must aim at high level civil building function, use and the protection object fire protection rank, earnestly carries out the present national related standard and the standard, earnestly treats the public security fire prevention surveillance department the examination and approval , fire auto-alarm system equipment establishmentFire detector establishmentOpens wide either the seal or the stair hall should alone divide the search coverage, and each 2 ~ 3 establish a fire first room (including guards against in front of smoke stair hall in front of room, fire elevator room, fire elevator with guards against the front room which smoke stair hall comes in handy) and the aisle should distinguish alone to divide the search coverage, specially front the room and the lift well, the scattered stair hall and the aisle are interlinked, has time the fire haze to be easier to gather or to flow, is the personnel disperses which saves goal with the fire prevention, therefore should install the fire detector. Regarding common elevator in front of room although is not the personnel disperses , but this front room and the lift well are interlinked, has time the fire haze to be also easy to gather or to flow, suitably alone divides the search coverage and installs the fire detector. The electric cable shaft therefore is easy to form pulls out the smoke inflammation the channel; Has when the fire the fire intensity not easily extends along the electric cable burns, for this, "the high level civil construction design fire protection standard" and "the civil construction electricity design standard" separately proposes the detailed specific stipulation in the construction and in the electric wire or on the electric cable shaping. But considered implements specifically the difficulty and the present situation, the electric cable shaft installs the fire detector is extremely essential, and coordinates the shaft the fire protection separation request, each 2 ~ 3 or each level elevator machine room should install the fire detector, its elevator is the important vertical transportation vehicle; Its two elevator machine room has has the fire risk; Its three lift well existence essential opens the hole, like the level gate opens between the hole, the air vent, the between permanence opens the hole with the elevator machine room or the pulley and so on; Its four when has the fire, the lift well often becomes the fire intensity spread the channel, is easy to threaten the elevator machine room the facility. Therefore, the elevator machine room establishes the fire detector is necessary, crown of also suitable establishment fire detector lift , the manual fire reports to the police the button establishment(Including guards against in front of smoke stair hall in view of various floors front room in front of room, fire elevator room, fire elevator with guards against which smoke stair hall to come in handy the front room) is has when the fire the personnel to disperse which saves goal with fire prevention, should report to the police the button first choice spot as the establishment manual fire. In addition, the room also should establish the manual fire to the common elevator in front of to report to the police the the public active place (including hall, hall, dining room, multi-purpose hall and so on) and the main thoroughfare and so on place, the personnel very is all centralized, and mainly disperses the channel. Therefore should report to the police the button in these public active places main access establishment manual fires; The manual fire establishes which in the main thoroughfare reports to the police the button to guarantee "to a manual fire which most is close to reports to the police the button distance from a fire protection district any position not to be supposed to be bigger than 30 meters".3rd, the fire emergency broadcasts the speaker the establishmentThe aisle, the hall, the dining room and so on the public place personnel very are all centralized, and mainly disperses the channel. Therefore should press in these public places "to a recent speaker distance is not bigger than 25 meters from a fire protection district any spot" and "in the aisle last should not be bigger than meters the speaker to the aisle terminal distance" the establishment fire emergency to broadcast the speaker; Next also should establish the fire in the public bathroom place emergency to broadcast the first room (including guards against in front of smoke stair hall in front of room, fire elevator room, fire elevator with guards against which smoke stair hall to come in handy the front room) is has when the fire the personnel to disperse which saves goal with fire prevention, also has the fire door separation and the sounds of people is confused and noisy, therefore should establish the fire emergency to broadcast the speaker. In front of the common elevator the room also should establish the fire emergency to broadcast the speaker. Disperses the stair hall also is has when the fire the personnel to disperse which saves goal with the fire prevention, also the sounds of people are confused and noisy, therefore should establish the fire emergency to broadcast the speaker, by favors the fire emergency broadcast to disperse the , fire alarm installment establishmentThe establishment fire emergency broadcast fire auto-alarm system, the author thought also should install the fire alarm installment, but its control procedure should be: The alarm apparatus should confirm after the fire, uses manual or the automatic control mode unification to the fire correlation region transmission warning, stops the alarm apparatus work in the stipulation time, the rapid linkage fire emergency broadcast and broadcasts to the people disperses the fire alarm installment establishment position, the author thought should report to the police the button position with the manual fire to be same, its wall surface installment should for be apart from the ground meters highly5th, fire special use telephone establishmentInstalls the fire special use telephone extension telephone, should be located the engine room which related also some people is on duty frequently with the fire linkage control (including fire water plant, spare electricity generation engine room, matches substation, mainly ventilates with air conditioning engine room, discharges fume engine room, fire prevention elevator machine room and other), the fire fighting control system operates the equipment place or the control room, the fire duty officers observation room, the security manages spot and so on public room. Sedan of theater box the fire elevator and in the ordinary elevator all should suppose the special use telephone, requests the elevator machine room and the elevator sedan theater box, the elevator machine room and the fire control room, the elevator sedan theater box and the fire control room and so on three compositions is reliable to speaks the correspondence telephone system. Usually in fire control room; The establishment elevator monitoring demonstration plate (including position indicator, direction indicating lamp, to speaks correspondence telephone, trouble lamp and so on), in order to carries on the necessity to the elevator running status which in the surveillance and the emergency case equipped with the manual fire to report to the police position and so on button, fire hydrant button also should install the fire special use telephone , fire linkage control 1st, the fire linkage control should include the control fire pump to open, to stop, also should demonstrate opens pumps the button the position and the fire pump work and the malfunction. When the fire hydrant is equipped with the fire hydrant button, its electric installation work spot also should demonstrate the fire pump the working mode active status (namely establishment fire pump work indicating lamp). 2nd, the fire linkage control should include the control spraying of water and the water atomization fire fighting system opens, stops, also should demonstrate the fire pump the work and the malfunction and the fluent display, reports to the police the valve, the safety signal valve working mode active status. In addition, to the basin, the water tank water level also should carry on the demonstration monitor; In order to prevent the overhaul signal valve is shut down, the author thought should use the belt electric signal the control signal valve by to demonstrate it opens the condition. 3rd, the fire linkage control other controls and the demonstration function, should carry out the present national related standard and the standard specific , fire auto-alarm system wiringIn order to prevent the fire occurs when the fire control, the correspondence and the warning line severance, causes the fire fighting work to be unable to carry on, creates the bigger economic loss; Also for the suppression electronmagetic interference (for example transformer, electric motor, electric cable and so on) the influence which produces to the fire auto-alarm system. The fire auto-alarm system transmission line and the fire control, the correspondence and the warning line should use the being flame-resistant electric cable, and should use the metal tube or the enclosed metal trunking protection. The fire manual positive governing installment line should use the fireproof electric cable, its electric cable also should use the metal tube or the enclosed metal trunking protection. Uses Ming Fushi, should takes the fire protection protective measures on the metal tube or the enclosed metal , concluding remarkThe author rests on the concrete project to implement the experience, elaborated the design basis, fire auto-alarm design actual problem and so on system equipment establishment, fire linkage control and its wiring pulls out some shallow opinions, its goal is enhances the fire auto-alarm system the design quality, discovered early and the notification fire, prevented and reduces the fire to harm, by protects the person and the property safety.随着我国经济发展快速发展，人民生活的水平不断提高，城市使用是每天着急，敦促建设面临着发展的方向。这种高层次的民间建筑维修所需的材料和方式也更加多样化加快，而且随着使用电力负荷和煤气消费量扩大，提议消防自动报警系统设计较高，更严格的要求。为了保证人民生命和财产的安全，消防自动报警系统的设计已经成为在高级别民间建筑设计的一个最重要的设计内容。目前的基础上撰文火灾自动报警系统设计监督工作的高层次的民间建设的经验，建议在目前国家相关标准和标准不清楚真正详细浅见解，为同事们的讨论，并指出错误。 首先，设计依据 火灾自动报警系统的设计是一家专业非常强的技术工作，同时还具有很强的政策性。因此，首先应明确以下设计依据： 第一，必须紧紧抓住的建筑设计防火标准，该系统的设计标准，标准的设备制造，安装施工审批标准和管理的法律和规章等五大方面的消防法律法规，并在实际了解国家有关本标准和标准积极字： “必须” ， “必须假定” ， “不适合” ， “可能”和反面词： “严格禁止” ， “不应该” ， “没有” ， “不适合“的含义。 第二，必须着眼于高层次的民间建筑的功能，利用和保护对象的防火等级，认真开展本标准和国家有关标准，认真对待公安防火监督部门的审批意见。 其次，火灾自动报警系统设备的建立 建立火灾探测器 要么全打开的印章或楼梯大厅应单独划分搜索范围，每个2 〜 3建立火灾探测器。 第一个房间（包括防前面的烟雾大厅楼梯前室，消防电梯间，消防电梯防前面房间烟雾楼梯大会堂来用场）和过道应区分单独划分搜索范围，特别是前面的房间，以及电梯，分散楼梯大厅和走道都是相互关联的，有时间的火灾烟雾比较容易收集或流动，是人员分散保存目标与防火，因此，应该安装火警探测器。关于共同电梯前室虽然不是人员分散，而且这方面的空间和良好的电梯是相互关联的，有时间的火灾烟雾也很容易被收集或流动，适当地划分为单独的搜索覆盖面和安装消防探测器。 电缆轴因此很容易形成掏出烟炎症渠道，拥有火灾时的火强度不容易延伸沿电缆燃烧，为此， “高级别民间建筑设计防火标准”和“民用建筑电气设计标准“分别提出了详细具体的规定，在建筑和在电线或电缆塑造。但认为具体实施的难度和目前的情况下，电缆竖井安装了火灾探测器是非常必要的，坐标轴的防火分隔要求，每2 〜 3或每一级安装。 电梯机房应安装火灾探测器，它的电梯是重要的垂直交通工具，其两个电梯机房已具有火灾危险性，其存在的三个基本解除以及打开洞，像打开闸门的水平之间的球洞，在气孔，持久的关系打开了洞与电梯机房或滑轮等，其时，有四个火，升降机以及往往成为火灾强度传播渠道，很容易危及电梯机房设施。因此，电梯机房建立了火灾探测器是必要的，也适用于皇冠建立火灾探测器举井。 2 ，手动火警报警按钮建立 （包括防前面的烟雾楼梯大厅鉴于各层前房间前面的房间，消防电梯间，消防电梯防这些烟雾楼梯大会堂派上用场前室）是有火灾时人员驱散节省目标，防火，应立即向警方举报的按钮，首选地点设立手动火警。此外，该室也应建立防火手册的共同电梯前，向警方报案的按钮。 在公共活动场所（包括会堂，礼堂，餐厅，多功能厅等）和主要通道等场所，是所有工作人员非常集中，主要是分散的渠道。因此，应立即向警方举报的按钮，在这些公共活动场所主要通道设立手册火灾;该手册规定的火灾中的主要通道报警按钮，以保证“ ，以手动火警最接近报警按钮距离防火区的任何位置不应该超过30米。 “ 第三，消防紧急广播喇叭建立 走道，大厅，餐厅等公共场所的工作人员都非常集中，主要是分散的渠道。因此，应该按这些公共场所的“最近的一项发言距离不超过25米的防火保护区的任何位置”和“在走道上不应大于十二点五米扬声器的过道末端距离”建立消防应急广播喇叭;下一步还应当建立消防在公共浴室的地方紧急广播喇叭。 第一个房间（包括防前面的烟雾大厅楼梯前室，消防电梯间，消防电梯防这些烟雾楼梯大会堂派上用场前室）是有火灾时的人员驱散节省目标与防火，也有分离和防火门的声音，人民的混乱和嘈杂，因此，应建立消防应急广播喇叭。在前面的共同电梯房也应建立消防应急广播喇叭。分散大厅楼梯也已经火灾时的人员驱散节省目标与防火，也是人民的声音和嘈杂的混淆，因此应建立消防应急广播喇叭，由主张消防紧急广播驱散指令。 第四，建立火灾报警装置 建立消防应急广播火灾自动报警系统，笔者认为还应该安装消防报警装置，但它的控制程序应该是：该报警器应确认火灾后，利用手动或自动控制模式统一消防相关区域传输预警，报警器停止工作时间的规定，迅速联系消防应急广播和电视节目，并且分散了人们的指示。 火警警报装置建立的立场，笔者认为应该向警方报案的按钮位置的手动火警是相同的，它的墙面安装应为距地面米高度 第五，消防专用电话设立 安装消防专用电话分机电话，应设机房其中也涉及一些人是在工作地点经常与消防联动控制（包括消防给水设备，备件发电机房，火柴变电站，主要ventilates空调引擎室，排放烟气轮机室，防火电梯机房及其他） ，消防控制系统的经营场所或设备的控制室，消防责任人员观察室，现场的安全管理等公共空间。轿车的影院中消防电梯和普通电梯应假设所有使用的特殊电话，请电梯机房和电梯轿车影院中，电梯机房及消防控制室，电梯轿车影院方块和消防控制室等三个成分是可靠的讲通信电话系统。通常在消防控制室;建立电梯监测演示板（包括位置指示器，显示方向灯，以讲信函电话，麻烦灯等） ，以进行必要的电梯在运行状态的监视和紧急情况下的控制。 配备了手动火警报警位置等按钮，消火栓按钮，还应该安装消防专用电话插座。 第三，消防联动控制 第一，消防联动控制应包括控制消防泵开启，停止，也应表现出的按钮，打开泵的位置和消防泵的工作和故障。当消火栓设有消火栓按钮时，其电气安装工程现场也应表现出的消防泵的工作模式有效状态（即建立消防泵工作表明灯） 。 第二，消防联动控制应包括控制喷洒水和水雾化灭火系统打开，停止，也应表现出的消防泵的工作和故障和流利显示，报警阀，安全信号阀工作模式积极的地位。此外，该盆地，水箱水位也应进行示范监测;为了防止检修信号阀关闭，作者认为应该使用带电信号控制信号阀证明它打开条件。 第三，消防联动控制其他控制和示范作用，应进行本标准和国家有关标准的具体规定。 第四，火灾自动报警系统布线 为了防止火灾发生时，消防控制，通信和警戒线遣散，使灭火工作无法进行，造成了更大的经济损失，也为抑制electronmagetic干扰（例如变压器，电电机，电缆等）的影响而产生的火灾自动报警系统。火灾自动报警系统的输电线路和消防控制，通信和预警线应使用被阻燃电缆，并应使用金属管或封闭式金属线槽保护。消防手册积极理事分期付款行应使用防火电缆，其电缆也应使用金属管或封闭式金属线槽保护。使用明复，应采取防火保护措施的金属管或封闭金属 ，结论备注 作者取决于具体的项目实施经验，阐述了设计依据，火灾自动报警设计和实际问题，以便建立系统设备，消防联动控制及其接线拿出一些肤浅的意见，其目的是增强了火灾自动报警系统的设计质量，早期发现，并通知消防，预防和减少火灾危害，通过保护个人和财产安全。
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可惜啊！偶不会…
The theory of criminal law of shallow understanding errors1. irrtumslehreLegal irrtumslehre, namely, refers to the illegality mistake for own behavior in law, whether what crime constitutes a crime shall be punished by, or what is wrong, is to oneself the legal nature of the action of meaning or misunderstandings. Legal irrtumslehre usually includes three conditions: (1) the actor's behavior in law does not constitute a crime, the offender and constitutes a crime for which imaginary guilty, (2) the behavior in law constitutes a crime and does not constitute a crime, the offender mistaken assumptions that innocent, (3) for his act constitutes a crime shall be convicted and punishment in light of the existing errors, misunderstanding or punishment. Due to the legal irrtumslehre, only to the behavior of the offender is not correct understanding of the legal assessment, and for their actions in fact correct understanding of the situation is still there, so its act constitutes a crime shall be investigated for criminal responsibility is and how it is not usually occurs.（1）Imaginary innocent treatment principleThe principles for imaginary innocence, whether it involves a deliberately elements. Foreign criminal law theory basically has the following kinds:1）Should know that don't speak, just for criminal facts have understanding. Canada criminal code article 19 regulation: "the ignorance of the law excuses and crime can be ShuZui reason." Motto: "Roman law and legal disclaimer" somehow also expressed a principle, namely: "in the crime as subjective FanYi established condition, not request to recognize his behavior of richtswitrig".2）Should know the reason, according to two: moral responsibility theory, personality responsibility theory. Moral responsibility theory emphasizes on the rationality of free will blame illegal conduct, is considered to be objective stance. 3）That said, the possible illegality of responsibility for deliberately, at least to the possibility of understanding illegality. While in China mainland, the introduction of the concept of crime has another concept -- social consciousness that harm to discuss richtswitrig already meaningless. Because the deliberate crime according to law condemn the illegality of the offender is not known, the law itself is not damaged, the law of the social consciousness is harm. Social harm consciousness is the essential contents of the crime, illegal consciousness is the legal form of social consciousness. Therefore, our country law more emphasis is on the rationality of essence, which is harmful to the society values. Just because of its social harmfulness, with a social moral evaluation colour, easier for people to grasp and observe. Therefore, the author thinks that, in general, the person need to recognize his behavior may be the result of inevitable or harmful to the society, and has already know. With intentionally But in fact, the forbidden by law and mass that is harmful to the society in our country nowadays the behavior under the constitution should be consistent, in other words, know the social harmfulness also know the possibility of illegal, but know the possibility of illegal is inevitable should also realize social harmfulness, both are unified. Therefore, it is generally thought that the law is no excuse, the reason of law does not exclude the misunderstanding in principle, but can be culpable for deliberately discretion. （2） Misunderstandings treatment principle. PunishmentWe might as well so the essence of blame for his due: the crime in the subjective should blame or blame, for the intent or negligence performance. If the offender because of misunderstanding that legal person feels very innocent, lack of this should blame or condemning sexual, from the fundamental measure, blame is absolutely not consider disclaimer. Especially in the modern society, the legal category SAN marino, legal entry in different fields and different levels of books, recognized, comprehend legal apparently endless and same, so the person of law and misunderstandings, not inexcusable. Now, both in theory and practice, the method not cling to forgive "seems to have in shake. Therefore, to a certain extent, can also think admits exceptions excusable is legal misunderstanding of criminal law is an important symbol of humanity. In addition, it was not in the act of which is prohibited by the laws and regulations, especially after a circumstance, should have knowledge of richtswitrig actor, constitute the understanding of deliberate point of view, with the attitude of this understanding, of course, that is not the illegality or by the simple statement actor. The author thinks that the only when the legal establishment of may, FangKeZu but . The fact mistakeThat mistake, is to determine its subjective behavior nature and the criminal responsibility of the relevant facts wrong understanding. From the wrong reasons and phenomenon of angles, generally known that there are several mistakes:（1） Object irrtumslehreThe object is known for errors, whether there is objectively error object. It includes actor in the implementation of the existing criminal behavior of the hazards for the object and actually does not exist, or for criminal object and actually does not exist, or infringe a criminal object and actually invaded another crime object. The object of objects is usually known errors caused by mistake, but the object of different social relationship reflects different. Evil doer of objects and actual expected in fact not only harm object does not agree, and in the nature of law is not consistent. Therefore, the object irrtumslehre may affect the form of sin, crime accomplishment, and may even attempted to influence the crime. For example, in view of the circumstances, not a thought before the enemy, and a party came to stick, afterwards just know the ox was wounded. A thought of damage is "people", and the actual wounded is "cow", do not belong to the same laws of the object. Similar situation and will generally be mistaken for drug trafficking items, Actor will stolen items in the theft of guns in stealing together. This object from the subjective errors, see, is a kind of mistake, From the objective, because the mistake crime to no avail, where the criminal attempted ）Object mistakeObjects can be generalized mistake, including object mistake to belong to the object know mistake is inevitable object irrtumslehre. These include, is known to be wrong object of legal property of the same object mistake and legal properties of different objects, namely the object irrtumslehre irrtumslehre. In order to distinguish with the object mistake here, the cognition to the same object only mean error between the different objects, namely the misunderstanding of the evil doer expected objects and actual harm to the object, but not in fact in the legal nature of the same situation. This object mistake again say things on purpose mistake not criminal responsibility. As a reserve, killing b shall be killed as b and c, do not affect a rap. This is the need to consider that a kill b behavior "mistake" cause others (c), belong to an intentional crime (b) "death", for the excess result, according to the results, which determine the ordinary mail of death was deliberately recognized for deliberately, to the death of the fault is propylene, identified as negligence, according to the intention or negligence of the general mark recognized FanYi or state of mind, not applicable rules of the ） Behavior irrtumslehreBehavior mainly includes two kind of mistake: first, the behavior nature irrtumslehre. That actor has to its social harm nature, such as understanding not imaginary defense. Behavior nature mistake might affect the form of sin, and may also affect crime. Second, the behavior tools (methods) irrtumslehre. That person to use when the conduct of tool (methods), which affects not correct understanding of harm results, behavior tools (methods) mistake can affect crime or attempted was founded, also can affect crime or belongs to the incident, a typical for murder on hazardous substances, because the drug failure and failed to kill people, can think method or tools for error doer of consciousness beyond reason not to succeed. And as actor see armour, second coming together, hence shot to play, but can't hit by the party and. Look, this is from the phenomenon of an object, or the final results for the mistake, but this error is based on the fact that the wrong doer identify offender is carefully identify to begin, can think recognize is accurate, errors in ChaWu itself. The solution to this situation, "said", its legal with qualitative and recognize wrong object is consistent, namely directly recognized as an intentional homicide accomplishment. The death of a person is directly intentionally to b, death is the indirect intentional, just for a to b is attempted, accomplished. Additionally, if in daily life because misidentification object and damage of consequences, the crime itself is not just any criminal negligence because of )Causality irrtumslehreCausality mistake, is on his behavior and harmful results of actual connection between errors. Generally include: first, not some harm result, as has happened actor. This generally constitute a crime. Second, has certain harm result, but not for actor or for his behavior is caused, and does not affect crime accomplishment. Third, really happened, the offender is aware of its behavior, but with the actual development between the harm to the process or a mistake, general to punish crime accomplishment. In theory, the offender is not only a crime, but continuous movement, this several continuous action is not a few crime, but a crime. In this sense, doesn't exist on the results of the irrtumslehre and facts mistake and proceduresDomestic scholars in fact know mistakes and errors between the issue legal representative views mainly include:（1）For own behavior whether in law constitutes a crime, criminal or what kind of criminal punishment shall be under the incorrect understanding is legal irrtumslehre for his behavior on the implementation of the incorrect understanding is the fact that mistake,（2）The objectivity of crime is a false understanding of crime, that mistake of objective facts have clear understanding, only to act in the evaluation of existing laws on the concept of law is not correct mistakes。（3）Actor known facts and actual fact don't agree is wrong, the person that judgment and objective law is law of illegal inconsistency ideas basically could in theory and legal irrtumslehre fact distinguish mistakes, it is important to emphasize that：1) With the conviction that the so-called irrelevant, as this mistake to hit each other, the shooting head caused the death of heart, without vision of research into our. 2) Study of the theory of error, error occurs when the purpose, but whether to intentionally resistance, reduce plots affected only the wrong cognition, natural sentencing nor will it into the error theory category. 3) This does not constitute a crime and actor for crime, and for their behavior in the criminal law on the crimes and how to apply for criminal punishment on such specific knowledge error, conviction according to law. Based on this, the author thinks that, at the fact that criminal law is only to know wrong doer of elements to know the so-called objective facts constituents of mistake is the fact that the legal irrtumslehre error refers to the legal action is illegal and the evaluation of the mistake. From the theory of facts and legal irrtumslehre error, but the problem is in the law, criminal elements to the facts and law closely combined circumstances (like some administrative crimes and economic crimes), or is in a fact itself contains certain laws of evaluation content, to distinguish with a mistake is the fact that mistake or legal wrong, is often difficult. If the property of his humanity and obscenity obscenity, administrative rules and regulations, JinYuOu, disrupt public until its precondition of the legitimacy of the public, and legal irrtumslehre facts wrong intertwined, and this is what we distinguish facts and legal irrtumslehre errors will solve the some cases, the defendant should know that because of the lack of knowledge, and not to the behavior of social harmfulness, so that the defendant is not "knowledge they will entail harmful consequences to society, and hope or allows such results" and deliberate crime, the burden of proof is only FanYi prosecution, in addition, prosecution without proof the defendant not normal, but normal mental and spiritual normal presumption defendant directly if the defendant that his spirit is not normal, it shall provide necessary evidence by himself to prove. Thus, the author, on legal irrtumslehre processing, can adopt the presumption of ways to handle. Which country presumption every normal citizens are known, unless the law can put forward defense "advantage prove" above, or the evidence rebut these presumption is established. From the efficiency of lawsuit, said the country is impossible to prove the defendant is known of the law.
law and order是个固定词组，中文解释即：法律与秩序(右派针对犯罪与暴力所提出的口号)“与”字有和之意，所以按此题目故而应写两者。中国具有代表性的计划生育就是一个很好的素材，不过要是从这两者下笔，我认为从中国法律的历史来写更容易些。以上只是个人见解，希望能对你有所帮助。
奇怪的是,最终的观点,这种思维方式往往是最现代化的发展,公司法律,旨在为永久的需要,不含任何继承它很有特色的罗马人,无遗嘱继承是被迫背景正常的演替,罗马人发明的,如果曾有过一个不,可以肯定的是,在成熟的罗马法的痕迹更早的工作性质是家庭财产,但从一个退出ealy日期死亡显然是作为一种catstrophe,必须事先规定的,它被认为是自然地放弃对变化的财产和其他权利。每件事物开始重新用意志;它很有特色,虽然了不起,这在遗嘱继承这个假定的标题的继承人,开始管理通常不被自动,但依靠一些行为的继承人。 你不需要劳动合同关系的点《合同法》中明显存在,以便于改变事实上,它是为这个原因,一般发展晚在合同法律制度它不是很晚于罗马法到目前为止,我们的记录中检测一段不合法的历史Romsn时,它是不可能的,一个人将他由一个极其简单的形式来做几乎都可能进入他的脑袋唯一的限制是相类似的,现代法的合同,防止是非法的,不道德的,还是反对公共政策的. 罗马法相比,甚至更自由,现代法没有阻止一个人从销售自己成为奴隶。 我们怎样说法则的黑社会性质组织犯罪或侵权行为它是一种必要的任何法律体系的一部分…人们必须行动来保护自己的aggressions取款机的其他人,这种行为不能被逼入背景在任何法律论文但这并不完全是令人惊讶的是,不规律的运动,它并没有带来最好的努力,并在法学家的某些显著的发展》、《保留了许多非常原始特征黑社会性质组织犯罪和总的来说是最令人满意的一部分,因为至少阐述了罗马私法。 法律的行为实质上是通过一项法律,再告诉你如何在某些circumstancees如果事情出了差错,他们不会对自己…你有什么事物,也就是说,但你可能不愿意,你必须接受的必要性,探讨了一些改变,如果只有方式反应,以恢复原来的位置。
关于英语专业的论文题目，学术堂整理了十五个好写的，供大家参考：1．《红字》中海丝特 白兰不理智的一面（The Irrational Side of Hester Prynne of The Scarlet Letter）2. 《董贝父子》中的矛盾冲突（The Conflict in Donbey and Son）3. 论文化不同对联想意义及翻译的影响（On Influence of Cultural Differences on Associative Meanings and Translation）4. 美国教育的衰弱（The Drop of American Education）5. 19世纪欧洲移民对美国工业化的积极影响（The Positive Impacts of European Immigration on American Industrialization in the 19th Century。6. 朱丽叶之人物分析（Character Studies in Juliet）7. 主述理论在文学中的运用（The Application of the Thematic Theory in Literature）8. 语用学中的会话含义理论（Conversational Implicature Theory in Pragmatics）9. 英语语音简析及对提高初学者口语的指导（A Brief Analysis of English Phonetics as well as a Guide to Improve Learners’ Oral English）10. 比较两种对于哈姆雷特复仇的评论（Comparison on Two Kinds of Comments on Hamlet’s Revenge）11. 英语语言中的性别歧视 (Sexism in English Language)12. 英语的学与教 (English Learning and Teaching)13. 由美国2004年总统选举所想到的 (More than 2004 Presidential Election)14. 论腐朽世界中的纯洁品质——关于《雾都孤儿》的赏析 (The Purity in a Corrupt World—An Analysis of Oliver Twister)15. 论理智与情感之关系——对《理智与情感》的人物分析
提供一些英语专业的毕业论文题目，供参考。语言学研究英语在香港的传播英语在中国文化中的重生英语帝国：是现实还是神话二战后英语发展的非正式化趋势英语的全球化和区域化英语中的性别歧视英语中的女性歧视现象英语中的性别歧视和西方妇女的社会地位女性语言特点及其社会根源论广告英语的语言特点浅析商务信函的文体特征源自英语的汉语表达为汉语和文化注入新鲜血液：一个社会语言学调查语音与语义---音义关系中的非任意性笑话致笑的原因论幽默的因素英语幽默中的语用学幽默的跨文化障碍分析拉丁文对英语词汇的深远影响英语发展史中法语对英语的影响初探网络英语词汇和构词方式网络语言对日常语言的渗透英美民族文化心理及其在词汇中的映射翻译研究浅谈中文标牌语的英译商标的文化内涵及其翻译耶希斯图尔特的短篇小说《劈樱桃树》的翻译与评析意志的力量--短篇小说《无视失败》的翻译与评析英语谚语在口语中的运用及其翻译怎样翻译英语习语隐藏的主角们——《我们的生存之道》的翻译与评析短篇小说《我的俄狄浦斯情结》的翻译与评析跨文化在中菜西译的体现文化差异对旅游翻译的影响论译者主观情感在作品中的体现科技英语中词汇翻译的技巧与策略英汉基本颜色词汇的文化差异及其翻译浅谈机器翻译文化感知与文化翻译翻译中双关语的处理在新的语言中新生---翻译中的转类跨文化研究从“赵燕在美被打”事件看跨文化交际的失败中英科普文章对比研究教育使美国移民融入主流社会：比较犹太家庭与亚裔家庭对子女的教育理念从《成长的烦恼》看中美家庭教育模式之差异奥普拉和陈鲁豫的成功范例给中西方家庭教育的启示现代中西方家庭淡化的透视中英姓名文化内涵比较中西文化礼仪的异同及其反映的文化内涵冲突与融合 —— 好莱坞与亚洲电影的互动跨文化在中菜西译的体现中西方商务礼仪的比较中美跨文化商业行为比较国际商务礼仪中的文化冲突商务礼仪差异对中国涉外商务洽谈的影响国际商务谈判中的决策因素浅析礼貌原则的不同视觉中西方广告的差异中西方时间观差异对比中美婚姻观新视角中美性状比较从文化象征意义、宗教信仰及例行仪式看中西婚礼论中西方恐怖电影的差异论英国骑士精神与中国武侠主义中希腊神话中女性形象的比较研究英汉基本颜色词汇的文化差异及其翻译中英色彩文化与语义对比的研究美国生活方式对中国年轻一代的影响及其原因论跨文化价值观对消费者行为的影响从养生观看民族特性从电影角度看决策中的文化差异幽默的跨文化障碍分析美国文化霸权下的民族文化保护策略---法国叫板美国"文化帝国主义"从＜围城＞看西方文化对中国文化的影响从王家卫电影看中西方文化交融美国华裔作家谭恩美作品中的中美文化冲突与融合文化意识与跨国交流中国古代太学与欧洲中世纪大学之比较——兼论现代大学的起源从中美英语教学的差异谈如何改进中学英语教学英语教学研究浅谈语境引入在中国高校口语教学中的应用小学英语教学中的语法意识合作学习在小学英语教学中的运用从多元智力原理分析中学生课堂英语学习策略的个体差异性交互式语言教学在乡村英语口语教学中的应用关于多媒体课件对大学英语教学影响的思考构建课堂英语教学新模式——从现代多媒体教学技术入手英语习语的理解和教学论外语习者与二语习者英语词汇扩大的途径教师在英语网络教学中的角色网络教育资源和高校英语写作教学浅谈教师在教学中的中介作用外教在当代中国英语教育中的作用背景知识和听力教学通过问卷调查对农村中学生听力问题的分析和展望英语词汇教学的问题和应用论记忆的联想策略少儿英语教育的问题及策略儿童学习第二语言的优势第二语言从儿童学起的意义寓英语教学于游戏论中国大学生英语阅读技能的提高词汇在阅读理解中的作用非英语专业大学新生的英语学习策略——一项基于实证的研究新加坡与中国在推广双语教学中具体措施的比较与分析英语演讲中的艺术与技巧大学英语写作的措辞缺陷及解决方案大学生英文作文中的中式英语现象从中美英语教学的差异谈如何改进中学英语教学“注意”的规律在中小学英语教学中的重要性及意义英国儿童文学的特色与贡献文学研究从《飘》到《冷山》：看美国南北战争文学作品的变迁俄狄浦斯情节初探论《呼啸山庄》艾米莉勃朗特的哥特情结评呼啸山庄中Katherine自我意识与传统道德间的冲突浅析艾略特诗歌的转变解析《嘉莉妹妹》中的自然主义逃离“社会”----《哈克贝利费恩历险记》主题分析荒诞与理性 --- 论《第二十二条军规》宿命与现实——从《苔丝》看哈代的宿命论从拉尔夫埃里森的《看不见的人》看美国黑人现状从《隐身人》中看爵士乐在黑人生活中的重要作用脆弱的心灵，虚伪的面孔--简析《红字》中蒂姆斯韦尔的悲剧命运《紫色》中的女性主义：至等待解放或为解放而论狄金森诗歌独特优美的意境《Mrs Dalloway》看Virginia Woolf的意识流写作存在的代价---解读海明威作品中的女色意识海明威作品悲剧因素分析从《白象似的群山》谈海明威的写作风格论《傲慢与偏见》中的女性争平等意识从Sthphen Crane 看美国自然主义的产生和发展论后现代主义中的女性主义—看美国影片《时时刻刻》从“指环王”到“龙与地下城”－奇幻作品所反映的欧洲中古文化浅论《远大前程》的理想主义倾向从“自愿贫穷”到“返朴归真”—重新发掘梭罗在瓦登湖的生活《一报还一报》——莎士比亚问题剧新解《伟大的盖茨比》：美国梦的破灭安徒生童话故事对中国儿童的影响追求自由的灵魂遭到宗教的扼杀：裘德的悲剧从《飘》的人物分析看开拓不屈的美国精神及其现实意义从雪莱的诗看英国浪漫主义福克纳献给艾米莉一朵什么玫瑰——谈威廉姆福克纳的《献给艾米莉的一朵玫瑰》文学叙事形式在侦探悬念片中的运用论《红字》中的性别错位从＜围城＞看西方文化对中国文化的影响美国华裔作家谭恩美作品中的中美文化冲突与融合苔丝的悲剧和它的社会原因英国儿童文学的特色与贡献文化研究中东文化与其商业行为民族动物与民族精神一路上的疯狂——从《在路上》看“垮掉一代”的精神实质冲破枷锁，自由呼吸—从西方服饰演变看妇女解放运动从“指环王”到“龙与地下城”－奇幻作品所反映的欧洲中古文化殖民地时期英国文化对美国的影响欧洲人的城堡心结：通过对城堡文化的研究看欧洲社会的变迁和特点美国文化霸权下的民族文化保护策略---法国叫板美国"文化帝国主义"《绝望的主妇》中的妇女形象分析——西方男权社会中女性的妥协与抗争对骑士文化的研究浅析哥特文化中的浪漫主义色彩英美民族文化心理及其在词汇中的映射论地理、政治、宗教对文化的影响韩流对中国青少年的影响朋克音乐对社会文化的影响香水文化在社会交际中的作用
题目不要太大，也不要太小，太大了面太广容易泛泛，小了就无材料可查，没东西可写。写你熟悉的 资料好查的 参考
语言测试在英语学习中的重要性 比较中西课堂教学及其对学生能力培养的影响 游戏在儿童英语教学中的运用 小学英语情趣教学漫谈 论中学英语教学中跨文化意识的培养 课堂气氛对高中英语教学效果的影响 记忆在语篇理解过程中的作用 记忆在词汇习得中的作用 谈英语阅读的制约因素及对策 跨文化交际中的体态语和中学英语教学 分析具有中国特色的双语教学 非智力因素在大学生英语学习中的影响 英语教学中的情感因素 论外语自主学习中师生的角色 让我们的思绪飞扬---浅谈在英语课堂教学中影响学生发言主动性的因素 C2C贸易中的写作技巧 大学生英语写作问题研究 文化词及其在外语教学中的功能 英语学习策略的成功案例 文化差异对阅读理解的影响 浅谈多媒体辅助英语教学及教师角色的改变 论母语文化在英语教学中的地位 英语教学中的文化导入
你看下，vip英语论文这方面的东西比较多
In the 20th century, bridge construction technology evolved and was fueled by the Industrial Revolution. At the turn of the century, steel bridges were riveted together, not bolted; concrete bridges were cast in place, not precast; and large bridge members were built from lacing bars and smaller sections, not rolled in one piece. Plastic had not yet been invented. Construction techniques such as post-tensioning, slurry walls, soil freezing, and reinforced earth walls had not yet been conceived. Surveying was performed mechanically since infrared, optical technology was still 75 years away. Bridge construction is changing as the new millennium begins. New construction techniques and new materials are emerging. There are also new issues facing the bridge building industry relative to the research needs associated with these new techniques and materials. LONG-SPAN BRIDGES Suspension Bridges While suspension bridge building was conducted at a modest pace throughout the 20th century, an unprecedented number of spans of remarkable record lengths were built in the Far East and Denmark. Both the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan and the Great Belt Bridge in Denmark were completed in 1998. The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge is the largest suspension bridge in the world, with a span of 1991 m, and the Great Belt Bridge is the second largest, with a span of 1624 m. While spans lengths have increased nearly fivefold during the course of this century, they may have reached their physical limits with today’s materials. Research will be necessary to develop the new, ultra-high-strength steel wire or carbon fiber wire required to build the longer main suspension cables that will make it possible to increase span lengths to beyond 2000 m. As we enter the new millennium, rehabilitation and ongoing maintenance of the existing suspension bridges must continue as well. Recent rehabilitation measures for the main cables and suspension systems of these bridges have uncovered degradation through corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement. Research is needed to determine the remaining useful service life of suspension bridge cables and what measures can be taken to slow or halt the degradation process. Transportation in the New Millennium 2 Other components of long-span bridges, existing and new, are being revolutionized as technology moves forward. Advances in deck technology are producing stronger, lighter decks. Orthotropic and exodermic decks are becoming increasingly popular on long-span structures as a means of reducing dead load. Bearings, joint systems, and seismic retrofitting components are becoming increasingly efficient as more large-scale testing facilities are built.在20世纪,桥梁施工技术,是由进化而来的 工业革命。随着新世纪的到来,钢桥受到铆接在一起,而不是 螺栓、混凝土桥梁被扔在的地方,不是预制、大型桥梁成员 从系酒吧和小的部分,不卷在一块。塑料尚未 发明了。制作等施工工艺、浆墙、土壤冻结, 加筋土墙尚未怀了孕。测量进行机械 自从红外、光学技术仍然是75年。 大桥建设是新千年开始转变。新建筑 技术和新材料正在浮出水面。也有新的解决面临的桥 建筑行业的相关研究的需要,这些新技术 材料。 大跨度桥梁 悬挂的桥梁 虽然悬索桥建设进行了整个20速度不快 世纪,前所未有的跨越了卓越的长度是建在记录 远东和丹麦。双方在日本明石海峡大桥正式通车,伟大的带桥 在丹麦是在一九九八年完成。这个明石海峡大桥正式通车是世界上最大的悬架 在这个世界上,与桥梁的m,1991年是中国的第二大带桥, 用一段1624)。 虽然已经增加了近5倍长度的跨世纪的过程中, 他们已经达到了他们的物理极限与今天的材料。研究将 必须发展新的、ultra-high-strength钢丝、碳纤维丝要求 建立了悬索,将不再主要可能增加到跨度的长度 超出2000米。 当我们进入新千年、康复和持续的维护现有的 悬索桥必须继续。最近的戒毒措施为主要 电缆悬架系统与这些桥梁发现退化 氢脆腐蚀,。研究还剩下的 寿命悬索桥电缆和什么措施可以减缓或 停止退化的过程。 在新千年的运输 其他组件的大跨度桥梁,现有的和新的,正在发生了革命性的变化 技术的进步。提出了在甲板上技术生产强的,更轻的 甲板。正交各向异性和exodermic牌是大跨度越来越受欢迎 作为一种手段,降低结构自重荷载。轴承、联合系统和抗震能力 越来越多的有效成分是更大规模的测试设备 建造。 50分！！~~谢谢 参考资料：我的大脑
英语专业毕业论文应采用英语撰写，一般由以下部分组成，依次为：（1）封面，（2）任务书，（3）开题报告, (4) 英文摘要及关键词(Abstract，Keywords)，（5）目录（Outline），（6）正文，（7）注释（Notes）,（8）参考文献（Bibliography）， (9) 致谢(Acknowledgement)。Outline中要有Thesis Statement, 采用四号加粗，目录的各章节应简明扼要，其中每章（Ⅰ.Ⅱ.Ⅲ.）题目采用小三号，每节（.）题目采用四号。目录部分采用单倍行距。
首先，用英语撰写，格式如下1）封面，2）任务书，3）开题报告, 4) 英文摘要及关键词(Abstract，Keywords)，5）目录（Outline），6）正文，7）注释（Notes）,8）参考文献（Bibliography）， 9) 致谢(Acknowledgement其他格式各学校规定不同，主要是格式的问题可以考虑写英美文化差异，但最好涉及到某以小的方面论文最忌讳大而全，要涉及到具体问题研究容易得好得成绩。
关于“绿色建筑”和适宜技术“绿色建筑”也称为生态建筑、可持续建筑，最早是在1992年联合国环境与发展大会上明确地提出来的。用建设部仇保兴副部长的总结——“绿色建筑”就是指为人们提供健康、舒适、安全的居住、工作和活动的空间，同时在建筑全生命周期(物料生产、建筑规划、设计、施工、运营维护及拆除、回用过程)中实现高效率地利用资源(能源、土地、水资源、材料)、最低限度地影响环境的建筑物。可见，绿色建筑理念的提出，就是为了使得建筑在满足人类不断提高的健康、舒适、安全的需要基础上。对环境、资源影响最小，最终做到可持续发展．前提都是为了人类的永久利益。社会上有一些观点把绿色建筑看得很片面、绝对化，要不就是极端限制人的合理需求，以保护环境为唯一目的；而另一些观点就是把绿色建筑当成是仅仅是为人类的眼前利益、健康或舒适(像绿色建材、绿色蔬菜一样看待)而不怎么从整体上、长期上考虑对环境的影响。这两种观点可能都不利于“绿色建筑”的健康发展和推广。绿色建筑最终的目标是以“绿色建筑”为基础，进而扩展至“绿色社区”、 “绿色城市”层面。达到促进建筑永续发展的目标。这意味着建筑不仅被作为非生命元素来对待，更被视为自然生态循环系统的一个有机组成部分。 中国的国情 中国作为最大的发展中国家，二氧化碳排放居第二位，根据《京都议定书》的要求，中国要采取一系列减少温室气体排放的政策和措施，包括努力提高能源利用效率，改善能源结构，促进新能源和可再生能源的利用等。 就能源消费而言，在我国化石能源资源探明储量中，90％以上是煤炭，人均储量也仅为世界平均水平的二分之一；人均石油储量仅为世界平均水平的1 1％；天然气仅为4 5％；而目前我国单位建筑面积能耗水平是发达国家的2～3倍以上。就土地的情况而言，我国人均耕地只有世界人均耕地的1／3，水资源仅是世界人均占有量的1／4；实心黏土砖每年毁田12万亩；物耗水平与发达国家相比，钢材消耗高出10％～25％，每拌和1立方米混凝土要多消耗水泥80公斤；卫生洁具的耗水量高出30％以上，而污水回用率仅为发达国家的25％。严峻的事实表明，中国不仅要走可持续发展道路，发展节能与绿色建筑也刻不容缓。 我们应该认识到我国不仅经济上“穷”，在资源和环境上更“穷”，但要想做到可持续发展的目标就要摆脱狭隘的“唯经济穷论”，全面在“四节一环保”上提高标准，用强有力的税收、金融、土地政策鼓励有条件的地区或开发绿色建筑项目，走在地区、国内甚至国际的前列。同时，强制要求经济发达地区和大型城市的节约标准，提到一个和自身地区资源相符合的程度。 成本问题 从全国范围里来讲。绝大多数普通的民用建筑在节能等方面存在巨大的缺陷和不足，因此需要我们进行综合的设计来增加建筑这些方面的品质和性能，每一方面的改善基本上都需要增加一定的成本，比如成本增加10％以上，是必然的。 就住宅而言，一说到因为“节能要增加成本”，就有许多人说会增加购房人的负担，好像以后使用过程中的使用成本对老百姓无关紧要一样。因此，我们不仅要关注建造的经济成本，更要关注今后使用中的经济成本以及生态成本和社会成本。就生态成本来讲，今天对环境的污染今后需要花费更大的代价去治理；就社会成本来说，绿色建筑由于改善了室内的环境，使人的疾病发生率大幅度下降，因为人有80％的时间是在室内活动，这样疾病发生率将会大幅度下降．寿命将会延长，生存质量也大大提高，这就是另一方面的节约；同时，在建筑数十年的使用过程中．使用成本将高于建造成本数倍以上。，因此，我们应该把注意力放在生态成本、社会成本和全寿命周期的经济成本上，况且现在的房价即使没有技术含量和“四节”，性能的提高也在不断的增加，这种价格的增加加大了房地产泡沫的可能性，因此房地产价格的理性回归应该是建立在价值的增加基础上的。我认为可以鼓励各个地方的高档住宅或其他民用建筑通过适当的高投入，带来项目的内外环境质量、提升“绿色”性能，从而提高房子的品质，以品质来支撑高于其他普通房子的价格，让这些高价房成为“绿色建筑”的榜样，以此带动地方住宅技术及产业化的发展，最终让更多的普通房子更容易实现“绿色”梦想。 绿色建筑需要什么样的技术? 在探索绿色建筑的技术路线时．经常会听到一些专家主张应该采用“低技术”，有些认为应该采用“适宜技术”，还有些认为应该采用“适宜技术结合高技术”等等不同的观点，我个人认为这种争论没有意义。技术是用来解决我们所面临的具体问题的，应该根据具体项目的具体情况和实际需求来选择。更多技术选择的可能性一方面能够满足建筑师的创造需要，另一方面能够满足市场的需求。。在我们国家目前普遍技术非常落后的今天，如果不是大力去发展高新技术而一味强调低技术，只能是更落后，离我们自己的标准也会越来越远。 在技术选择上，我们应该从所需要的建筑性能和全寿命周期的观点去分析、判断、计算、选择。汪光焘部长说过，要充分认识资源环境问题已成为国民经济和社会发展的重大制约因素。，我们当前在经济增长方式方面主要还存在“高投入、高消耗、高排放、不协调、难循环、低效率”的问题。这些问题如果低技术能够解决还需要拖到今天吗?高低是相对的，适宜不适宜也是相对的，如果站在国际的水平上看，我们国内有些专家认为的“高技术”早已经是“低技术”和“适宜技术”了。所以根据我们的国情，恰恰需要去大力鼓励开发绿色高新技术甚至是自主知识产权的高新技术，同时去大力鼓励使用高新技术，工程实践能促使技术的发展，使之变成适宜技术。只有这样．到2020年我们的住宅和公共建筑的能源资源消耗水平才有可能接近或达到现阶段中等发达国家的水平，这是我们国家建筑发展的总目标。 总之，绿色建筑的发展建设需要正确看待卫生、安全、健康、舒适的问题和当地资源情况，目前各地的节能标准里面所假定的舒适度，前提是小康标准的，是最基本的，不能完全体现今后的发展方向。随着生活水平的提高，舒适度的标准也会提高，能源等资源的消耗也将会大幅提高。因此应该根据当地气候和生活习惯、经济水平分级，适应不同收入阶层和满足不同的需求，要有一定的前瞻性。同时，绿色建筑的设计需要将有关今后使用费用(如采暖制冷等)或能耗等定量化，要具体到单位使用者，这样有利于老百姓的选择权、知情权和监督。有了老百姓的参与，绿色建筑才会更加迅速和健康地发展。 On the "green building" and appropriate technology "Green building" also known as eco-architecture, sustainable construction, was first at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development clearly put forward. With the Ministry of Construction Qiu Baoxing, vice minister of the summing up - "green building" refers to provide people with healthy, comfortable, safe living, work and activities in space, while the entire life cycle in the construction (of material production, construction planning, design, construction, operational maintenance and dismantling, reuse process) to achieve efficient use of resources (energy, land, water, materials), the minimum impact on the environment of buildings. This shows that green building concept proposed, is to allow construction to meet the ever-increasing human health, comfort, safety needs basis. On the environment, resources, the least impact, and ultimately to achieve sustainable development. Premised on the permanent interests of mankind. That there are some points to green building can see that very one-sided, absolutized, or is the extreme limit of a reasonable person needs to protect the environment for the sole purpose; while others point of view is that as a green building is only for human eyes interests, health or comfort (such as green building materials, look like green vegetables) instead of how a whole, to consider the long-term impact on the environment. These two views may not be conducive to "green building" the healthy development and promotion. The ultimate goal of green building is "green building" as the basis, and then extended to the "green communities" and "Green City" promotion of sustainable development to achieve the goal of building. This means that the building not only as a non-life element to treat, but also be seen as the natural ecology of the circulatory system an integral part. China's national conditions As the largest developing country, ranked second in carbon dioxide emissions, according to the "Kyoto Protocol", China should adopt a series of reducing greenhouse gas emissions policies and measures, including efforts to improve the efficiency of energy use, improve energy structure, promote the development of new and renewable sources of energy use, such as. On energy consumption, in China's proven reserves of fossil energy resources, 90% of which is coal, the per capita reserves are only half the world average; oil reserves per capita world average is only 1 1 percent; natural gas only 4 5%; and the current construction area of China's unit energy consumption levels in developed countries more than 2 ~ 3 the land's case, China's per capita arable land per capita cultivated land is only the world's 1 / 3, is the world's water resources per capita is only 1 / 4; solid Clay eradication 12 million mu each year; material level with the developed countries, steel consumption has risen by 10% to 25%, every one cubic meters of concrete mixing more cement consumption of 80 kilograms; sanitary water consumption by more than 30% higher, while the wastewater reuse rate was only 25 percent in developed countries. The grim fact that China has not only take the road of sustainable development, development of energy-saving and green building is also urgent. We should be aware that our country not only economically "poor" in terms of resources and the environment more "poor", but in order to achieve the goal of sustainable development will be out of narrow "Only the poor economic theory", fully in the "4 A environmental protection "to improve standards, with strong revenue, finance, land policy to encourage the development of regional or conditional green building projects in the region, domestic and even international forefront. At the same time, mandatory for economically developed areas and large cities, saving standards, referring to a region and their own resources in line with the degree. Cost From across the country in terms vast majority of ordinary civil construction in such areas as energy saving was greatly flawed and inadequate, so we need an integrated design to increase the quality of construction in these areas and performance improvement in every aspect of almost all the need to increase some costs, such as increase the cost of more than 10%, are inevitableResidential is concerned, I said because "energy-saving to increase the cost", there are many people that will increase the burden on home buyers who, like later use in the process of using the cost of ordinary people as irrelevant. Therefore, we must not only concern the construction of the economic cost, but also concerned about the future use of the economic costs and ecological costs and social the ecological cost is concerned, the pollution of the environment today, the future will take an even higher price to governance; on social costs, green building as a result of improved indoor environment in which the significant decline in the incidence of disease, because 80 % of the time in indoor activities, so that the incidence of disease will fall significantly． Life will be extended, which has greatly improved the quality of life, that is, on the other hand, savings; At the same time, in the construction for several decades the use of the process. Cost will be higher than the construction costs over several times. Therefore, we should focus our attention on the ecological costs, social costs and the whole life-cycle economic costs Besides, now that housing prices even in the absence of technical content and "4", performance improvement has been an increase in such The increase in prices has increased the possibility of the real estate bubble, real estate prices is therefore rational regression should be based on the value of the increase on the basis think we can encourage each of the local high-end residential or other civil construction through appropriate high input, internal and external environment brought about by the project quality, and enhance the "green" performance, thereby enhancing the quality of the house, to support quality higher than that of other ordinary house prices to enable thesebecome a "green building" an example to stimulate local technology and industrialization of residential development, and ultimately allow more ordinary house easier to achieve "green" dream. Green building what kind of technology? Green Building in exploring the technical routes. Often heard some experts advocate should adopt a "low-tech", and some think we should adopt "appropriate technology", and some think we should adopt "appropriate technology combines high-tech" and so on different points of view, I personally think that this argument no meaning. Technology is used to solve our specific problems faced by, and should be based on the specific circumstances of specific projects and the actual demand to choose. More on the one hand, the possibility of technical options to meet the needs of architects to create, on the other hand to meet the needs of the our country is now generally very backward technology today, if not vigorously to develop high-tech and low-skilled blindly emphasizes, can only be even more backward, away from our own standards will become farther and farther. Technology choice, we should be required for building performance and life-cycle perspective to analyze, judge, calculated choice. Wang Guangtao, minister said, should fully understand the resources and the environment has become a national economic and social development of the major constraints. Our current mode of economic growth in the main there are still "high input, high consumption, high emission, lack of coordination, difficult cycle, low-efficiency" issue. These problems can be solved if the low-skilled today also need to drag it? Is relative low, and suitable for inappropriate relative, if the level of standing on the international point of view, our domestic and some experts believe that the "high-tech" have been "low Technology "and" appropriate technology "has been. Therefore, in accordance with our national conditions, it needs to vigorously encourage the development of green and even their own intellectual property rights of high-tech high-tech, at the same time to strongly encourage the use of high technology, engineering practice to promote technological development, make the appropriate technology. Only in this way. By 2020, our residential and public buildings of energy resource consumption level will it be possible to approach or reach the level of moderately developed countries at this stage, this is our country's overall goal of building development. In short, the development of green building-building needs a correct view of health, safety, health, comfort issues and local resources, the current energy efficiency standards around the inside of the supposed comfort, the premise that a well-off standard, is the most fundamental and can not be fully reflected the future direction of development. With the improvement of living standards, comfort of the standards will also increase the consumption of energy and other resources will also be greatly should therefore be based on local climate and living habits, economic level of classification, to adapt to different income groups and to meet different needs, it must be the same time, green building design needs to be used for future costs (such as heating refrigeration, etc.) or the quantification of energy consumption to specific units of the user, so that is conducive to people's right to choose, the right to information and supervision. With the participation of ordinary people, green building will be more rapid and healthy development.
（建筑专业英语文章内容）Architecture, the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction. As an art, architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids. Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once. In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood. The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration, can greatly enhance a structure. The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras. Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life. Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates. Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods. Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it. That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid-19th cent. Until the 20th cent. there were three great developments in architectural construction—the post-and-lintel, or trabeated, system; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass, or the thrust type, in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points; and the modern steel-skeleton system. In the 20th cent. new forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed-skin (light material, reinforced) structures. See also articles under countries, ., American architecture; styles, ., baroque; periods, ., Gothic architecture and art; individual architects, ., Andrea Palladio; individual stylistic and structural elements, ., tracery, orientation; specific building types, ., pagoda, apartment house. Architecture of the Ancient World In Egyptian architecture, to which belong some of the earliest extant structures to be called architecture (erected by the Egyptians before 3000 .), the post-and-lintel system was employed exclusively and produced the earliest stone columnar buildings in history. The architecture of W Asia from the same era employed the same system; however, arched construction was also known and used. The Chaldaeans and Assyrians, dependent upon clay as their chief material, built vaulted roofs of damp mud bricks that adhered to form a solid shell. After generations of experimentation with buildings of limited variety the Greeks gave to the simple post-and-lintel system the purest, most perfect expression it was to attain (see Parthenon; orders of architecture). Roman architecture, borrowing and combining the columns of Greece and the arches of Asia, produced a wide variety of monumental buildings throughout the Western world. Their momentous invention of concrete enabled the imperial builders to exploit successfully the vault construction of W Asia and to cover vast unbroken floor spaces with great vaults and domes, as in the rebuilt Pantheon (2d cent. .; see under pantheon). The Evolution of Styles in the Christian Era The Romans and the early Christians also used the wooden truss for roofing the wide spans of their basilica halls. Neither Greek, Chinese, nor Japanese architecture used the vault system of construction. However, in the Asian division of the Roman Empire, vault development continued; Byzantine architects experimented with new principles and developed the pendentive, used brilliantly in the 6th cent. for the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The Romanesque architecture of the early Middle Ages was notable for strong, simple, massive forms and vaults executed in cut stone. In Lombard Romanesque (11th cent.) the Byzantine concentration of vault thrusts was improved by the device of ribs and of piers to support them. The idea of an organic supporting and buttressing skeleton of masonry (see buttress), here appearing in embryo, became the vitalizing aim of the medieval builders. In 13th-century Gothic architecture it emerged in perfected form, as in the Amiens and Chartres cathedrals. The birth of Renaissance architecture (15th cent.) inaugurated a period of several hundred years in Western architecture during which the multiple and complex buildings of the modern world began to emerge, while at the same time no new and compelling structural conceptions appeared. The forms and ornaments of Roman antiquity were resuscitated again and again and were ordered into numberless new combinations, and structure served chiefly as a convenient tool for attaining these effects. The complex, highly decorated baroque style was the chief manifestation of the 17th-century architectural aesthetic. The Georgian style was among architecture's notable 18th-century expressions (see Georgian architecture). The first half of the 19th cent. was given over to the classic revival and the Gothic revival. New World, New Architectures The architects of the later 19th cent. found themselves in a world being reshaped by science, industry, and speed. A new eclecticism arose, such as the architecture based on the École des Beaux-Arts, and what is commonly called Victorian architecture in Britain and the United States. The needs of a new society pressed them, while steel, reinforced concrete, and electricity were among the many new technical means at their disposal. After more than a half-century of assimilation and experimentation, modern architecture, often called the International style, produced an astonishing variety of daring and original buildings, often steel substructures sheathed in glass. The Bauhaus was a strong influence on modern architecture. As the line between architecture and engineering became a shadow, 20th-century architecture often approached engineering, and modern works of engineering—airplane hangars, for example—often aimed at and achieved an undeniable beauty. More recently, postmodern architecture (see postmodernism), which exploits and expands the technical innovations of modernism while often incorporating stylistic elements from other architectural styles or periods, has become an international Forms（翻译文章）建筑，艺术的建设中，人类的需求和建筑材料有关，以提供实际使用以及审美的解决方案，从而不同于纯粹实用的工程建设。作为一门艺术，建筑基本上是抽象的，抽象的，涉及操纵的关系空间，数量，飞机，群众，空隙。时间也是一个重要因素在建筑，因为建设是通常理解中的经验继承，而不是一次。在多数建筑没有一个高度，从整个结构是可以理解的。利用光影，以及表面装饰，可以大大提高结构。 在分析建设类型提供了一个深入了解过去的文化和时代。背后的更大的风格是不是一种偶然，也不是一个流行趋势，但一个时期的严重和紧迫的实验针对回答需要具体的生活方式。气候，方法的劳动力，提供的材料，和经济的手段强加其要求所有。每一个更大的风格一直帮助下发现新的施工方法。一旦制订，顽强生存的方法，让位只有当社会的变化或新的建筑技术，减少它。这是进化过程中所体现的历史，现代建筑，它开发的第一个利用结构钢铁中期19美分。 直到20美分。有三个巨大的发展，建筑施工，后和门楣，或trabeated ，系统;拱系统，无论是一致的类型，采用塑料材料硬化成一个单一的质量，或类型的主旨，其中负载收到并在一定的平衡点;与现代钢骨架系统。在20以上。新形式的建设已制订，使用钢筋混凝土的发展和大地测量，并强调皮肤（轻型材料，钢筋）结构。 又见条款的国家，如美国的建筑;风格，如巴洛克;期间，如哥特式建筑和艺术;个别建筑师，如安德烈帕拉迪奥;个人风格和结构性因素，例如，窗格，方向;具体建设类型，例如，大观园，一栋公寓楼。 建筑的古代世界 在埃及的建筑，其中一些属于最早的现存结构，被称为架构（竖立的埃及人在公元前3000年） ，后与门楣系统被完全和生产最早的石柱状建筑物的历史。该架构的W亚洲来自同一时代雇用同一系统，但拱形建筑也被称为和使用。该Chaldaeans和亚述人，取决于粘土为主要材料，建造拱形屋顶潮湿的泥土砖坚持以形成一个坚实的外壳。 经过几代人的实验与有限的各种建筑物的希腊人给的简单桩门楣系统最纯净，最完美的表达这是实现（见神庙;订单架构） 。古罗马建筑，借款，结合栏希腊和拱门亚洲，产生了各种各样的纪念性建筑在整个西方世界。他们的重大发明的具体启用帝国建设者利用成功的墓穴建造的W亚洲和覆盖广阔的完整楼空间巨大拱顶和穹顶，在重建先贤祠（二维的。广告;见先贤祠） 。 风格的演变中的基督时代 罗马和早期基督教还使用了木桁架的跨度屋面广泛的教堂大厅。无论是希腊，中国，日本建筑，也使用了跳马制度建设。然而，在亚洲司的罗马帝国，跳马发展继续;拜占庭建筑师尝试新的原则和发展了pendentive ，用出色的第6次以上。教会的圣索菲亚君士坦丁堡。 古罗马建筑的早期中世纪值得注意的是强有力的，简单的，大规模的形式和墓穴执行削减石头。在伦巴德罗马（第11次左右。 ）拜占庭浓度跳马重点是提高设备的肋骨和码头，以支持他们。这个想法的一个有机的支持和支撑骨架的砖石（见支撑） ，在这里出现的胚胎，成为振兴目标的中世纪建筑。在13世纪的哥特式建筑出现了完善它的形式，如在亚眠和沙特尔大教堂。 文艺复兴时期诞生的架构（第15次左右。 ）成立的时期数百年的西方建筑在此期间，多重的和复杂的建筑物现代世界开始出现，同时没有任何新的和令人信服的结构概念出现。饰品的形式和古代罗马人一次又一次复苏和被命令到无数新的组合，结构送达主要作为一种方便的工具实现这些效果。复杂的，高度是巴洛克风格装饰的主要体现17世纪的建筑美学。格鲁吉亚是建筑风格的显着18世纪的表现形式（见格鲁吉亚架构） 。上半年的19美分。给出了经典的哥特复兴和振兴。 新世界，新的体系结构 建筑师后19美分。发现自己的世界正在改变的科学，工业，和速度。一种新的折衷主义出现，如建筑的基础上高等美术学院，以及所谓的维多利亚式建筑在英国和美国。需要一个新的社会压力，同时钢铁，钢筋混凝土，电力中有许多新的技术手段，它们所掌握的。 经过超过半个世纪的同化和实验，现代建筑，通常被称为国际风格，产生了惊人的各种大胆和原始建筑，往往钢子护套在玻璃。包豪斯是一个强有力的影响，现代建筑。随着之间的界线建筑和工程成为一个影子， 20世纪建筑往往接近工程和现代工程的工程飞机机库，例如，通常都瞄准了，取得了一个不可否认的美感。最近，后现代建筑（见后现代主义） ，其中的漏洞，并扩大了技术创新的现代风格，而往往把内容从其他建筑风格或时期，已成为一项国际形式。能够帮到你吗！
Building a culture rooted in the natural environment of HabitatDifferent geographical They certainly have different natural environment: topography, sunshine point of view, sun and tides, currents and winds, temperature, pressure, food, land, water, vegetation and so on. As an intermediary between man and nature of the construction, the external should be conducive to the formation of district external environment should be conducive to the protection of the domestic indoor environment Habitat. These buildings, like plants, the roots, making a day, or geographical areas of the natural environment suitable for the requirements of integration with Southeast Asia and South Asia, in China's Hainan Island and Taiwan Island, Coconut Grove dense, hot weather, people with palm leaves, palm-leaf built to adapt to the tropical rainforest of thatched rooms, small, ventilation, cool, lightweight, simple , built a tropical rain forest Central Asia, West Asia, in China's western alpine region, people with stones, the mountain has been built on the powerful stone building, take shelter from the wind, blocking snow, heat, warm, building construction has become plateaus. Such as China, Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan and other ethnic minorities in China's western mountains and on the potential to build a wide variety of mountain Plateau in China, the Gobi Mobei, low rainfall, dry climate, people use the hillside slopes built tunneling room, built with distinct characteristics of immature soil construction. Gansu Dunhuang Art Exhibition Hall of the building buried in the hillside, the semi-open entrance connected hillside retaining wall, construction features of immature soil is very the eastern part of the United States, in Australia, in China's south, rainfall, mild climate, people use wood, brick and mountains on the potential, in line with local conditions, build a shade shelter from the rain, ventilation, styling and unique architectural humid architectural forms, of various styles, suitable for different regions of the natural environment, with the landscape, vegetation, terrain together, forming a natural environment is rooted in a variety of architectural culture. Building both rooted in the natural environment, but also subject to the natural environment, this is the architects must follow a basic , the social space-time caused by environmental differences in the diversification of architectural cultureDifferent regions, different countries, different nations have different social and historical patterns. European countries, the Americas, Asia and Africa and other developing countries, land of different religious beliefs, economic development of the different regions have different cultural practices. Habitat in different parts of the social differences in time and space environment, resulting in the architectural culture and the diversity of time and space, resulting in ancient or modern Chinese architectural culture, the Russian architectural culture, architectural culture in Southeast Asia, Europe and the United States Architectural Culture, the African Architectural Culture and so on. Ancient Greek architecture in Europe, North Africa, the ancient Egyptian architecture, the South Asian Association for the ancient Indian architecture, ancient Chinese architecture is the world's architectural and cultural history of ethnic origins. Catholic, Jesus taught, Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, such as the formation and development of religion, a profound impact on the religious beliefs of countries and regions, but also a profound impact on those areas of construction, forming a rich and colorful culture of religious several thousand years long history, has followed so far, both ancient and extensive, since ancient times by Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Zen, such as the impact of ethical thinking. Especially Confucianism ruled China for 2 000 years, deep-rooted. To this culture of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Zen eclectic variety of ideas, together brilliant, independent nations of the Culture under certain conditions, can be transformed. Geographical, ethnic and cultural construction under certain conditions, can be transformed into international architectural culture, and international architectural culture can also be absorbed, the integration of the region and the national character of the new architectural culture. In today's world, building a culture of development and progress, both the transformation of the former to the latter, which also includes the absorption and integration of the former. The two also both opposing reunification, complement each other, affect each other and common development, only the protection and development of a variety of architectural culture of all ethnic groups, the promotion of world architectural culture of pluralism, and ultimately to create a "different and" the human society .Three Chinese and foreign construction and cultural development and blendArchitectural Culture in the global "big culture" systems, all nationalities, all geographical construction symbiotic culture in this form the world's architectural culture Symphony. Social process of globalization has brought to the cultural collision with the rendezvous, conflict and thousands of years, the Chinese culture to external sources of long. Buddhist culture have originated in India, Zhang Qian as envoy to the Western Regions of the Western Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty Master Xuan Zang went to India to learn from their experience Chuan-by, the impact of China's 2,000 years of Buddhism. However, the contents of Buddhism, Buddha, like Maung, the shapes with the Chinese Buddhist temple in cultures, the formation and development of a unique Chinese Buddhist architectural early as the 20th century, 20 years, China's modern architects returned from studying abroad, most of whom are scholars in the United States, they are building at the time of Western academic and cultural concepts and China Architectural Culture nationalistic concept of the double impact, emphasizing cultural exchange between Chinese and Western architecture focused on the architectural style for the first time a creative way to design a number of products, creating a cultural exchange between Chinese and foreign construction of a new era. For example, the first batch of . architect Mr. Lv Yanzhi Canton 20's design Zhongshan Memorial Hall, Dr. Sun Yat-sen in Nanjing and so on, in the Chinese construction industry has played a really ground-breaking effect in stimulating the Chinese and foreign architectural culture of the integration early founding of New China, the Chinese government, mechanisms copied the Soviet model, the Chinese all over the building of a group of Russian cultural identity building construction, the formation and development of China's 50's "socialism" of architectural culture. Since reform and opening up, China's open-door once again, the introduction of Western economic management model to imitate, "European style", RTHK construction, post-modernism almost swept the country, the formation and development of China's 80's "reform and opening-up" construction culture. It goes without saying that all countries in the world of architectural culture at that time are subject to local political systems, economic conditions, technical level of restraint, in conflict with each other, mutual exchanges, mutual influence, mutual integration. However, what kind of fusion and exchange with vitality, stand the test of time and space? Only those who learned the essence of eastern and western cultures, integration-oriented areas of national culture and national character of the construction only has great , cultural exchange between old and modern architectural exploration and the pursuit ofAncient and modern cultures, the past serve the present, what? Need to analyze the "ancient" and "today" in the construction of content changes that have taken place. These qualitative change is the social system, production technology, living habits, work, cultural values, building materials in the construction sector caused by the inevitable result. As Mr. Wu Yurong in the evaluation of the French engineer Gustave. Eiffel designed the Eiffel Tower noted: "People are trying to adapt to every human life an art form the new direction of development and to make all the human activities and the rapidly changing era of emotion caused by the new suit."To explore ancient and modern blend of traditional architecture and modern architecture combining problem. China's traditional architectural culture has many features, such as the overall layout of buildings, in line with local conditions, and be full of change; architectural style, rich and colorful; space separated, flexible and diverse; interior decoration, pay attention to the connotation; color to use, colorful; garden green, it is implicitly lively, changeable, unique in the world. In the creation of modern architecture, the contemporary architects should learn from ancient architecture and cultural wealth of nutrition, according to the modernization of a wide range of requirements, from the analysis of the various contradictions in the exploration and pursuit of people's lives to adapt to the new direction of development and people's construction activities and the rapid caused by the changing times adapt to new the founding of New China, focusing on the succession of Chinese tradition, carry forward the, creative architectural art of the problems the United States experienced a number of exploration and discussion. Experienced the liberation of the early to imitate the "big roof" retro nostalgia period; experienced a critical retro, and copy the Soviet "model" dogmatism stage; experienced the Cultural Revolution, servility to foreigners critical philosophy, the implementation of "dry-base hit," the poor during the transition; experienced early advocate of reform and opening up the West, the popular "Hong Kong style" period. After exploring the difficulties and setbacks, China began to follow the traditional architect, to adapt to function, the use of high-tech, to explore ancient and modern cultures, the realization of the modernization of architectural creation of the correct this paper, talking about building a culture of environment and blend only preliminary study, many deep theoretical issues need further study. Our generation of architects should be firmly established the "scientific concept of architectural culture" to the Chinese culture as the main body, to accelerate the construction of culture and environment, and the nation, and society, and the blending process with the times.=================================================一 建筑文化根植于人居自然环境之中不同的地域自然有不同的自然环境：地形地貌、日照角度、日月潮汐、水流风势、气温、气压、食物、土地、水质、植被等等。作为人与自然中介的建筑，对外应有利于形成小区外部环境，对内应有利于保障人居的室内环境。这些建筑像植物一样，落地生根，合天时，合地利，适宜于地区自然环境的要求，与大自然融为一体。在东南亚和南亚各国，在中国的海南岛和台湾岛，椰林茂密，气候炎热，人们用椰树叶、棕榈叶盖起了适应热带雨林的茅草房、小木楼，通风、凉爽、轻盈、简洁，建起了热带雨林建筑。在中亚、西亚，在中国的西部高寒地区，人们用石块垒砌、依山就势盖起了石板建筑，避风、挡雪、保温、御寒，筑成了高原山地建筑。如中国的西藏、青海、四川等少数民族在中国西部依山就势建起了各式各样的山地建筑群。在中国的黄土高原，漠北戈壁，雨量稀少，气候干燥，人们利用山边、土坡挖洞筑房，建起了具有鲜明特色的生土建筑。甘肃敦煌艺术陈列馆把建筑埋入山坡下，半开敞式入口，山坡挡墙甬道，生土式建筑特征十分明显。在美国的东部，在澳大利亚，在中国的南方，雨量充沛，气候温和，人们用木材、砖瓦依山就势，因地制宜，盖起了遮阳避雨、通风透气、造型别致的湿热地区建筑。这些建筑形式多样，风格各异，适宜于不同地区自然环境，与风景、林木、地形融为一体，形成了根植于自然环境的各种建筑文化。建筑既要根植于自然环境，又要服从于自然环境，这是建筑师必须遵循的一条基本原则。二 社会时空环境差异造成建筑文化的多元化不同的地域、不同的国家、不同的民族，有不同的社会历史形态。欧洲国家、美洲国家、亚洲与非洲等发展中国家，国度不同，宗教信仰不同，经济发展状况不同，各地区的文化习俗也不同。不同地区的人居社会时空环境的差异，造成了建筑文化的时空性和多元性，因而产生了古代的或现代的中国建筑文化、俄罗斯建筑文化、东南亚建筑文化、欧美建筑文化、非洲建筑文化等等。欧洲的古希腊建筑、北非的古埃及建筑、南亚的古印度建筑、古代中国建筑是世界民族建筑文化的历史源流。天主教、耶稣教、印度教、伊斯兰教、佛教等宗教的形成和发展，深刻地影响到信仰宗教的国家和地区，也深刻地影响到这些地区建筑，形成了丰富多彩的宗教建筑文化。中国几千年悠久的历史文化，沿袭至今，既古老又博大，自古以来受到儒家、道家、佛教、禅宗等思想伦理的影响。特别是儒教统治中国2 000多年，根深蒂固。这种文化把儒、道、佛、禅各种思想观念兼收并蓄，融为一体，光辉灿烂，独立于世界民族之林。建筑文化在一定条件下是可以转化的。地域、民族性的建筑文化在一定条件下可以转化为国际性建筑文化，国际性建筑文化也可吸收、融合新的地区与民族性建筑文化。在当今世界里，建筑文化的发展和进步，既包含前者向后者的转化，也包含后者对前者的吸收与融合。这两者既对立又统一，相互补充，彼此影响，共同发展，只有保护和发展丰富多彩的各民族建筑文化，促进世界建筑文化的多元化构成，最终才能建立一个 “和而不同”的人类社会。三 中外建筑文化的发展与交融建筑文化处于全球“大文化”系统之中，各民族、各地域的建筑文化在此共生共荣，组成了世界建筑文化的交响曲。全球化的社会进程给文化交流带来了碰撞与会合，冲突与交融。几千年来，中国受外来文化的影响渊源流长。佛教文化本来发源于印度，随着西汉张骞出使西域，唐代玄奘法师赴印度取经传经，佛教影响中国2000多年。但是，佛教的内容，佛祖的像貌，佛庙的形制与中国文化交融，形成和发展了独特的中国佛教建筑文化。早在20世纪20年代，中国近代出国留学归国的建筑师，大多数是留美的学者，他们受当时西方学院派建筑文化观念和中国国粹主义建筑文化观念的双重影响，强调中西建筑文化交融的重点在建筑风格上，第一次创造性地设计出了一批精品，开创了中外建筑文化交融的新纪元。例如由第一批留美建筑大师吕彦植先生20年代设计的广州中山纪念堂、南京中山陵等等，在当时中国建筑界的确起到了石破天惊的影响，推动了中外建筑文化的融合进程。新中国建国初期，中国政体、机制照搬苏联模式，中国各地建设了一批具有俄罗斯建筑文化特征的建筑，形成和发展了中国50年代“社会主义”建筑文化。改革开放以来，我国又一次打开国门，引入西方经济管理模式，模仿“欧陆风格”、港台建筑，后现代主义几乎风靡全国，形成和发展了中国80年代“改革开放”建筑文化。不言而喻，世界各国的建筑文化均要受到当时当地政治体制、经济状况、技术水平的约束，相互冲突，相互交流，相互影响，相互融合。然而，什么样的交融和交流具有生命力，经受得起时空的考验？只有那些吸取了东西方文化精髓，融合为本民族的地区与民族性建筑文化，才具有强大的生命力。四 古今建筑文化交融的探索和追求古今交融，古为今用，用什么？必须分析“古”与“今”在建筑内容上所发生的变化。这些质的变化是社会制度、生产技术、生活习惯、工作方式、文化观念、建筑材料在建筑领域引发的必然结果。正如吴裕容先生在评价法国工程师古斯塔夫。艾菲尔设计的艾菲尔铁塔时指出的：“人们试图让每一种艺术适应人类生活发展的新方向，并且使所有的人类活动与迅速变化中的时代所造成的新情感相适应。”古今交融探索的是传统建筑与现代建筑相结合的问题。我国传统建筑文化有着许多特点，如建筑群的总体布局，因地制宜，富于变化；建筑造型，丰富多彩；空间分隔，灵活多样；室内装饰，讲究内涵；色彩运用，五彩缤纷；庭园绿化，更是含蓄活泼，变化万千，在世界上独树一帜。在创作现代建筑当中，当代建筑师应吸取古代建筑文化丰富的营养，按现代化多方面的要求，从分析各种矛盾中探索和追求适应人们生活发展的新方向，并且使人们的建筑活动与迅速变化中的时代造成的新情感相适应。新中国成立以来，围绕继承中国传统，发扬民族形式，创作建筑艺术美的问题经历过多少次探索和讨论。经历了解放初期模仿“大屋顶”的怀旧复古时期；经历了批判复古主义，照搬苏联“模式”的教条主义阶段；经历了文革批判洋奴哲学，推行“干打垒”穷过渡的年代；经历了改革开放初期崇尚西方，风靡“欧陆风情”时期。经过反复摸索的艰难曲折以后，中国建筑师开始走继承传统，适应功能，采用高新技术，探索古今交融，实现建筑创作现代化的正确之路。本文所谈建筑文化的环境与交融只是初步探讨，许多深层理论问题还须进一步研究。我们这一代建筑师应当牢固地树立起“科学的建筑文化观”，以中国文化为主体，加速建筑文化与环境、与民族、与社会、与时代的交融进程。
Along with the our country economic development rapid development, the lives of the people level unceasing enhancement, the city uses to be day by day anxious, urges the building to face the direction is developing. This kind of high level civil construction repair needed materials and the way also more hasten the diversification, and along with uses electricity the load and coal gas consumption quantity enlarging, proposed to the fire auto-alarm system design is higher, a stricter request. In order to guarantee the people life and property the security, the fire auto-alarm system design has become in the high level civil construction design one of most important design contents. Presently based on the author fire of auto-alarm system design overseeing work in the high level civil building experience, proposed in present national related standard and standard unclear true detail shallow opinion, by for the colleagues to discuss and to point out , design basis The fire auto-alarm system design is a specialized very strong technology work, at the same time also has the very strong policy-type. Therefore, first should be clear about the following design basis: 1st, must grasp the architectural design fire protection standard, the system design standard, the equipment manufacture standard, the installment construction approval standard and the administration laws and regulations and so on five big aspects fire laws and regulations, and in practical understanding present country related standard and standard positive word: "Must", "be supposed", "to be suitable", "may" and the reverse side word: "Strictly prohibits", "should not", "not have", "not to be suitable" the , must aim at high level civil building function, use and the protection object fire protection rank, earnestly carries out the present national related standard and the standard, earnestly treats the public security fire prevention surveillance department the examination and approval , fire auto-alarm system equipment establishmentFire detector establishmentOpens wide either the seal or the stair hall should alone divide the search coverage, and each 2 ~ 3 establish a fire first room (including guards against in front of smoke stair hall in front of room, fire elevator room, fire elevator with guards against the front room which smoke stair hall comes in handy) and the aisle should distinguish alone to divide the search coverage, specially front the room and the lift well, the scattered stair hall and the aisle are interlinked, has time the fire haze to be easier to gather or to flow, is the personnel disperses which saves goal with the fire prevention, therefore should install the fire detector. Regarding common elevator in front of room although is not the personnel disperses , but this front room and the lift well are interlinked, has time the fire haze to be also easy to gather or to flow, suitably alone divides the search coverage and installs the fire detector. The electric cable shaft therefore is easy to form pulls out the smoke inflammation the channel; Has when the fire the fire intensity not easily extends along the electric cable burns, for this, "the high level civil construction design fire protection standard" and "the civil construction electricity design standard" separately proposes the detailed specific stipulation in the construction and in the electric wire or on the electric cable shaping. But considered implements specifically the difficulty and the present situation, the electric cable shaft installs the fire detector is extremely essential, and coordinates the shaft the fire protection separation request, each 2 ~ 3 or each level elevator machine room should install the fire detector, its elevator is the important vertical transportation vehicle; Its two elevator machine room has has the fire risk; Its three lift well existence essential opens the hole, like the level gate opens between the hole, the air vent, the between permanence opens the hole with the elevator machine room or the pulley and so on; Its four when has the fire, the lift well often becomes the fire intensity spread the channel, is easy to threaten the elevator machine room the facility. Therefore, the elevator machine room establishes the fire detector is necessary, crown of also suitable establishment fire detector lift , the manual fire reports to the police the button establishment(Including guards against in front of smoke stair hall in view of various floors front room in front of room, fire elevator room, fire elevator with guards against which smoke stair hall to come in handy the front room) is has when the fire the personnel to disperse which saves goal with fire prevention, should report to the police the button first choice spot as the establishment manual fire. In addition, the room also should establish the manual fire to the common elevator in front of to report to the police the the public active place (including hall, hall, dining room, multi-purpose hall and so on) and the main thoroughfare and so on place, the personnel very is all centralized, and mainly disperses the channel. Therefore should report to the police the button in these public active places main access establishment manual fires; The manual fire establishes which in the main thoroughfare reports to the police the button to guarantee "to a manual fire which most is close to reports to the police the button distance from a fire protection district any position not to be supposed to be bigger than 30 meters".3rd, the fire emergency broadcasts the speaker the establishmentThe aisle, the hall, the dining room and so on the public place personnel very are all centralized, and mainly disperses the channel. Therefore should press in these public places "to a recent speaker distance is not bigger than 25 meters from a fire protection district any spot" and "in the aisle last should not be bigger than meters the speaker to the aisle terminal distance" the establishment fire emergency to broadcast the speaker; Next also should establish the fire in the public bathroom place emergency to broadcast the first room (including guards against in front of smoke stair hall in front of room, fire elevator room, fire elevator with guards against which smoke stair hall to come in handy the front room) is has when the fire the personnel to disperse which saves goal with fire prevention, also has the fire door separation and the sounds of people is confused and noisy, therefore should establish the fire emergency to broadcast the speaker. In front of the common elevator the room also should establish the fire emergency to broadcast the speaker. Disperses the stair hall also is has when the fire the personnel to disperse which saves goal with the fire prevention, also the sounds of people are confused and noisy, therefore should establish the fire emergency to broadcast the speaker, by favors the fire emergency broadcast to disperse the , fire alarm installment establishmentThe establishment fire emergency broadcast fire auto-alarm system, the author thought also should install the fire alarm installment, but its control procedure should be: The alarm apparatus should confirm after the fire, uses manual or the automatic control mode unification to the fire correlation region transmission warning, stops the alarm apparatus work in the stipulation time, the rapid linkage fire emergency broadcast and broadcasts to the people disperses the fire alarm installment establishment position, the author thought should report to the police the button position with the manual fire to be same, its wall surface installment should for be apart from the ground meters highly5th, fire special use telephone establishmentInstalls the fire special use telephone extension telephone, should be located the engine room which related also some people is on duty frequently with the fire linkage control (including fire water plant, spare electricity generation engine room, matches substation, mainly ventilates with air conditioning engine room, discharges fume engine room, fire prevention elevator machine room and other), the fire fighting control system operates the equipment place or the control room, the fire duty officers observation room, the security manages spot and so on public room. Sedan of theater box the fire elevator and in the ordinary elevator all should suppose the special use telephone, requests the elevator machine room and the elevator sedan theater box, the elevator machine room and the fire control room, the elevator sedan theater box and the fire control room and so on three compositions is reliable to speaks the correspondence telephone system. Usually in fire control room; The establishment elevator monitoring demonstration plate (including position indicator, direction indicating lamp, to speaks correspondence telephone, trouble lamp and so on), in order to carries on the necessity to the elevator running status which in the surveillance and the emergency case equipped with the manual fire to report to the police position and so on button, fire hydrant button also should install the fire special use telephone , fire linkage control 1st, the fire linkage control should include the control fire pump to open, to stop, also should demonstrate opens pumps the button the position and the fire pump work and the malfunction. When the fire hydrant is equipped with the fire hydrant button, its electric installation work spot also should demonstrate the fire pump the working mode active status (namely establishment fire pump work indicating lamp). 2nd, the fire linkage control should include the control spraying of water and the water atomization fire fighting system opens, stops, also should demonstrate the fire pump the work and the malfunction and the fluent display, reports to the police the valve, the safety signal valve working mode active status. In addition, to the basin, the water tank water level also should carry on the demonstration monitor; In order to prevent the overhaul signal valve is shut down, the author thought should use the belt electric signal the control signal valve by to demonstrate it opens the condition. 3rd, the fire linkage control other controls and the demonstration function, should carry out the present national related standard and the standard specific , fire auto-alarm system wiringIn order to prevent the fire occurs when the fire control, the correspondence and the warning line severance, causes the fire fighting work to be unable to carry on, creates the bigger economic loss; Also for the suppression electronmagetic interference (for example transformer, electric motor, electric cable and so on) the influence which produces to the fire auto-alarm system. The fire auto-alarm system transmission line and the fire control, the correspondence and the warning line should use the being flame-resistant electric cable, and should use the metal tube or the enclosed metal trunking protection. The fire manual positive governing installment line should use the fireproof electric cable, its electric cable also should use the metal tube or the enclosed metal trunking protection. Uses Ming Fushi, should takes the fire protection protective measures on the metal tube or the enclosed metal , concluding remarkThe author rests on the concrete project to implement the experience, elaborated the design basis, fire auto-alarm design actual problem and so on system equipment establishment, fire linkage control and its wiring pulls out some shallow opinions, its goal is enhances the fire auto-alarm system the design quality, discovered early and the notification fire, prevented and reduces the fire to harm, by protects the person and the property safety.随着我国经济发展快速发展，人民生活的水平不断提高，城市使用是每天着急，敦促建设面临着发展的方向。这种高层次的民间建筑维修所需的材料和方式也更加多样化加快，而且随着使用电力负荷和煤气消费量扩大，提议消防自动报警系统设计较高，更严格的要求。为了保证人民生命和财产的安全，消防自动报警系统的设计已经成为在高级别民间建筑设计的一个最重要的设计内容。目前的基础上撰文火灾自动报警系统设计监督工作的高层次的民间建设的经验，建议在目前国家相关标准和标准不清楚真正详细浅见解，为同事们的讨论，并指出错误。 首先，设计依据 火灾自动报警系统的设计是一家专业非常强的技术工作，同时还具有很强的政策性。因此，首先应明确以下设计依据： 第一，必须紧紧抓住的建筑设计防火标准，该系统的设计标准，标准的设备制造，安装施工审批标准和管理的法律和规章等五大方面的消防法律法规，并在实际了解国家有关本标准和标准积极字： “必须” ， “必须假定” ， “不适合” ， “可能”和反面词： “严格禁止” ， “不应该” ， “没有” ， “不适合“的含义。 第二，必须着眼于高层次的民间建筑的功能，利用和保护对象的防火等级，认真开展本标准和国家有关标准，认真对待公安防火监督部门的审批意见。 其次，火灾自动报警系统设备的建立 建立火灾探测器 要么全打开的印章或楼梯大厅应单独划分搜索范围，每个2 〜 3建立火灾探测器。 第一个房间（包括防前面的烟雾大厅楼梯前室，消防电梯间，消防电梯防前面房间烟雾楼梯大会堂来用场）和过道应区分单独划分搜索范围，特别是前面的房间，以及电梯，分散楼梯大厅和走道都是相互关联的，有时间的火灾烟雾比较容易收集或流动，是人员分散保存目标与防火，因此，应该安装火警探测器。关于共同电梯前室虽然不是人员分散，而且这方面的空间和良好的电梯是相互关联的，有时间的火灾烟雾也很容易被收集或流动，适当地划分为单独的搜索覆盖面和安装消防探测器。 电缆轴因此很容易形成掏出烟炎症渠道，拥有火灾时的火强度不容易延伸沿电缆燃烧，为此， “高级别民间建筑设计防火标准”和“民用建筑电气设计标准“分别提出了详细具体的规定，在建筑和在电线或电缆塑造。但认为具体实施的难度和目前的情况下，电缆竖井安装了火灾探测器是非常必要的，坐标轴的防火分隔要求，每2 〜 3或每一级安装。 电梯机房应安装火灾探测器，它的电梯是重要的垂直交通工具，其两个电梯机房已具有火灾危险性，其存在的三个基本解除以及打开洞，像打开闸门的水平之间的球洞，在气孔，持久的关系打开了洞与电梯机房或滑轮等，其时，有四个火，升降机以及往往成为火灾强度传播渠道，很容易危及电梯机房设施。因此，电梯机房建立了火灾探测器是必要的，也适用于皇冠建立火灾探测器举井。 2 ，手动火警报警按钮建立 （包括防前面的烟雾楼梯大厅鉴于各层前房间前面的房间，消防电梯间，消防电梯防这些烟雾楼梯大会堂派上用场前室）是有火灾时人员驱散节省目标，防火，应立即向警方举报的按钮，首选地点设立手动火警。此外，该室也应建立防火手册的共同电梯前，向警方报案的按钮。 在公共活动场所（包括会堂，礼堂，餐厅，多功能厅等）和主要通道等场所，是所有工作人员非常集中，主要是分散的渠道。因此，应立即向警方举报的按钮，在这些公共活动场所主要通道设立手册火灾;该手册规定的火灾中的主要通道报警按钮，以保证“ ，以手动火警最接近报警按钮距离防火区的任何位置不应该超过30米。 “ 第三，消防紧急广播喇叭建立 走道，大厅，餐厅等公共场所的工作人员都非常集中，主要是分散的渠道。因此，应该按这些公共场所的“最近的一项发言距离不超过25米的防火保护区的任何位置”和“在走道上不应大于十二点五米扬声器的过道末端距离”建立消防应急广播喇叭;下一步还应当建立消防在公共浴室的地方紧急广播喇叭。 第一个房间（包括防前面的烟雾大厅楼梯前室，消防电梯间，消防电梯防这些烟雾楼梯大会堂派上用场前室）是有火灾时的人员驱散节省目标与防火，也有分离和防火门的声音，人民的混乱和嘈杂，因此，应建立消防应急广播喇叭。在前面的共同电梯房也应建立消防应急广播喇叭。分散大厅楼梯也已经火灾时的人员驱散节省目标与防火，也是人民的声音和嘈杂的混淆，因此应建立消防应急广播喇叭，由主张消防紧急广播驱散指令。 第四，建立火灾报警装置 建立消防应急广播火灾自动报警系统，笔者认为还应该安装消防报警装置，但它的控制程序应该是：该报警器应确认火灾后，利用手动或自动控制模式统一消防相关区域传输预警，报警器停止工作时间的规定，迅速联系消防应急广播和电视节目，并且分散了人们的指示。 火警警报装置建立的立场，笔者认为应该向警方报案的按钮位置的手动火警是相同的，它的墙面安装应为距地面米高度 第五，消防专用电话设立 安装消防专用电话分机电话，应设机房其中也涉及一些人是在工作地点经常与消防联动控制（包括消防给水设备，备件发电机房，火柴变电站，主要ventilates空调引擎室，排放烟气轮机室，防火电梯机房及其他） ，消防控制系统的经营场所或设备的控制室，消防责任人员观察室，现场的安全管理等公共空间。轿车的影院中消防电梯和普通电梯应假设所有使用的特殊电话，请电梯机房和电梯轿车影院中，电梯机房及消防控制室，电梯轿车影院方块和消防控制室等三个成分是可靠的讲通信电话系统。通常在消防控制室;建立电梯监测演示板（包括位置指示器，显示方向灯，以讲信函电话，麻烦灯等） ，以进行必要的电梯在运行状态的监视和紧急情况下的控制。 配备了手动火警报警位置等按钮，消火栓按钮，还应该安装消防专用电话插座。 第三，消防联动控制 第一，消防联动控制应包括控制消防泵开启，停止，也应表现出的按钮，打开泵的位置和消防泵的工作和故障。当消火栓设有消火栓按钮时，其电气安装工程现场也应表现出的消防泵的工作模式有效状态（即建立消防泵工作表明灯） 。 第二，消防联动控制应包括控制喷洒水和水雾化灭火系统打开，停止，也应表现出的消防泵的工作和故障和流利显示，报警阀，安全信号阀工作模式积极的地位。此外，该盆地，水箱水位也应进行示范监测;为了防止检修信号阀关闭，作者认为应该使用带电信号控制信号阀证明它打开条件。 第三，消防联动控制其他控制和示范作用，应进行本标准和国家有关标准的具体规定。 第四，火灾自动报警系统布线 为了防止火灾发生时，消防控制，通信和警戒线遣散，使灭火工作无法进行，造成了更大的经济损失，也为抑制electronmagetic干扰（例如变压器，电电机，电缆等）的影响而产生的火灾自动报警系统。火灾自动报警系统的输电线路和消防控制，通信和预警线应使用被阻燃电缆，并应使用金属管或封闭式金属线槽保护。消防手册积极理事分期付款行应使用防火电缆，其电缆也应使用金属管或封闭式金属线槽保护。使用明复，应采取防火保护措施的金属管或封闭金属 ，结论备注 作者取决于具体的项目实施经验，阐述了设计依据，火灾自动报警设计和实际问题，以便建立系统设备，消防联动控制及其接线拿出一些肤浅的意见，其目的是增强了火灾自动报警系统的设计质量，早期发现，并通知消防，预防和减少火灾危害，通过保护个人和财产安全。