论文格式模板(通用5篇)
论文是一个汉语词语,古典文学常见论文一词,谓交谈辞章或交流思想。下面是我给大家带来论文格式模板,欢迎阅读,希望对大家有帮助!
论文格式
一、题目是文章最重要和最先看到的部分,应能吸引读者,并给人以最简明的提示。
1、应尽量做到简洁明了并紧扣文章的主题,要突出论文中特别有独创性、有特色的内容,使之起到画龙点睛,启迪读者兴趣的作用。
2、字数不应太多,一般不宜超过20个字。
3、应尽量避免使用化学结构式、数学公式或不太为同行所熟悉的符号、简称、缩写以及商品名称等。题目中尽量不要用标点符号。
4、必要时可用副标题来做补充说明,副标题应在正题下加括号或破折号另行书写。
5、若文章属于“资助课题”项目,可在题目的右上角加注释角号(如※、#等),并在脚注处(该文左下角以横线分隔开)书写此角号及其加注内容。
6、为了便于对外交流,应附有英文题名,所有字母均用大写,放在中文摘要与关键词的下面。
二、作者署名是论文的必要组成部分,要能反映实际情况。
1、作者应是论文的撰写者,是指直接参与了全部或部分主要工作,对该项研究作出实质性贡献,并能对论文的内容和学术问题负责者。
2、研究工作主要由个别人设计完成的,署以个别人的姓名;合写论文的署名应按论文工作贡献的多少顺序排列;学生的毕业论文应注明指导老师的姓名和职称。作者的姓名应给出全名。
3、作者的下一行要写明所在的工作单位(应写全称),并注上邮政编码。
4、为了便于了解与交流,论文的最后应附有通迅作者的详细通讯地址、电话、传真以及电子信箱地址。
三、摘要。
摘要是科研论文主要内容的简短、扼要而连贯的重述,必须将论文本身新的、最具特色的内容表达出来(重点是结果和结论)。
1、具体写法有“结构式摘要”和“非结构式摘要”两种,前者一般分成目的、方法、结果和结论四个栏目,规定250字左右;后者不分栏目,规定不超过150个字,目前国内大多数的医学、药学期刊都采用“结构式摘要”。
2、摘要具有独立性和完整性,结果要求列出主要数据及统计学显著性。
3、一般以第三人称的语气写,避免用“本文”、“我们”、“本研究”等作为文摘的开头。
四、关键词。
关键词也叫索引词,主要为了图书情报工作者编写索引,也为了读者通过关键词查阅需要的论文。
1、关键词是从论文中选出来用以表示全文主题内容的单词或术语,要求尽量使用《医学主题词表》(MeSH)中所列的规范性词(称叙词或主题词)。
2、关键词一般选取3~8个词,并标注与中文一一相对应的英文关键词。每个词之间应留有空格以区别之。
3、关键词通常位于摘要之后,引言之前。
五、引言。
引言(导言、序言)作为论文的开端,起纲领的作用,主要回答“为什么研究”这个课题。
1、引言的内容主要介绍论文的研究背景、目的、范围,简要说明研究课题的意义以及前人的主张和学术观点,已经取得的成果以及作者的意图与分析依据,包括论文拟解决的问题、研究范围和技术方案等。
2、引言应言简意赅,不要等同于文摘或成为文摘的注释。如果在正文中采用比较专业化的术语或缩写词时,最好先在引言中定义说明。
3、字数一般在300字以内。
六、正文。
正文是科研论文的主体,包括材料、方法、结果、讨论四部分内容,其中某些部分(特别是方法和结果)还需列出小标题,以使层次更加清晰。
1、材料材料是科学研究的物质基础,需要详细说明研究的对象、药品试剂、仪器设备等。
(1)如属动物实验研究,材料中需说明实验动物的名称、种类、品系、分级、数量、性别、年(月)龄、体重、健康状态、分组方法、每组的例数等;如属用药的临床观察,应说明观察对象的例数、性别、年龄、职业、病例种类、症状体征、诊断标准、分组方法、治疗措施、临床观察指标及疗效判定标准(如痊愈、显效、好转、无效的标准)等。
(2)说明受试药的来源、批号、配制方法等,中药应注明学名、来源,粗提物应标明有效部位或成分的含量和初步的质量标准,若是作者本实验室自行提取的应简述提取过程。
(3)标明主要仪器设备的生产单位、名称、型号、主要参数与精密度等。
(4)标明主要药品、试剂的名称(尽量用国际通用的化学名,不用商品名)、成分、批号、纯度、用量、生产单位、出厂日期及配制方法等。
2、方法
(1)采用已有报道的方法只要注明文献的出处即可,不必详述其过程;若为有创意的方法,要详细介绍创新之处,便于读者依此重复验证;若是对常规方法作出改进的,应具体描述改进部分及改进的理由,同时也要注明原法的文献出处。
(2)对于实验条件可变因素的控制方法(如放射免疫法的质量控制)要加以详细说明,以显示本文结果的可靠性和准确性。
(3)实验研究论文要设立阴性对照组和阳性药物对照组,前者一般采用溶剂作为对照,后者选用被公认的、确有疗效的药物,以验证实验方法的可靠性。
(4)在进行药效学和毒理学研究时,通常要设高、中、低三个剂量组,以体现出药物的量-效关系。
(5)实验设计时应考虑到每组有足够的样本数以满足统计学处理的需要,一般地说,小动物(如大、小鼠)每组至少8~10只,大动物(如狗)每组至少4~6只。同时应说明数据处理的统计学方法,统计学处理结果一般用P>0.05、P<0.05、P<0.01三档表示。
3、结果试验结果是论文的核心部分,这一部分要求将研究中所得到的各种数据进行分析、归纳,并将经统计学处理后的结果用文字或图表的形式予以表达。
(1)表格
①表格设计要清晰、简练、规范。每个表格除有栏头、表身外,还要有表序(如表1、表2、表3……)和表题,表题与表序居中写,中间空一格将两者分开。在正文中要明确提及见表x。
②表随文放,一般应列在“见表x”文字的自然段落的下面。
③表格一般采用三线表。
④表题应有自明性。若表中数据均用“均数±标准差”表示,则在表题的后面注上(±S);若表中各组的例数相等,则在表题后面统一注上(n=X),若例数不等应另加一列,分别注上各组的例数;表中计量单位若一致,可写在表题的后面,若不一致应分别写在每个栏头之下,不加括号。
⑤表内阿拉伯数字上下各行的个位数对齐,未发现的数据用“-”表示,未测或无此项用空白表示,实测结果为零用“0”表示。
(2)插图
①图包括示意图、曲线图、照片图等。
②图要求大小比例适中,粗细均匀,数字清晰,照片黑白对比分明。与表一样图也要随文字放,先见文字,后见图。
③每幅图都要有图序和图题,通常写在图的下方。图题要有自明性。
(3)结果处理时要尊重事实,要求结果中的数据精确完整、可靠无误,同时要注意不应忽视偶然发生的现象和数据。
(4)药物的临床疗效研究结果,要注意交待与药物有关的全部信息,如疗效、毒副作用及注意事项等。
4、讨论。讨论是结果的逻辑延伸,是全文的综合、判断、推理,从感性提升到理性认识的过程,也是作者充分运用自已对该领域所掌握的知识,联系本课题的实践,提出新见解、阐明新观点之处。
(1)讨论应从结果出发,紧扣题目,不宜离题发挥。具体地说应对本实验所观察到的结果,分析其理论和实践意义,能否证实有关假说的正确性,找出结果中的内在规律,与自己过去的或其他作者的结果及其理论解释进行比较,分析异同及其可能原因,根据自己的或参考别人的材料提出新见解。
(2)讨论中应该运用一分为二的观点,正确地分析和评价自己工作中可能存在的不足之处和教训,例如本研究所用方法是否有局限性等;提出今后研究方向及本结果可能的推广应用的设想,这往往对读者的思路有所启发。
(3)篇幅较长的讨论,应分项目编写,每个项目应集中论述一个中心内容,并冠以序码。讨论的中心内容应与正文各部分,特别是结果部分相呼应。讨论中不应过细重复以上各部分的数据。
(4)为体现讨论的客观性,写作时一般采用第三人称语气。
(5)讨论切忌写成文献综述,更不应简单地重复实验结果,而是从理论上有选择地对研究结果进行分析、比较、解释、推理,对主要问题,特别是本研究创新、独到之处加以充分发挥,提出新的假说,揭示有待进一步研究的问题及今后的研究方向。
七、致谢。
凡不具备前述作者资格,但对本研究作过指导、帮助的人或机构,均应加以感谢,但必须得到被致谢人的同意后才能署其姓名。致谢一般单独成段,放在正文的后面。
八、参考文献。
参考文献要求引用作者亲自阅读过的、最主要的文献,包括公开发表的出版物、专利及其他有关档案资料,内部讲义及未发表的著作不宜作为参考文献著录。
1、论文所列参考文献一般不超过10条,综述不超过30条。
2、文内标注法:著录时按文中引用文献出现的先后顺序用阿拉伯数字连续编号,直接引用作者全文的,文献序号置于作者姓氏右上角方括号内。
3、文献序号作正文叙述的直接补语时,应与正文同号的数字并排,不用上角码标注。如:实验方法见文献〔2〕或据文献〔2〕报道。
4、著录格式
(1)杂志:序号(顶格)。作者,文章名,刊物名,年、卷(期)、起始页码。如:刘康,季晖,李绍平等。三种大鼠骨质疏松模型的比较。中国骨质疏松杂志,1998,4(4):13~18
(2)书:序号(顶格)。著者,书名,版次,出版地,出版者,出版年,起讫页码。如:徐叔云,卞如濂,陈修主编。药理实验方法学第三版北京人民卫生出版社2002:911~916
5、著录规则
(1)作者:3名或少于3名者全部写出,并用逗号分隔,3名以上写前3人的姓名,后加“等”或“etal”。集体作者要写全称。
(2)刊名:中文均写全称,外文缩写可按美国医学索引《InderMedicus》的格式。
(3)版次(本):第一版不标注,其它版次用阿拉伯数著录。如“第2版”,“2nd”。
技术论文格式要求
一、技术论文正文的基本结构和要求
技术论文正文建议8000-10000字,须包括以下部分:
(一)作品难点与创新
(二)方案论证与设计
(三)原理分析与硬件电路图
(四)软件设计与流程
(五)系统测试与误差分析
(六)总结
二、技术论文正文以外应包括的其他内容
除正文以外,技术论文必须包括以下内容:论文封面、中文摘要、英文摘要、中英文关键字、目录、参考文献,以及页眉页码。
封面内容包括作品题目、参赛单位、参赛队伍名称、指导老师、参赛队员、完成时间。中文摘要500-1000字,简要说明作品的现实意义、设计思路及创新点。英文摘要与中文摘要相对应。关键词3-5个。目录包含三级标题。参考文献没有数量要求,列出写作过程中所参考的论文和书籍。
技术论文正文中的每一页都必须有页眉,页眉的内容分两行,第一行内容为“第十届中国研究生电子设计竞赛”字样,第二行内容为论文的题目。居中排列。
技术论文必须有页码,页码需放到每一页下方的右侧,编码从正文开始。
三、技术论文中图表脚注的处理
1、图题和表题
技术论文中的图表需要有图题、表题(图表的序号和名称)。图题放在图的下方,表题放在表的上方。
2、图表的序号使用
技术论文中图表的序号统一使用“图1-1”(第1章第1图),“表1-1”(第1章第1表)的形式。图和表的序号分开排列,图表的序号顺
序要在每一章重新编号,如第1章的图表从“图1-1”、“表1-1”开始,
第2章的图表从“图2-1”、“表2-1”开始。
3、图表的资料来源
图表下方应注明资料来源。表的资料来源注释应放到表的下方,图的资料来源注释应放到图题下方。
4、脚注的使用
技术论文中凡是引用和参考别人的研究成果以及有数据的地方都要用脚注注明出处。论文需使用全文连续脚注,脚注放在每一页的页面底端。脚注的具体内容应包括作者、题目、出版要素三个部分,脚注的序号统一使用“①”“②”“③”…的形式。如使用网络文章,要注明详细网址。
四、技术论文排版要求
论文封面单独占一页,目录单独占一页。论文的每一章开始必须另一起一页,每一节开始时应另起一行。正文段落和标题一律采用固定行间距20pt。
版式与字体要求
1. 封面
2. 目录
3. 正文
题目
作者
【摘要】: 用简短的语言(小于等于300字)来总结论文的主要内容,包括结论。
【前言】: 就是阐述一下背景,现状,你要的问题(最好是以案例的形式将问题呈现出来,以及你的的意义。
【经过】:
一、 详述的方向和想要达到的目的。
二、 活动安排(包括每一阶段时间安排以及每一阶段的方法(包括每一种方法想要达到的目的)。
三、 人员分工
四、 获取资料的方式
【内容】:
一、 【收集案例】:如果对象不属于同一类的话,就要用图表的形式将对象比例情况展示出来
二、【案例分析】:案例分析问题存在的原因(尤其是现状的背景下,问题依然存在的具体原因、深层次原因)
三、【问卷调查】如果有问卷调查的在此可加入调查的问题以及调查结果。
四、【结果】总结的结果,可以用图表形式
【结论】:
根据的结果提出自己的观点,看法,结论。
参考文献:
注明资料的出处
1网络资料,注明:文章名,作者,网站名称
2 书籍资料:注明: 书名,作者,出版社,出版日期,页数。
3 报刊资料,注明,文章名,作者,报刊名字,期
小论文格式要求
一、学生要严格按照论文题目、作者及学号、单位、指导教师、摘要、关键词、正文、主要参考文献。
二、字体、字号规定如下:题目(黑体小2号居中);作者、单位(宋体4号);指导教师及其姓名(楷体4号间隔3空);摘要、关键词(黑体5号);摘要内容、关键词内容(楷体5号);参考文献(黑体5号)、参考文献内容(宋体5号);正文内容(宋体小4号),一级标题(黑体小4号),二级标题(小标宋小4号)。
三、论文的标题层次采用阿拉伯数字分级编号。如:一级标题1,2级标题1.1,三级标题1.1.1。编号左起顶格书写。
四、中文摘要150字左右,关键词3-7个。
五、参考文献只列文中引用的公开发表的文献(未公开出版的用脚注说明),按文中出现的先后次序列出。其排列格式如下:
专著:作者名(包括前三位)、书名、出版社、出版年。
论文集:作者名(包括前三位)、文题、编著者、书名、出版社、出版年。 刊物:作者名(包括前三位)、文名、刊物名称、期(卷)。
如:
[1] 盛宝怀. Ba空间中Kantorovich算子的饱和性. 数学杂志,1992,12(2):146-154.
[2] Wu Garidi. The Jackson theorem in Ba spaces. Approx. theory & Appl.,1996,12(2):60-69.
[3] 孟伯秦. 内插空间理论及其应用.内蒙古人民出版社, 2001, 183-192.
六、用蒙文撰写的论文的题目、单位、作者、指导教师、摘要、关键词必须用蒙文汉两种语言表达。
七、毕业设计(创作)要求录入作品名称(题目)、单位、姓名、指导教师、毕业设计报告书。
小论文格式模板
内蒙古自治区科技人才地域分布差异分析
xxx 学号
数学科学学院 数学与应用数学专业 20xx级汉班
指导教师 xxx
摘 要 科技人才是经济发展、社会进步、文化繁荣的先决条件和制约因素,本文根据内蒙古自治区xxxx年科技人才调查统计的数据,对内蒙古地区人才分布现状、差异及形成差异的原因和今后发展对策等方面进行了初步探讨.
关键词 内蒙古自治区、科技人才、地域差异、人才优势
内蒙古自治区位于祖国的北疆,地文人稀,交通不便,自然条件和自然资源复杂多样,在这片土地上设有十二个盟市级行政单位,其中含有四个市八个盟,首府是呼和浩特[1].
1内蒙古科技人才地域分布差异
1.1 内蒙古各盟(市)科技人才地域分布差异
1.1.1 人才数量差异
内蒙古自治区自然资源丰富,但缺乏与之相适应的人才资源. 因此人才资源急需解决[2]. 解决的办法就是引进人才的同时,切实加强本地区的人才开发培养工作.
1.1.2 人才地域结构差异
(正文部分略)
2内蒙古科技人才发展战略
一方面要适当增加物质力量对科技事业的支持,加强教育投资,发送办学条件,抓好师资队伍建设,提高教师待遇,减少教育人才外流;另一方面要深化教育体制改革,提高教育质量.
本文在写作过程中得到了XXX老师多次精心指导,在此表示感谢.(本行可以不写)
参考文献:
[1] 盛宝怀. Ba空间中Kantorovich算子的饱和性. 数学杂志, 1992, 12(2): 146-154.
[2] Wu Garidi. The Jackson theorem in Ba spaces. Approx. theory & Appl.,1996,12(2):60-69.
[3] 孟伯秦. 内插空间理论及其应用.呼和浩特:内蒙古人民出版社, 2001, 183-192.
一、学位论文的基本要求
硕士学位论文,要求对所研究的课题有新见解或新成果,并对本学科发展或经济建设、社会进步有一定意义,表明作者掌握坚实的基础理论和系统的学科知识,具有从事学术研究或担负专门技术工作的能力。学位论文应在导师指导下,由硕士研究生本人独立完成。
博士学位论文,要求对所研究的课题在材料、角度、观点、方法、理论等方面或某方面有创新性成果,并对学术发展、经济建设和社会进步有较重要的意义,表明作者掌握坚实宽广的基础理论和系统深入的学科知识,具有独立从事学术研究的能力。学位论文应在导师指导下,由博士研究生本人独立完成。
学位论文应当用规范汉字进行撰写,除古汉语研究中涉及的古文字和参考文献中引用的外文文献之外,均采用简体中文撰写。
学位论文必须是一篇[或一组相关论文组成的.一篇]系统完整的、有创造性的学术论文。
不符合上述要求的,一律不接受其学位论文答辩申请。
二、学位论文的一般格式
学位论文一般应依次包括下述几部分:
1. 封面(参见附件1)。
2. 版权声明。
3. 题目:应准确概括整个论文的核心内容,简明扼要,让人一目了然。一般不宜超过20个字。
4. 中文摘要:内容摘要要求在3000字以内,应简要说明本论文的目的、内容、方法、成果和结论。要突出论文的创新之处。语言力求精炼、准确。在本页的最下方另起一行,注明本文的关键词(3-5个)。
5. 英文摘要:英文摘要上方应有题目,内容与中文摘要相同。在英文题目下面第一行写研究生姓名,专业名称用括弧括起置于姓名之后,研究生姓名下面一行写导师姓名,格式为Directed by...。最下方一行为英文关键词(Keywords 3-5个)。参见附件2。
6. 目录:既是论文的提纲,也是论文组成部分的小标题。
7. 序言(或序论、导论):内容应包括本课题对学术发展、经济建设、社会进步的理论意义和现实意义,国内外相关研究成果述评,本论文所要解决的问题,论文运用的主要理论和方法、基本思路和论文结构等。
8. 正文:是学位论文的主体。根据学科专业特点和选题情况,可以有不同的写作方式。但必须言之成理,论据可靠,严格遵循本学科国际通行的学术规范。
9.注释:可采用脚注或尾注的方式,按照本学科国内外通行的范式,逐一注明本文引用或参考、借用的资料数据出处及他人的研究成果和观点,严禁抄袭剽窃。
10. 结论:论文结论要明确、精炼、完整、准确,突出自己的创造性成果或新见解。应严格区分本人研究成果与他人科研成果的界限。
11. 参考文献:按不同学科论文的引用规范,列于文末(通篇正文之后)。外文用原文,不必译成中文(参见附件3)。
文献是期刊时,一般书写格式为:作者、篇名、期刊名、年月、卷号、期数、页码。
文献是图书时,一般书写格式为:作者、书名、出版单位、年月、版次、页码。
12. 附录:包括正文内不便列入的公式推导,便于读者加深理解的辅助性数据和图表,论文使用的符号意义,缩略语,程序全文和有关说明,其它对正文的必要补充等。
13. 作者的致谢、后记或说明等一律列于论文末尾。
14. 学位论文原创性声明和授权使用说明(导师和作者本人均需签名)。
15. 封底。
摘要
是对论文基本内容的简要陈述,可以说是论文的缩影。它在论文的标题和全文之间,起着桥梁的作用。读者是否阅读全文,一般在他阅读完摘要以后就能决定了。此外,摘要也能给文摘者提供方便。
摘要的种类,主要有指示性摘要和报道性摘要两种。指示性摘要只叙述论文内容的精华,不涉及研究方法、结果和结论,其字数一般只有30~50字,少的甚至仅有十几个字。报道性摘要一般包括研究课题的目的、范围、重要性,所采用的理论、方法,得到的结果、结论等,其中,结果、结论是重点。报道性摘要的篇幅,一般为正文文字的2~5%。笔者建议,期刊论文中的中文摘要不要超过200个汉字,英文摘要不要超过100个实词。
对报道性摘要的主要要求,是简短、精练、完整。所谓完整,是指摘要应具有独立性和自含性,即其内容应包含与原文等量的主要信息,可以独立成篇,可供文摘人员直接采用。
摘要应当用第三人称写,不要用传统的本文这样的第一人称叙述;一般情况下,摘要不要分段;摘要要用规范的术语,一般不宜出现插图、表格、数学公式及参考文献序号等。
关键词
关键词是最具有实质意义的检索语言,其主要作用就在于方便检索。因此,应当选取在论文中起关键作用的、最能说明内容实质的单词、短语或术语作为关键词。关键词的数量一般为3~8个,它们之间仅仅是一种简单的组合,不必要考虑语法结构,也不必要表达一个完整的意思。
经过规范化处理的关键词,称为叙词。目前有少数杂志要求采用叙词,如《机械工程学报》、《农业机械学报》等。叙词的选择不如关键词来得方便,需要查阅相应的叙词表。与机械工程科学相关的叙词工具书是《机械工程叙词表》。
对于论文标题与关键词选取的关系,有两种截然相反的观点。一种观点认为标题中的词与关键词重复是一种浪费,另一种观点认为标题中应尽可能多地包含关键词。笔者倾向于后一种观点。因为标题要高度概括论文的内容,关键词应对说明论文的内容实质起关键作用。所以,如果关键词选择精当的话,一个好的论文标题中存在重复它们的词几乎是不可避免的;反之亦然。
原文:20.9 MACHINABILITYThe machinability of a material usually defined in terms of four factors:1、$ l m I. `5 L* eSurface finish and integrity of the machined part;2、; u: I% F/ b$ t( O" ?' I2 MTool life obtained;3、1 F. }: a% W1 W5 R l7 @* q; jForce and power requirements;4、. p) @0 }5 c* S+ I: IChip control.Thus, good machinability good surface finish and integrity, long tool life, and low force And power requirements. As for chip control, long and thin (stringy) cured chips, if not broken up, can severely interfere with the cutting operation by becoming entangled in the cutting zone.Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is difficult to establish relationships that quantitatively define the machinability of a material. In manufacturing plants, tool life and surface roughness are generally considered to be the most important factors in machinability. Although not used much any more, approximate machinability ratings are available in the example below.20.9.1 Machinability Of Steels6 }" `- x) E* V* T+ DBecause steels are among the most important engineering materials (as noted in Chapter 5), their machinability has been studied extensively. The machinability of steels has been mainly improved by adding lead and sulfur to obtain so-called free-machining steels.Resulfurized and Rephosphorized steels., m# n- K R; @Sulfur in steels forms manganese sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone. As a result, the chips produced break up easily and are small; this improves machinability. The size, shape, distribution, and concentration of these inclusions significantly influence machinability. Elements such as tellurium and selenium, which are both chemically similar to sulfur, act as inclusion modifiers in resulfurized steels.Phosphorus in steels has two major effects. It strengthens the ferrite, causing increased hardness. Harder steels result in better chip formation and surface finish. Note that soft steels can be difficult to machine, with built-up edge formation and poor surface finish. The second effect is that increased hardness causes the formation of short chips instead of continuous stringy ones, thereby improving machinability.Leaded Steels. A high percentage of lead in steels solidifies at the tip of manganese sulfide inclusions. In non-resulfurized grades of steel, lead takes the form of dispersed fine particles. Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, and aluminum and their alloys. Because of its low shear strength, therefore, lead acts as a solid lubricant (Section 32.11) and is smeared over the tool-chip interface during cutting. This behavior has been verified by the presence of high concentrations of lead on the tool-side face of chips when machining leaded steels.When the temperature is sufficiently high-for instance, at high cutting speeds and feeds (Section 20.6)—the lead melts directly in front of the tool, acting as a liquid lubricant. In addition to this effect, lead lowers the shear stress in the primary shear zone, reducing cutting forces and power consumption. Lead can be used in every grade of steel, such as 10xx, 11xx, 12xx, 41xx, etc. Leaded steels are identified by the letter L between the second and third numerals (for example, 10L45). (Note that in stainless steels, similar use of the letter L means “low carbon,” a condition that improves their corrosion resistance.)However, because lead is a well-known toxin and a pollutant, there are serious environmental concerns about its use in steels (estimated at 4500 tons of lead consumption every year in the production of steels). Consequently, there is a continuing trend toward eliminating the use of lead in steels (lead-free steels). Bismuth and tin are now being investigated as possible substitutes for lead in steels.Calcium-Deoxidized Steels. An important development is calcium-deoxidized steels, in which oxide flakes of calcium silicates (CaSo) are formed. These flakes, in turn, reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone, decreasing tool-chip interface and wear. Temperature is correspondingly reduced. Consequently, these steels produce less crater wear, especially at high cutting speeds.Stainless Steels. Austenitic (300 series) steels are generally difficult to machine. Chatter can be s problem, necessitating machine tools with high stiffness. However, ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good machinability. Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive, tend to form a built-up edge, and require tool materials with high hot hardness and crater-wear resistance. Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are strong and abrasive, requiring hard and abrasion-resistant tool materials.The Effects of Other Elements in Steels on Machinability. The presence of aluminum and silicon in steels is always harmful because these elements combine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and silicates, which are hard and abrasive. These compounds increase tool wear and reduce machinability. It is essential to produce and use clean steels.Carbon and manganese have various effects on the machinability of steels, depending on their composition. Plain low-carbon steels (less than 0.15% C) can produce poor surface finish by forming a built-up edge. Cast steels are more abrasive, although their machinability is similar to that of wrought steels. Tool and die steels are very difficult to machine and usually require annealing prior to machining. Machinability of most steels is improved by cold working, which hardens the material and reduces the tendency for built-up edge formation.Other alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium, which improve the properties of steels, generally reduce machinability. The effect of boron is negligible. Gaseous elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen can have particularly detrimental effects on the properties of steel. Oxygen has been shown to have a strong effect on the aspect ratio of the manganese sulfide inclusions; the higher the oxygen content, the lower the aspect ratio and the higher the machinability.In selecting various elements to improve machinability, we should consider the possible detrimental effects of these elements on the properties and strength of the machined part in service. At elevated temperatures, for example, lead causes embrittlement of steels (liquid-metal embrittlement, hot shortness; see Section 1.4.3), although at room temperature it has no effect on mechanical properties.Sulfur can severely reduce the hot workability of steels, because of the formation of iron sulfide, unless sufficient manganese is present to prevent such formation. At room temperature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized steels depend on the orientation of the deformed manganese sulfide inclusions (anisotropy). Rephosphorized steels are significantly less ductile, and are produced solely to improve machinability.20.9.2 Machinability of Various Other MetalsAluminum is generally very easy to machine, although the softer grades tend to form a built-up edge, resulting in poor surface finish. High cutting speeds, high rake angles, and high relief angles are recommended. Wrought aluminum alloys with high silicon content and cast aluminum alloys may be abrasive; they require harder tool materials. Dimensional tolerance control may be a problem in machining aluminum, since it has a high thermal coefficient of expansion and a relatively low elastic modulus.Beryllium is similar to cast irons. Because it is more abrasive and toxic, though, it requires machining in a controlled environment.Cast gray irons are generally machinable but are. Free carbides in castings reduce their machinability and cause tool chipping or fracture, necessitating tools with high toughness. Nodular and malleable irons are machinable with hard tool materials.Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive and highly work-hardening. They require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials and low feeds and speeds.Wrought copper can be difficult to machine because of built-up edge formation, although cast copper alloys are easy to machine. Brasses are easy to machine, especially with the addition pf lead (leaded free-machining brass). Bronzes are more difficult to machine than brass.Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good surface finish and prolonged tool life. However care should be exercised because of its high rate of oxidation and the danger of fire (the element is pyrophoric).Molybdenum is ductile and work-hardening, so it can produce poor surface finish. Sharp tools are necessary.Nickel-based alloys are work-hardening, abrasive, and strong at high temperatures. Their machinability is similar to that of stainless steels.Tantalum is very work-hardening, ductile, and soft. It produces a poor surface finish; tool wear is high.Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity (indeed, the lowest of all metals), causing significant temperature rise and built-up edge; they can be difficult to machine.Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very abrasive, so its machinability is low, although it greatly improves at elevated temperatures.Zirconium has good machinability. It requires a coolant-type cutting fluid, however, because of the explosion and fire.20.9.3 Machinability of Various Materials; n+ {0 C# N' t: K& D5 Y7 nGraphite is abrasive; it requires hard, abrasion-resistant, sharp tools.Thermoplastics generally have low thermal conductivity, low elastic modulus, and low softening temperature. Consequently, machining them requires tools with positive rake angles (to reduce cutting forces), large relief angles, small depths of cut and feed, relatively high speeds, andproper support of the workpiece. Tools should be sharp.External cooling of the cutting zone may be necessary to keep the chips from becoming “gummy” and sticking to the tools. Cooling can usually be achieved with a jet of air, vapor mist, or water-soluble oils. Residual stresses may develop during machining. To relieve these stresses, machined parts can be annealed for a period of time at temperatures ranging from % Q6 X5 q6 [ C$ F9 Ito / C+ z W( L4 N& I$ }( to ), and then cooled slowly and uniformly to room temperature.Thermosetting plastics are brittle and sensitive to thermal gradients during cutting. Their machinability is generally similar to that of thermoplastics.Because of the fibers present, reinforced plastics are very abrasive and are difficult to machine. Fiber tearing, pulling, and edge delamination are significant problems; they can lead to severe reduction in the load-carrying capacity of the component. Furthermore, machining of these materials requires careful removal of machining debris to avoid contact with and inhaling of the fibers.The machinability of ceramics has improved steadily with the development of nanoceramics (Section 8.2.5) and with the selection of appropriate processing parameters, such as ductile-regime cutting (Section 22.4.2).Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be difficult to machine, depending on the properties of the individual components, i.e., reinforcing or whiskers, as well as the matrix material.20.9.4 Thermally Assisted MachiningMetals and alloys that are difficult to machine at room temperature can be machined more easily at elevated temperatures. In thermally assisted machining (hot machining), the source of heat—a torch, induction coil, high-energy beam (such as laser or electron beam), or plasma arc—is forces, (b) increased tool life, (c) use of inexpensive cutting-tool materials, (d) higher material-removal rates, and (e) reduced tendency for vibration and chatter.It may be difficult to heat and maintain a uniform temperature distribution within the workpiece. Also, the original microstructure of the workpiece may be adversely affected by elevated temperatures. Most applications of hot machining are in the turning of high-strength metals and alloys, although experiments are in progress to machine ceramics such as silicon nitride.SUMMARY' k4 F( E u# |: n6 i6 hMachinability is usually defined in terms of surface finish, tool life, force and power requirements, and chip control. Machinability of materials depends not only on their intrinsic properties and microstructure, but also on proper selection and control of process variables.因文章太长,译文请点链接
中国是世界上机械发展最早的国家之一。中国的机械工程技术不但历史悠久,而且成就十分辉煌,不仅对中国的物质文化和社会经济的发展起到了重要的促进作用,而且对世界技术文明的进步做出了重大贡献.传统机械方面,我国在很长一段时期内都领先于世界。到了近代由于特别是从18世纪初到19世纪40年代,由于经济社会等诸多原因,我国的机械行业发展停滞不前,在这100多年的时间里正是西方资产阶级政治革命和产业革命时期,机械科学技术飞速发展,远远超过了中国的水平。这样,中国机械的发展水平与西方的差距急剧拉大,到十九世纪中期已经落后西方一百多年。新中国建立后特别是近三十年来,我国的机械科学技术发展速度很快。向机械产品大型化,精密化、自动化和成套化的趋势发展。在有些方面已经达到或超过了世界先进水平。总的来说,就目前而言中国机械科学技术的成就是巨大的,发展速度之快,水平之高也是前所未有的。这一时期还没有结束,我国的机械科学技术还将向更高的水平发展。只要我们能够采取正确的方针、政策、用好科技发展规律并勇于创新,我国的机械工业和机械科技一定能够振兴,重新引领世界机械工业发展潮流。就小型夯实机械而言:上世纪60年代以前,我国小型夯实机械非常缺乏,很多小型场地的夯实基本上采用人工夯实。上世纪60年代初期,长沙建设机械研究所与北京建筑工程学院等单位合作,在群众性技术革新成果的基础上总结发明了具有中国特色的蛙式夯实机,1962年获国家科技发明奖。蛙式夯实机结构简单,维修、使用方便,很快成为我国60年代夯实机械的主导产品。据不完全统计蛙式夯实机累计产量达到50000多台,在我国经济建设中发挥了重要作用。70年代以后,蛙式夯实机逐渐被性能更先进的振动冲击夯和振动平板夯所替代,目前蛙式夯实机已经很少,基本被淘汰。1964年,长沙建设机械研究所开发了HB120型内燃式夯实机,开始由上海工程机械厂生产,后来主要由津市洞庭工程机械厂生产,年产量200台左右。80年代,内燃式夯实机产品质量有较大提高,曾出口东南亚和非洲地区。90年代以后,内燃式夯实机产销售量也在逐渐减少,目前只有少数小型民营企业生产。1977年,长沙建设机械研究所和柳州市建筑机械厂开发了我国第一台HZR250型和HZR70型振动平板夯,这两种产品分别于1979 年和1982年通过了由建设部组织的鉴定。随后义乌建筑机械厂、四平建筑机械厂、安阳振动器厂、津市洞庭工程机械厂等多家企业都开始生产振动平板夯。1986年长沙建设机械研究所又开发了较大的HZR450型振动平板夯。上世纪90年代以后,振动平板夯在我国有了较快的发展,产品品种、规格和生产企业增多,国外的振动平板夯陆续进入中国市场。1983年,长沙建设机械研究所和湖北振动器厂联合开发了我国第一台HZR70型振动冲击夯,1984年通过了由建设部组织的鉴定,1985年获建设部科技进步三等奖。由于振动冲击夯具有压实效果好、生产率高、体积和重量小、轻便灵活等突出特点,深受用户欢迎,得到了迅速的推广使用,并很快发展到资江机器厂、新乡第三机床厂和津市洞庭工程机械厂等几十家企业生产。振动冲击夯虽然比振动平板夯开发晚,但发展速度、产销量和使用广泛性比振动平板夯大得多,目前已成为我国夯实机械中产销量最大的主导产品。上世纪90年代以后,国外的振动平板夯陆续进入中国市场。振动冲击夯和振动平板夯在我国的成功开发,不仅为我国建设施工部门提供了性能先进的夯实机械,取得了良好的经济效益和社会效益,而且使我国夯实机械技术向前跨进了一大步,缩短了与世界先进水平的差距,促进了我国压实机械的发展。就机械加工而言:热加工 铸造 据考古发现,在北京平谷、昌平、房山等处曾出土了公元前16世纪(商代)的青铜礼器。 明永乐年间(1403~1424年),北京制造出享誉世界的明永乐大铜钟(46.5吨)和钟楼大铜钟(63吨)及铁钟(25吨),采用分炉熔化、地坑造型和陶范法铸造。 20世纪50年代以前,北京在铸造上采用粘土砂手工造型。1955年,北京第一机床厂开始采用漏模造型、双面模型型板及铁型板和标准砂箱造型。1965年,开始采用塑料模型。 1980 年,北京市机电研究院与北京玛钢厂研制成功工频无芯塞杆底注式保温浇注电炉。1982年,该院与北京机床铸造二厂研究成功冲天炉风口吹氧技术。 1985~1988年,北京机床研究所试验成功浮动端面密封环的压力铸造工艺。 锻压 1959年,北京第二通用机械厂(后改名北京重型机器厂)建成2500吨水压机。1971年,该厂制造出6000吨水压机,这是当时北京最大的锻压设备。 1968~1979年,北京起重机器厂先后采用300吨油压机和2000吨油压机制造出起重机吊臂和大型覆盖件。 80年代,北京市机电研究院和北京市模具中心研制出一系列高精度多工位冲裁模具,接近或达到进口模具水平,改变了北京精密冲裁模具依赖进口的局面。 热处理 1949年前,北京已采用电炉、盐溶炉、热电偶等手段进行零件退火、回火、淬火、正火、调质、渗碳等热处理。 1956年,北京第一机床厂开始采用高频感应淬火。1961年,北京第二机床厂开始采用气体氮化淬火。1969年,北京量具刃具厂开始采用光亮淬火。 1978年,北京机床研究所研究完成机床导轨表面接触淬火工艺及设备、淬火质量检查技术条件的研究。1979年,铁道科学研究院和中国科学院力学研究所等合作完成大功率柴油机缸套表面的激光改性处理的研究。 1979年,北京市机电研究院研制成功千瓦级二氧化碳激光器,并于80年代初分别应用于汽缸套和邮票印刷设备的激光热处理。其中,清华大学、北京市机电研究院、北京邮票厂共同完成邮票厂七色机打孔器表面激光强化研究。 1984~1990年,北京市热处理研究所研究成功真空热处理、气体渗碳微机控制技术(与北京航空航天大学合作)、稀土软氮化、粉末冶金制品表面强化、煤油加甲醇小滴量法微机可控渗碳、固体渗硼、渗碳过程微机辅助工艺设计及跟踪控制系统等热处理新技术,并应用于生产。 焊接与切割 1949年,北京已有气焊、电弧焊及氧乙炔火焰切割等手工作业。 1963年,北京金属结构厂与一机部机械科学研究院合作开发出钨极氩弧焊,并实现了氮气等离子切割不锈钢。1964年,用直流钨极氩弧焊及焊丝合金化技术解决了核工业用倾斜式电解糟纯镍焊接。 1966年,北京金属结构厂开发出了使被焊球体旋转的埋弧自动焊。1968年,该厂开始以液化石油气代替乙炔切割。 80年代初,清华大学发明了新型MIG焊接电弧控制法,在控制电弧技术上取得突破。 80年代初,北京城建设计院等完成液化石油气移动式气压焊轨技术的研究和应用。 1990年,北京金属结构厂开始采用数控精密切割和具有光电跟踪及数控寻踪读入自动编程的大功率等离子切割技术。可见,我国机械发展在近代发展其迅速。China is the world's first national machinery development. Chinese mechanical engineering technology not only has a long history and splendid achievements in Chinese is not only the material culture and social economic development plays an important role in the world, and to promote the progress of civilization, technology has made great contribution to Chinese traditional machine. And in a long period ahead in the world. In modern times, especially from the early 18th century, due to the nineteen forties, due to the economic and social reasons, such as the China machinery industry, stagnation, in the 100 years is western bourgeois political revolution and industrial revolution, mechanical science and technology is developing rapidly, and far more than the level of China. So, China mechanical development level and the western gap widens, sharply to the 19th century middle behind western one hundred years.After the founding of new China, especially in the past 30 years, our country's mechanical science and technology development speed. To the mechanical product large-scale, precision, automation and discusses the trend of development. In some aspects has reached or exceeded the world advanced level. Generally speaking, currently China mechanical science and technology achievement is huge, developing fast, high level of unprecedented. In this period, China has no end of mechanical science and technology will develop to a higher level. As long as we can adopt the correct policy, with good technology development and innovation, our machinery industry and mechanical technology can revitalize, leading to the development trend of mechanical industry.Just small ramming machinery:In the 1960s, China mechanical very small tamp lack, many small venues ramming basically USES artificial ramming.Early 1960s, changsha construction machinery institute and Beijing architectural engineering institute, etc., the technical innovation achievements in mass on the basis of summing up Chinese characteristic invented the breaststroke ramming machine, 1962 exceeded national science and technology. The breaststroke ramming machine structure is simple, easy to use and maintenance in 1960s, soon became the dominant products to consolidate machinery. According to not complete count breaststroke tamp cumulative yield reached more than 50,000 machine, in the economic development of our country has played an important role. Since 1970's, the breaststroke ramming machine was gradually more advanced performance of vibration shock ram and vibrating plate ram, now replaced by laying machine has rarely breaststroke, basically be eliminated.In 1964, changsha construction machinery institute HB120 developed movable type, type of Shanghai began laying machine, engineering machine production mainly by tianjin municipal later, annual production engineering machinery dongting about 200. In the 1980s, movable type ramming machine product quality has increased greatly, have exported to southeast Asia and Africa. Since 1990s, internal-combustion type ramming machine production sales, and gradually decreased in only a few small private enterprise production.In 1977, changsha construction machinery factory buildings and developed in liuzhou HZR250 type and the HZR70 type vibrating plate ram, these two kinds of products in 1979 and 1982 passed by the ministry of construction of the organization. Then yiwu building construction machinery factory, siping, anyang vibrators factory, tianjin municipal engineering machinery dongting and other enterprises have started producing vibrating plate ram. In 1986, changsha construction machinery research and develop a larger HZR450 type of vibrating plate ram. Since 1990s, vibrating plate ram in our country has developed very quickly, varieties of products, specifications and increase production enterprises, foreign vibrating plate ram gradually to enter the Chinese market.In 1983, changsha construction machinery institute and the joint development of hubei vibration in the first HZR70 type vibration shock ramming, 1984, passed by the ministry of construction, organization construction technology progress in 1985 won prizes. Due to the vibration impact compaction result has good ramming, productivity, high volume and weight of small, lightweight flexible outstanding characteristics, deeply user etc, obtained a rapid promotion, and soon ZiJiang development to the factory, xinxiang municipal engineering machine tool plant and tianjin dozens of dongting production factory etc. Vibration shock ramming although than vibrating plate ram, but later development speed of development, production and use of extensive than vibrating plate ram, has become the largest in China in the ramming machinery products. Since 1990s, foreign vibrating plate ram gradually to enter the Chinese market.Vibration shock ramming and vibrating plate ram the successful development in our country, not only for our construction department provides advanced performance of mechanical, laying have achieved good economic benefit and social benefit, and make our ramming mechanical technology into a big step forward, shorten the gap with the advanced world level, promoting the development of compaction machine.The mechanical processing:According to the archaeological discovery, hot-working casting in Beijing pinggu, changping and so have proved that the 16th century BC shang dynasty (bronze objects. Ming yongle (1403-1424 years), Beijing produce world-renowned Ming yongle great 3-ton bell made (46.5 tons) and tower (63 tons of great 3-ton bell made of iron clock (25) and the furnace of melting, pit TaoFan model and method of casting. In the 1950s, Beijing based on clay sand castings in manual. In 1955, Beijing first machine tool plant began using leakage mould modelling, double-sided model and iron plate type plate and standard sand box modelling. In 1965, start using plastic model. In 1980, the institute and Beijing municipal electrical factory has successfully developed line frequency coreless bathroom plug stem bottom note type electric insulation casting. In 1982, hospital and Beijing the casting machine research cupola tuyere oxygen blowing technology. 1985-1988, Beijing institute of machine of floating end face seal ring by die successful test pressure casting process.In 1959, Beijing second metalforming machinery general factory changed (Beijing) built 2500 ton heavy-duty hydraulic press. In 1971, the factory produced 6,000 tons, which is then Beijing hydrtesting biggest metalforming equipment. 1968-1979, Beijing hoisting machine factory has 300 tons of using hydraulic press 2000 tons and create crane and large panel. In the 1980s, Beijing institute of electrical and developed a series of Beijing mould centre high-precision cutting die, the multistage close to or to import mould level, changed Beijing precision punching moulds dependence on imports.Before 1949, Beijing has heat treatment furnace, salt dissolved by thermocouples means furnace, quenching and tempering, parts of annealing, normalizing, quenching and tempering, carburizing and etc. In 1956, Beijing first began using high-frequency quenching machine tool plant. In 1961, the Beijing second machine tool plant began using gas nitriding quenching. In 1969, the following enterprise by Beijing gage start light quenching. In 1978, the complete machine tool research institute of Beijing guide surface contact quenching process and equipment, quenching condition of quality inspection. In 1979, scientific research institute of China academy of railway and mechanical institute of high-power diesel engine cylinder collaboration of surface modification of laser. In 1979, Beijing institute of electrical carbon dioxide laser is developed, and the kilowatt in early 1980s respectively applied in cylinder and stamp printing equipments of laser treatment. Among them, tsinghua university, Beijing, Beijing institute of electrical YouPiaoChang jointly completed YouPiaoChang seven color machine DaKongQi laser surface strengthening research. From 1984 to 1990, Beijing institute of vacuum heat treatment research, gas carburizing microcomputer control technology (Beijing university of aeronautics &astronautics and cooperation), rare earth soft nitriding, powder metallurgy products surface strengthening, kerosene and methanol small drops of microcomputer control method of carburizing, solid boriding and carburizing process computer aided process planning and tracking control system, and the application of new technology heat in production. Welding and cutting in 1949, Beijing has geo-drilling, electric welding and cutting etc oxyacetylene flame manual operation. In 1963, Beijing metal structure and YiJiBu mechanical science research cooperation to develop tungsten argon arc welding, and realize the nitrogen plasma cutting stainless steel. In 1964, the use of dc argon arc welding and tungsten wire alloying technology solved by tilting electrolysis industry worse pure nickel welding. In 1966, Beijing metal structure factory developed by rotating sphere of the submerged arc welding automatic welding. In 1968, the plant began to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) instead of acetylene cutting. In the early 1980s, tsinghua university invented new MIG welding arc arc technology in control, control a breakthrough. In the early 1980s, the Beijing urban construction design completed liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) mobile pneumatic rail welding technology research and application. In 1990, Beijing metal structure factory to adopt CNC precision cutting and with photo-electricity tracking and CNC pursuit of high input automatic programming technology plasma cutting.Visible, China mechanical development in modern development of its rapid.
在Word里面有template的,theses就是了。
英语专业论文格式规范 A Contrastive Study between English and Chinese Idioms (题目:二号,黑体,加粗,居中,除了英语小词外,其他单词首字母都要大写;另外:除了题目外,论文中所有英文的字体均采用“Times New Roman”) (学院、专业、学号、作者姓名、指导教师姓名(小四号宋体字,加粗),依次排印在论文题目下,上空二行,居中) 【Abstract】 This paper centers on the different expressions of …… (英文摘要:上空二行;题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,加粗,置于粗体方括号【】内,顶格放置;随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格,不用其他任何标点符号;采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,不加粗;单倍行距。) 【Key Words】 idiom; comparison; English; Chinese (英文关键词:题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,加粗,两个单词的首字母要大写,置于粗体方括号【】内,顶格放置;随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格,不用任何其他标点符号,采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,不加粗,除了专有名词外,其他单词的首字母不大写,各单词之间用分号“;”隔开,分号之后空一格;最后一个关键词之后不用任何标点符号;单倍行距。) 1. Introduction (顶格,除了第一个单词及专有名词外,其他单词首字母都不要大写;标题最后不用任何标点符号,上空两行) In both English and Chinese, …. So, this essay is trying to focus on the differences between Chinese and English idoms in terms of their essential meaning, customary usage and typical expression (Chang Liang, 1993:44; Li Guangling, 1999). (段落第一行缩进4个英文字符;夹注的标注法:出现在夹注中的作者必须与文后的参考文献形成一一对应关系;注意一个或多个作者间的标点符号,时间、页码等的标注法;另外,汉语参考文献的作者要以拼音形式出现,不能出现汉语姓氏;夹注出现在标点符号之前) 2. The similarities between English idioms and Chinese idioms In English, …. And it can be clearly seen in the below examples: (1) I don’t know。我不知道。 (2) I am not a poet. 我不是诗人。 (正文中的例子以(1),(2)…为序号排列,直至最后一个例子;而①, ②…则为脚注或尾注的上标序号) 3. The differences between English idioms and Chinese idioms 3.1 The characteristics of English idioms (正文章节序号编制:章的编号:1. ,2., 3.,…;节的编号:1.1,1.2…,2.1,2.2…;小节的编号为:1.1.1, 1.1.2…。小节以下层次,采用希腊数字加括号为序,如(i),(ii)…;之后再采用字母加括号,如(a), (b),…;每章题目左顶格,小四号字,加粗;每节(及小节以下)题目左顶格,小四号字,不加粗但要斜体;所有章节的题目都单独一行,最后不加任何标点符号) …. In conclusion, …. 3.2 The characteristics of Chinese idioms …. Feng (1998) found some problems as shown in the following examples (注意此句中夹注的另一种写法): (9) We never know the worth of water till the well is dry. (10) People take no thought of the value of time until they lose it. …. 3.2.1 The analysis of the differences between English and Chinese idioms … (i) …. …. (ii) …. …. 4. Conclusion …. Bibliography (References) (小四号,加粗,后面不加任何标点符号) Sanved, ed. The Oxford book of American literary anecdotes[C]. New York: OUP, 1981. 一、英语论文的标题 一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。 就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期;各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。 二、英语论文提纲 英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。 三、英语论文正文 有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。 四、英语论文的文中引述 正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。 1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如: The divorce of Arnold's personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9). 这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。 2.被引述的文字如果超过三行,则应将引文与论文文字分开,如下例所示: Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas” is an admirable and characteristic diatribe. And if one is sorry that in it Whitman is unable to conceive the extreme crises of society, one is certain that no society would be tolerable whoses citizens could not find refreshment in its buoyant democratic idealism.(Chase 165) 这里的格式有两点要加以注意。一是引文各行距英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。 3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以解释,则要使用方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如: Dr.Beaman points out that“he [Charles Darw in] has been an important factor in the debate between evolutionary theory and biblical creationism”(9). 值得注意的是,本例中引文作者的姓已出现在引导句中,故圆括弧中只需注明引文出处的页码即可。 4.如果拟引用的文字中有与论文无关的词语需要删除,则需用省略号。如果省略号出现在引文中则用三个点,如出现在引文末,则用四个点,最后一点表示句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(一般说来,应避免在引文开头使用省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如: Mary Shelley hated tyranny and“looked upon the poor as pathetic victims of the social system and upon the rich and highborn...with undisguised scorn and contempt...(Nitchie 43). 5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除注明作者姓和页码外,还需注明卷号。如: Professor Chen Jia's A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”(Chen,1:i). 圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,说明引文出自第1卷序言(引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码)。此外,书名 A History of English Literature 下划了线;规范的格式是:书名,包括以成书形式出版的作品名(如《失乐园》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其他作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“To Autumn”及前面出现的“Democratic Vistas”等。 6.如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除注明引文作者及页码外,还要注明作品名。如: Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”(Farrington, Philosophy 35). Farrington points out that Aristotle's father Nicomachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine(Aristotle 15). 这两个例子分别引用了Farrington的两部著作,故在各自的圆括弧中分别注出所引用的书名,以免混淆。两部作品名均为缩写形式(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以注明时均需使用缩写形式),其全名分别为 Founder of Scientific Philosophy 及 The Philosophy of Francis Baconand Aristotle。 7.评析诗歌常需引用原诗句,其引用格式如下例所示。 When Beowulf dives upwards through the water and reaches the surface,“The surging waves, great tracts of water, / were all cleansed...”(1.1620-21). 这里,被引用的诗句以斜线号隔开,斜线号与前后字母及标点符号间均需空一格;圆括弧中小写的1是line的缩写;21不必写成1621。如果引用的诗句超过三行,仍需将引用的诗句与论文文字分开(参见第四项第2点内容)。 五、英语论文的文献目录 论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点: 1.目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。 2.目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。 3.各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。 4.各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。 现将部分较为特殊的条目分列如下,并略加说明,供读者参考。 Two or More Books by the Same Author Brooks, Cleanth. Fundamentals of Good Writing: A Handbook of Modern Rhetoric. NewYork: Harcourt, 1950. ---The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats, Eliot, and Warren. New Haven: Yale UP,1963. 引用同一作者的多部著作,只需在第一条目中注明该作者姓名,余下各条目则以三条连字符及一句点代替该作者姓名;各条目须按书名的第一个词(冠词除外)的字母顺序排列。 An Author with an Editor Shake speare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. Ed. Louis B. Wright. New York: Washington Square, 1959. 本条目将作者 Shakespeare 的姓名排在前面,而将编者姓名(不颠倒)放在后面,表明引文出自 The Tragedy of Macbeth;如果引文出自编者写的序言、导言等,则需将编者姓名置前,如: Blackmur, Richard P.Introduction. The Art of the Novel: Critical Prefaces. By Henry James. New York: Scribner's, 1962.vii-xxxix. 如果引言与著作为同一人所写,则其格式如下例所示(By后只需注明作者姓即可): Emery, Donald. Preface. English Fundamentals. By Emery. London: Macmillan, 1972.v-vi. A Multivolume Work Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed. Geoffrey Keynes. 4 vols. London: Faber, 1928. Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed. Geoffrey Keynes. Vol.2. London: Faber, 1928. 4 vols. 第一条目表明该著作共4卷,而论文作者使用了各卷内容;第二条目则表明论文作者只使用了第2卷中的内容。 A Selection from an Anthology Abram, M. H.“English Romanticism: The Spirit of the Age.” Romanticism Reconsidered. Ed. Northrop Frye. New York: Columbia UP,1963.63-88. 被引用的英语论文名须用引号标出,并注意将英语论文名后的句点置于引号内。条目末尾必须注明该文在选集中的起止页码。 Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers Otto, Mary L.“Child Abuse: Group Treatment for Parents.” Personnel and Guidance Journal 62(1984): 336-48
毕业论文格式范文[摘要]页面要求:毕业论文须用A4(210×297mm)标准、70克以上白纸,一律采用单面打印;毕业论文页边距按以下标准设置:上边距(天头)为:30 mm;下边距(地脚)25mm;左边距和右边距为:25mm;装订线:10mm;页眉:16mm;页脚:15mm。 页眉:页眉从摘要页开始到论文最后一页,均需设置。页眉内容:浙江广播电视大学专科毕业论文(设计),居中,打印字号为5号宋体,页眉之下有一条下划线。 页脚:从论文主体部分(引言或绪论)开始,用阿拉伯数字连续编页,页码编写方法为:第x页共x页,居中,打印字号为小5号宋体。题目采用黑体二号居中,题目下空一行写摘要,摘要(包括关键词)、参考资料用宋体5号。 前置部分从中文题名页起单独编页。 字体与间距:毕业论文字体为小四号宋体,字间距设置为标准字间距,行间距设置为固定值20磅。正文中的小标题用三号黑体.[关键词]毕业论文,免修免考,社会实践为加强中央广播电视大学免修免考,促进广播电视大学教育与其他高等教育的相互沟通,推进中央广播电视大学人才培养模式改革和开放教育试点的深入开展,中央广播电视大学制定了《中央广播电视大学免修免考课程管理办法(试行)》文件,现就文件中有关问题问答如下:一.《中央广播电视大学免修免考课程管理办法(试行)》何时实施,以往中央电大所发文件与本规定有不符者,将如何执行? 本规定自文件发布之日起开始执行;以往中央电大所发文件与本规定有不符者,废止。二.免修免考课程内容有何要求? 作为免修免考替代的课程,其专业层次、教学内容和教学要求应不低于现修专业被替代课程的专业层次、教学内容和教学要求。三.免修免考对象?免修不免考的对象? 免修免考对象为电大课程、国家自学考试课程、合作高等学校课程、国家外语等级证书;另外,对于公共基础课程(15年有效),允许已获得相应科类专业专科以上学历(国家承认的国民教育系列)者免修免考,并获得相应学分,如:数学专业毕业的学生可申请非数学专业的高等数学课程免修免考。免修不免考的对象为其他高等学校课程。注:开设专业与合作高校一览表专业名称合作高校专业名称合作高校会计学北京工商大学英语北京外国语学院计算机科学与技术清华大学工商管理东北财经大学金融学中国金融学院法学中国政法大学汉语言文学北京大学数学与应用数学东北师范大学土木工程天津大学机电哈尔滨工程大学公共事业管理(卫生)北京大学医学部小学教育上海师范大学公共事业管理(教育)东北师范大学水利水电工程华北水利水电学院四.现修专业所有课程只要符合条件均能被免修免考吗? 现修专业并不是所有课程只要符合条件均能被免修免考!因为考虑到课程开放的特点,课程开放专业所有课程暂不考虑学分替换和免修免考问题;反之,对于已获得课程开放专业的合格课程可免修免考电大其它非课程开放专业的课程。五.免修免考课程学分如何记载? 经审核允许进行学分替换的课程,学分按现修专业中被替代课程规定的学分记载;对批准免修免考课程的成绩,按“合格”记载。六.如何理解文件中的专业层次? 专科段层次的课程只能替换相同或不同专业专科段层次的课程,即使其它条件符合免修免考要求,也不能用它来替换本科段层次专业的课程。例如:某生在专科段学了经济数学课程,在本科段学习时又必修相同内容和要求的该课程(且教材相同),可它仍然不能被免修免考。但是中央电大对英语课有特殊规定,对于在低层次(如专科段)所学的,并记入毕业总学分审核的英语(1)(2)课程,在高层次(如本科段)学习中只给予免修免考,但不能获得学分,其学分必须通过选修同层次课程获得;在同层次中予以免修免考,并获得本课程学分。相反,某生在本科段学了经济数学课程,在专科段学习时又必修相同内容和要求的该课程(且教材相同),那么该课程允许免修免考,并获得相应的学分。七.只要教学内容、教学要求不低于现修专业被替代课程教学内容、教学要求的课程都能免修免考吗? 不是。作为免修免考替代的课程,除了考虑其教学内容、教学要求不低于现修专业被替代课程的教学内容、教学要求外,还应考虑其有效年限、课程所在院校和专业层次等等。八.所有免修免考的课程均可获得相应的学分吗? 不是。中央电大对英语课有特殊规定,对于在低层次(如专科段)所学的,并记入毕业总学分审核的英语(1)(2)课程,在高层次(如本科段)学习中只给予免修免考,但不能获得学分,其学分必须通过选修别的课程获得;在同层次中予以免修免考,并获得本课程学分。九.如何理解文件中的有效年限? 有效年限是指已获得的毕业证书、单科结业证书、国家外语四、六级证书签发日期到电大注册日期。如6年有效这样理解:如果你是合作高校97年7月毕业生,02年入学注册,注册时离毕业时间只有5年,不到规定年限6年,那么你将有权利申请免修免考课程,并且此门课程保留八年学籍有效。假如你是03年秋季或之后前入学注册,注册时离毕业时间已到规定年限(6年),那么你将没有权利申请免修免考。另外,高校毕业生课程均视为毕业年所学,比如98年合作高校学生在第一学历学习时学了国际公法课程(不管此门课程当年毕业时间,均视为该专业毕业年98年7月所学),假如这位学生03年春季或之前注册中央电大开放教育本科法学专业,那么根据《中央广播电视大学免修免考课程管理办法(试行)》规定和中央广播电视大学专业教学计划,他将可以免修免考该课程,并获得该课程5学分(前提是符合免修免考应具备的其它条件);相反,假如这位学生03年秋季或之后注册中央电大开放教育本科法学专业,那么根据《中央广播电视大学免修免考课程管理办法(试行)》规定,此门课 程已过免修免考有效年限6年,因此他将不能申请免修免考。对于有单科结业证书的课程,有效年限起始日期不应以毕业证书日期为准,而应以单科证书签发日期为准(审核人员应加强管理力度,预防学生舞弊)。十.省级成人高等本科英语统测证书能替换电大公共外语课程吗?国家外语四、六级证书呢? 获得省级成人高等本科英语统测证书可以免修电大英语(1)(2)(或电大英语(3)(4)课程)课程和大学英语Ⅲ(1)(2)课程,但其不能获得相应学分,其学分必须通过选修同层次其他课程获得相应学分。我们建议具有较高外语水平的学生,各校应鼓励他们学习更高层次的公共外语课程。 获得国家外语四、六级证书的学生可以替换所有设置公共外语课程(包括大学英语Ⅲ(1)(2)),并可取得相应的学分。十一.是否除合作高等学校之外的任何其他高等学校课程,均不能免修免考? 不是!对于普通高等学校基础专业毕业的课程,将可申请电大非原毕业专业基础课程的免修免考,并取得相应的学分。如:数学专业毕业的学生可申请非数学专业的高等数学课程免修免考。十二.免修免考外语课程将影响申请学位吗? 不一定!如《免修免考课程管理办法》允许注册前6年内或注册后学籍期间,获得国家外语四、六级证书者可免修免考电大非英语专业所有外语课程,但是中央电大学位条例只承认申请学位当年前5年内所获得的国家外语四、六级证书。另外,通过外语专业毕业证书取得电大非英语专业外语课程免修免考者,将无法替代学位外语。十三.只要符合替换要求的课程都能100%替换吗? 不是!替换课程比例有限制,如下表课程类型替代必修总学分比替代方法电大课程(含注册生)100%免修免考国家自学考试课程40%免修免考合作高等学校课程100%免修免考其他高等学校课程50%免修不免考十四.某生98年注册国家自考办法律专科专业(共11门课程),现已通过9门,还有两门屡站屡败,后来这位学生转入中央电大注册视听生法律专科专业学习,恰好有5门课教学内容、教学要求、有效年限、专业层次等都不低于现修专业被替代课程的教学内容、教学要求、专业层次。试问这位学生的5门课能免修免考吗? 不一定,文件规定课程替换有比例限制,对于国家自考办课程,只能替换现专业(电大注册视听生法律专业)必修课总学分的40%,那么根据电大注册视听生法律专业教学计划,其必修课总学分为47分,折40%,实际能替换为18.8学分。即从5门课中挑出学分和不高于18学分的完整课程来替换。假如这位学生的5门课程是中央电大或合作高校的,那么这些课程将100%替换。假如这位学生是92年注册国家自考办,那么情况又不同了,还得验证这5门课程的有效年限(国家自考办单科结业证书6年,电大课程和合作高校均为8年)。十五.对于分学期课程(如刑法学(1)(2)课程、学校管理(1)(2)课程等分两学期开设的课程)应如何执行替代原则? 对于分学期课程(如《刑法学(1)(2)》),首先应明确它在教学计划中是作为一门课程,因教学内容和教学任务等较重而分两学期开设,严格课程名称为《刑法学》,(1)(2)只是标识分两学期开设。单独的《刑法学(1)》或《刑法学(2)》都不能构成一门完整的课程。因此不能对现修课程《刑法学(1)》或《刑法学(2)》中之一进行免修免考,只有原修课程的教学内容、教学要求、有效年限、专业层次等都不低于现修被替代课程《刑法学(1)(2)》方可免修免考。如:高自考《刑法学》教学内容和要求高于电大《刑法学(1)》但低于《刑法学(1)(2)》,因此高自考《刑法学》不能替代电大《刑法学(1)(2)》。那么能否替代《刑法学(1)》呢?回答不能!因为《刑法学(1)》不是一门课,无法替代一门课的部分内容。十六.那些证书能免修免考电大课程? 国家外语四、六级证书(替代非外语专业所有英语课程,6年有效期)、国家承认的基础专业(如数学专业、英语专业等)毕业证书(替代非本专业相对应的基础课程)等。十七.省级电大审核的基本程序? (1)由省级电大按照申请免修免考的条件、申请免修免考的原则,负责对学生有关证件的有效性进行审核,并将有关证件、材料复印存档且填写初审意见。(由经办人初审并填写)。 (2)省级电大要聘请熟悉本课程教学要求且具有中级以上职称的专职教师,根据专业层次、教学内容和要求不低于现修课程教学大纲要求的原则,对有关教材(或教学大纲)进行审核。对于学科发展变化较快的课程,应以学生知识结构的合理性为原则,严格控制并适当缩短证书有效年限。审核之后,要认真填写审定意见及审定结论。 (3)教务处主管领导,要根据免修免考申请条件、原则、专家审定意见及证件的有效性等情况,对申请作最后的审批。 (4)省级电大根据批准的申请报告,将免修免考课程人员情况、单科结业证书复印件及审核意见等文件存入学生成绩档案。(对批准免修免考课程的成绩,按“合格”记载) (5)省级电大应将审批结果,填入“广播电视大学课程替代、免修免考情况登记表”;采用教务管理系统中的成绩管理子模块,录入免修免考课程数据。将免修免考数据和“广播电视大学课程替代、免修免考情况登记表”(打印稿)随考试成绩单报中央电大。 (6)省级电大应按时向申请人反馈中央电大审批结果,通知应包括未批准的原因等情况。十八.中央电大终审程序? (1)中央电大负责对“广播电视大学课程替代、免修免考情况登记表”进行审核,并根据省级电大上报的有关情况,对学生的课程免修免考档案进行抽查。 (2)中央电大自收到“广播电视大学课程替代、免修免考情况登记表”起三个月内,将终审结果以书面形式通知省级电大你看这里:
中国是世界上机械发展最早的国家之一。中国的机械工程技术不但历史悠久,而且成就十分辉煌,不仅对中国的物质文化和社会经济的发展起到了重要的促进作用,而且对世界技术文明的进步做出了重大贡献.传统机械方面,我国在很长一段时期内都领先于世界。到了近代由于特别是从18世纪初到19世纪40年代,由于经济社会等诸多原因,我国的机械行业发展停滞不前,在这100多年的时间里正是西方资产阶级政治革命和产业革命时期,机械科学技术飞速发展,远远超过了中国的水平。这样,中国机械的发展水平与西方的差距急剧拉大,到十九世纪中期已经落后西方一百多年。新中国建立后特别是近三十年来,我国的机械科学技术发展速度很快。向机械产品大型化,精密化、自动化和成套化的趋势发展。在有些方面已经达到或超过了世界先进水平。总的来说,就目前而言中国机械科学技术的成就是巨大的,发展速度之快,水平之高也是前所未有的。这一时期还没有结束,我国的机械科学技术还将向更高的水平发展。只要我们能够采取正确的方针、政策、用好科技发展规律并勇于创新,我国的机械工业和机械科技一定能够振兴,重新引领世界机械工业发展潮流。就小型夯实机械而言:上世纪60年代以前,我国小型夯实机械非常缺乏,很多小型场地的夯实基本上采用人工夯实。上世纪60年代初期,长沙建设机械研究所与北京建筑工程学院等单位合作,在群众性技术革新成果的基础上总结发明了具有中国特色的蛙式夯实机,1962年获国家科技发明奖。蛙式夯实机结构简单,维修、使用方便,很快成为我国60年代夯实机械的主导产品。据不完全统计蛙式夯实机累计产量达到50000多台,在我国经济建设中发挥了重要作用。70年代以后,蛙式夯实机逐渐被性能更先进的振动冲击夯和振动平板夯所替代,目前蛙式夯实机已经很少,基本被淘汰。1964年,长沙建设机械研究所开发了HB120型内燃式夯实机,开始由上海工程机械厂生产,后来主要由津市洞庭工程机械厂生产,年产量200台左右。80年代,内燃式夯实机产品质量有较大提高,曾出口东南亚和非洲地区。90年代以后,内燃式夯实机产销售量也在逐渐减少,目前只有少数小型民营企业生产。1977年,长沙建设机械研究所和柳州市建筑机械厂开发了我国第一台HZR250型和HZR70型振动平板夯,这两种产品分别于1979 年和1982年通过了由建设部组织的鉴定。随后义乌建筑机械厂、四平建筑机械厂、安阳振动器厂、津市洞庭工程机械厂等多家企业都开始生产振动平板夯。1986年长沙建设机械研究所又开发了较大的HZR450型振动平板夯。上世纪90年代以后,振动平板夯在我国有了较快的发展,产品品种、规格和生产企业增多,国外的振动平板夯陆续进入中国市场。1983年,长沙建设机械研究所和湖北振动器厂联合开发了我国第一台HZR70型振动冲击夯,1984年通过了由建设部组织的鉴定,1985年获建设部科技进步三等奖。由于振动冲击夯具有压实效果好、生产率高、体积和重量小、轻便灵活等突出特点,深受用户欢迎,得到了迅速的推广使用,并很快发展到资江机器厂、新乡第三机床厂和津市洞庭工程机械厂等几十家企业生产。振动冲击夯虽然比振动平板夯开发晚,但发展速度、产销量和使用广泛性比振动平板夯大得多,目前已成为我国夯实机械中产销量最大的主导产品。上世纪90年代以后,国外的振动平板夯陆续进入中国市场。振动冲击夯和振动平板夯在我国的成功开发,不仅为我国建设施工部门提供了性能先进的夯实机械,取得了良好的经济效益和社会效益,而且使我国夯实机械技术向前跨进了一大步,缩短了与世界先进水平的差距,促进了我国压实机械的发展。就机械加工而言:热加工 铸造 据考古发现,在北京平谷、昌平、房山等处曾出土了公元前16世纪(商代)的青铜礼器。 明永乐年间(1403~1424年),北京制造出享誉世界的明永乐大铜钟(46.5吨)和钟楼大铜钟(63吨)及铁钟(25吨),采用分炉熔化、地坑造型和陶范法铸造。 20世纪50年代以前,北京在铸造上采用粘土砂手工造型。1955年,北京第一机床厂开始采用漏模造型、双面模型型板及铁型板和标准砂箱造型。1965年,开始采用塑料模型。 1980 年,北京市机电研究院与北京玛钢厂研制成功工频无芯塞杆底注式保温浇注电炉。1982年,该院与北京机床铸造二厂研究成功冲天炉风口吹氧技术。 1985~1988年,北京机床研究所试验成功浮动端面密封环的压力铸造工艺。 锻压 1959年,北京第二通用机械厂(后改名北京重型机器厂)建成2500吨水压机。1971年,该厂制造出6000吨水压机,这是当时北京最大的锻压设备。 1968~1979年,北京起重机器厂先后采用300吨油压机和2000吨油压机制造出起重机吊臂和大型覆盖件。 80年代,北京市机电研究院和北京市模具中心研制出一系列高精度多工位冲裁模具,接近或达到进口模具水平,改变了北京精密冲裁模具依赖进口的局面。 热处理 1949年前,北京已采用电炉、盐溶炉、热电偶等手段进行零件退火、回火、淬火、正火、调质、渗碳等热处理。 1956年,北京第一机床厂开始采用高频感应淬火。1961年,北京第二机床厂开始采用气体氮化淬火。1969年,北京量具刃具厂开始采用光亮淬火。 1978年,北京机床研究所研究完成机床导轨表面接触淬火工艺及设备、淬火质量检查技术条件的研究。1979年,铁道科学研究院和中国科学院力学研究所等合作完成大功率柴油机缸套表面的激光改性处理的研究。 1979年,北京市机电研究院研制成功千瓦级二氧化碳激光器,并于80年代初分别应用于汽缸套和邮票印刷设备的激光热处理。其中,清华大学、北京市机电研究院、北京邮票厂共同完成邮票厂七色机打孔器表面激光强化研究。 1984~1990年,北京市热处理研究所研究成功真空热处理、气体渗碳微机控制技术(与北京航空航天大学合作)、稀土软氮化、粉末冶金制品表面强化、煤油加甲醇小滴量法微机可控渗碳、固体渗硼、渗碳过程微机辅助工艺设计及跟踪控制系统等热处理新技术,并应用于生产。 焊接与切割 1949年,北京已有气焊、电弧焊及氧乙炔火焰切割等手工作业。 1963年,北京金属结构厂与一机部机械科学研究院合作开发出钨极氩弧焊,并实现了氮气等离子切割不锈钢。1964年,用直流钨极氩弧焊及焊丝合金化技术解决了核工业用倾斜式电解糟纯镍焊接。 1966年,北京金属结构厂开发出了使被焊球体旋转的埋弧自动焊。1968年,该厂开始以液化石油气代替乙炔切割。 80年代初,清华大学发明了新型MIG焊接电弧控制法,在控制电弧技术上取得突破。 80年代初,北京城建设计院等完成液化石油气移动式气压焊轨技术的研究和应用。 1990年,北京金属结构厂开始采用数控精密切割和具有光电跟踪及数控寻踪读入自动编程的大功率等离子切割技术。可见,我国机械发展在近代发展其迅速。China is the world's first national machinery development. Chinese mechanical engineering technology not only has a long history and splendid achievements in Chinese is not only the material culture and social economic development plays an important role in the world, and to promote the progress of civilization, technology has made great contribution to Chinese traditional machine. And in a long period ahead in the world. In modern times, especially from the early 18th century, due to the nineteen forties, due to the economic and social reasons, such as the China machinery industry, stagnation, in the 100 years is western bourgeois political revolution and industrial revolution, mechanical science and technology is developing rapidly, and far more than the level of China. So, China mechanical development level and the western gap widens, sharply to the 19th century middle behind western one hundred years.After the founding of new China, especially in the past 30 years, our country's mechanical science and technology development speed. To the mechanical product large-scale, precision, automation and discusses the trend of development. In some aspects has reached or exceeded the world advanced level. Generally speaking, currently China mechanical science and technology achievement is huge, developing fast, high level of unprecedented. In this period, China has no end of mechanical science and technology will develop to a higher level. As long as we can adopt the correct policy, with good technology development and innovation, our machinery industry and mechanical technology can revitalize, leading to the development trend of mechanical industry.Just small ramming machinery:In the 1960s, China mechanical very small tamp lack, many small venues ramming basically USES artificial ramming.Early 1960s, changsha construction machinery institute and Beijing architectural engineering institute, etc., the technical innovation achievements in mass on the basis of summing up Chinese characteristic invented the breaststroke ramming machine, 1962 exceeded national science and technology. The breaststroke ramming machine structure is simple, easy to use and maintenance in 1960s, soon became the dominant products to consolidate machinery. According to not complete count breaststroke tamp cumulative yield reached more than 50,000 machine, in the economic development of our country has played an important role. Since 1970's, the breaststroke ramming machine was gradually more advanced performance of vibration shock ram and vibrating plate ram, now replaced by laying machine has rarely breaststroke, basically be eliminated.In 1964, changsha construction machinery institute HB120 developed movable type, type of Shanghai began laying machine, engineering machine production mainly by tianjin municipal later, annual production engineering machinery dongting about 200. In the 1980s, movable type ramming machine product quality has increased greatly, have exported to southeast Asia and Africa. Since 1990s, internal-combustion type ramming machine production sales, and gradually decreased in only a few small private enterprise production.In 1977, changsha construction machinery factory buildings and developed in liuzhou HZR250 type and the HZR70 type vibrating plate ram, these two kinds of products in 1979 and 1982 passed by the ministry of construction of the organization. Then yiwu building construction machinery factory, siping, anyang vibrators factory, tianjin municipal engineering machinery dongting and other enterprises have started producing vibrating plate ram. In 1986, changsha construction machinery research and develop a larger HZR450 type of vibrating plate ram. Since 1990s, vibrating plate ram in our country has developed very quickly, varieties of products, specifications and increase production enterprises, foreign vibrating plate ram gradually to enter the Chinese market.In 1983, changsha construction machinery institute and the joint development of hubei vibration in the first HZR70 type vibration shock ramming, 1984, passed by the ministry of construction, organization construction technology progress in 1985 won prizes. Due to the vibration impact compaction result has good ramming, productivity, high volume and weight of small, lightweight flexible outstanding characteristics, deeply user etc, obtained a rapid promotion, and soon ZiJiang development to the factory, xinxiang municipal engineering machine tool plant and tianjin dozens of dongting production factory etc. Vibration shock ramming although than vibrating plate ram, but later development speed of development, production and use of extensive than vibrating plate ram, has become the largest in China in the ramming machinery products. Since 1990s, foreign vibrating plate ram gradually to enter the Chinese market.Vibration shock ramming and vibrating plate ram the successful development in our country, not only for our construction department provides advanced performance of mechanical, laying have achieved good economic benefit and social benefit, and make our ramming mechanical technology into a big step forward, shorten the gap with the advanced world level, promoting the development of compaction machine.The mechanical processing:According to the archaeological discovery, hot-working casting in Beijing pinggu, changping and so have proved that the 16th century BC shang dynasty (bronze objects. Ming yongle (1403-1424 years), Beijing produce world-renowned Ming yongle great 3-ton bell made (46.5 tons) and tower (63 tons of great 3-ton bell made of iron clock (25) and the furnace of melting, pit TaoFan model and method of casting. In the 1950s, Beijing based on clay sand castings in manual. In 1955, Beijing first machine tool plant began using leakage mould modelling, double-sided model and iron plate type plate and standard sand box modelling. In 1965, start using plastic model. In 1980, the institute and Beijing municipal electrical factory has successfully developed line frequency coreless bathroom plug stem bottom note type electric insulation casting. In 1982, hospital and Beijing the casting machine research cupola tuyere oxygen blowing technology. 1985-1988, Beijing institute of machine of floating end face seal ring by die successful test pressure casting process.In 1959, Beijing second metalforming machinery general factory changed (Beijing) built 2500 ton heavy-duty hydraulic press. In 1971, the factory produced 6,000 tons, which is then Beijing hydrtesting biggest metalforming equipment. 1968-1979, Beijing hoisting machine factory has 300 tons of using hydraulic press 2000 tons and create crane and large panel. In the 1980s, Beijing institute of electrical and developed a series of Beijing mould centre high-precision cutting die, the multistage close to or to import mould level, changed Beijing precision punching moulds dependence on imports.Before 1949, Beijing has heat treatment furnace, salt dissolved by thermocouples means furnace, quenching and tempering, parts of annealing, normalizing, quenching and tempering, carburizing and etc. In 1956, Beijing first began using high-frequency quenching machine tool plant. In 1961, the Beijing second machine tool plant began using gas nitriding quenching. In 1969, the following enterprise by Beijing gage start light quenching. In 1978, the complete machine tool research institute of Beijing guide surface contact quenching process and equipment, quenching condition of quality inspection. In 1979, scientific research institute of China academy of railway and mechanical institute of high-power diesel engine cylinder collaboration of surface modification of laser. In 1979, Beijing institute of electrical carbon dioxide laser is developed, and the kilowatt in early 1980s respectively applied in cylinder and stamp printing equipments of laser treatment. Among them, tsinghua university, Beijing, Beijing institute of electrical YouPiaoChang jointly completed YouPiaoChang seven color machine DaKongQi laser surface strengthening research. From 1984 to 1990, Beijing institute of vacuum heat treatment research, gas carburizing microcomputer control technology (Beijing university of aeronautics &astronautics and cooperation), rare earth soft nitriding, powder metallurgy products surface strengthening, kerosene and methanol small drops of microcomputer control method of carburizing, solid boriding and carburizing process computer aided process planning and tracking control system, and the application of new technology heat in production. Welding and cutting in 1949, Beijing has geo-drilling, electric welding and cutting etc oxyacetylene flame manual operation. In 1963, Beijing metal structure and YiJiBu mechanical science research cooperation to develop tungsten argon arc welding, and realize the nitrogen plasma cutting stainless steel. In 1964, the use of dc argon arc welding and tungsten wire alloying technology solved by tilting electrolysis industry worse pure nickel welding. In 1966, Beijing metal structure factory developed by rotating sphere of the submerged arc welding automatic welding. In 1968, the plant began to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) instead of acetylene cutting. In the early 1980s, tsinghua university invented new MIG welding arc arc technology in control, control a breakthrough. In the early 1980s, the Beijing urban construction design completed liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) mobile pneumatic rail welding technology research and application. In 1990, Beijing metal structure factory to adopt CNC precision cutting and with photo-electricity tracking and CNC pursuit of high input automatic programming technology plasma cutting.Visible, China mechanical development in modern development of its rapid.
摘要- Cobots是一类机器人的使用不断 无级变速发展高保真可编程 约束的表面。 Cobots消耗很少的电力 即使在提供高输出部队,其传输效率高众多的 传动比。 Cobotic变速箱也有能力 采取行动作为一个制动器或将成为完全免费。设计 和性能Cobotic手控制器,最近 发达国家六自由度触觉显示器,是审查。 这个装置表明,高动态范围和低功耗 消费实现的cobots 。彻底的比较 电源效率cobotic系统与传统的 机电系统提供。 三个关键要求机器人技术用于 假肢和康复是低体重,低功耗 消费和安全性。我们建议cobotic技术作为 传输架构,可以处理这些问题。 Cobots是机器人利用非完整约束 的指导车轮的相对速度有关的 机制的联系。阿cobotic传播是一个不断 无级变速器(无级变速器)之间的积极和消极 比率,可以涉及两个平移速度,两个 旋转速度,或旋转速度为平移 速度[ 1 ] 。我们最近推出了Cobotic手 控制器(图1 ) ,六自由度动力 合作机器人,并阐述其能力作为触觉界面[ 2 , 3 ] 。通过本论文中,我们表明, 机械结构和传输中使用 Cobotic手控制器处理所有三个以上 上述要求的假肢和机器人 康复。
In view of the pivotal role of rolling bearing in rotating machinery and equipment, it is very important to diagnose the fault, and it is the best way and means to establish a set of efficient and convenient bearing fault diagnosis system. Most of the traditional diagnostic system depends on a number of professional hardware equipment, these instruments are obviously difficult to meet the requirements of information technology, and caused a lot of hardware redundancy. With the rapid development of computer technology, the virtual instrument technology has been applied to the field of bearing fault diagnosis has become a trend. This paper introduces the characteristics and structure of virtual instrument technology. On this basis, the resonance demodulation technique is introduced into the signal analysis of virtual instrument to extract and analyze the bearing fault signal. Finally, based on LABVIEW platform, a set of virtual instrument for bearing fault signal analysis is developed.
原文:20.9 MACHINABILITYThe machinability of a material usually defined in terms of four factors:1、$ l m I. `5 L* eSurface finish and integrity of the machined part;2、; u: I% F/ b$ t( O" ?' I2 MTool life obtained;3、1 F. }: a% W1 W5 R l7 @* q; jForce and power requirements;4、. p) @0 }5 c* S+ I: IChip control.Thus, good machinability good surface finish and integrity, long tool life, and low force And power requirements. As for chip control, long and thin (stringy) cured chips, if not broken up, can severely interfere with the cutting operation by becoming entangled in the cutting zone.Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is difficult to establish relationships that quantitatively define the machinability of a material. In manufacturing plants, tool life and surface roughness are generally considered to be the most important factors in machinability. Although not used much any more, approximate machinability ratings are available in the example below.20.9.1 Machinability Of Steels6 }" `- x) E* V* T+ DBecause steels are among the most important engineering materials (as noted in Chapter 5), their machinability has been studied extensively. The machinability of steels has been mainly improved by adding lead and sulfur to obtain so-called free-machining steels.Resulfurized and Rephosphorized steels., m# n- K R; @Sulfur in steels forms manganese sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone. As a result, the chips produced break up easily and are small; this improves machinability. The size, shape, distribution, and concentration of these inclusions significantly influence machinability. Elements such as tellurium and selenium, which are both chemically similar to sulfur, act as inclusion modifiers in resulfurized steels.Phosphorus in steels has two major effects. It strengthens the ferrite, causing increased hardness. Harder steels result in better chip formation and surface finish. Note that soft steels can be difficult to machine, with built-up edge formation and poor surface finish. The second effect is that increased hardness causes the formation of short chips instead of continuous stringy ones, thereby improving machinability.Leaded Steels. A high percentage of lead in steels solidifies at the tip of manganese sulfide inclusions. In non-resulfurized grades of steel, lead takes the form of dispersed fine particles. Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, and aluminum and their alloys. Because of its low shear strength, therefore, lead acts as a solid lubricant (Section 32.11) and is smeared over the tool-chip interface during cutting. This behavior has been verified by the presence of high concentrations of lead on the tool-side face of chips when machining leaded steels.When the temperature is sufficiently high-for instance, at high cutting speeds and feeds (Section 20.6)—the lead melts directly in front of the tool, acting as a liquid lubricant. In addition to this effect, lead lowers the shear stress in the primary shear zone, reducing cutting forces and power consumption. Lead can be used in every grade of steel, such as 10xx, 11xx, 12xx, 41xx, etc. Leaded steels are identified by the letter L between the second and third numerals (for example, 10L45). (Note that in stainless steels, similar use of the letter L means “low carbon,” a condition that improves their corrosion resistance.)However, because lead is a well-known toxin and a pollutant, there are serious environmental concerns about its use in steels (estimated at 4500 tons of lead consumption every year in the production of steels). Consequently, there is a continuing trend toward eliminating the use of lead in steels (lead-free steels). Bismuth and tin are now being investigated as possible substitutes for lead in steels.Calcium-Deoxidized Steels. An important development is calcium-deoxidized steels, in which oxide flakes of calcium silicates (CaSo) are formed. These flakes, in turn, reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone, decreasing tool-chip interface and wear. Temperature is correspondingly reduced. Consequently, these steels produce less crater wear, especially at high cutting speeds.Stainless Steels. Austenitic (300 series) steels are generally difficult to machine. Chatter can be s problem, necessitating machine tools with high stiffness. However, ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good machinability. Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive, tend to form a built-up edge, and require tool materials with high hot hardness and crater-wear resistance. Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are strong and abrasive, requiring hard and abrasion-resistant tool materials.The Effects of Other Elements in Steels on Machinability. The presence of aluminum and silicon in steels is always harmful because these elements combine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and silicates, which are hard and abrasive. These compounds increase tool wear and reduce machinability. It is essential to produce and use clean steels.Carbon and manganese have various effects on the machinability of steels, depending on their composition. Plain low-carbon steels (less than 0.15% C) can produce poor surface finish by forming a built-up edge. Cast steels are more abrasive, although their machinability is similar to that of wrought steels. Tool and die steels are very difficult to machine and usually require annealing prior to machining. Machinability of most steels is improved by cold working, which hardens the material and reduces the tendency for built-up edge formation.Other alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium, which improve the properties of steels, generally reduce machinability. The effect of boron is negligible. Gaseous elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen can have particularly detrimental effects on the properties of steel. Oxygen has been shown to have a strong effect on the aspect ratio of the manganese sulfide inclusions; the higher the oxygen content, the lower the aspect ratio and the higher the machinability.In selecting various elements to improve machinability, we should consider the possible detrimental effects of these elements on the properties and strength of the machined part in service. At elevated temperatures, for example, lead causes embrittlement of steels (liquid-metal embrittlement, hot shortness; see Section 1.4.3), although at room temperature it has no effect on mechanical properties.Sulfur can severely reduce the hot workability of steels, because of the formation of iron sulfide, unless sufficient manganese is present to prevent such formation. At room temperature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized steels depend on the orientation of the deformed manganese sulfide inclusions (anisotropy). Rephosphorized steels are significantly less ductile, and are produced solely to improve machinability.20.9.2 Machinability of Various Other MetalsAluminum is generally very easy to machine, although the softer grades tend to form a built-up edge, resulting in poor surface finish. High cutting speeds, high rake angles, and high relief angles are recommended. Wrought aluminum alloys with high silicon content and cast aluminum alloys may be abrasive; they require harder tool materials. Dimensional tolerance control may be a problem in machining aluminum, since it has a high thermal coefficient of expansion and a relatively low elastic modulus.Beryllium is similar to cast irons. Because it is more abrasive and toxic, though, it requires machining in a controlled environment.Cast gray irons are generally machinable but are. Free carbides in castings reduce their machinability and cause tool chipping or fracture, necessitating tools with high toughness. Nodular and malleable irons are machinable with hard tool materials.Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive and highly work-hardening. They require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials and low feeds and speeds.Wrought copper can be difficult to machine because of built-up edge formation, although cast copper alloys are easy to machine. Brasses are easy to machine, especially with the addition pf lead (leaded free-machining brass). Bronzes are more difficult to machine than brass.Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good surface finish and prolonged tool life. However care should be exercised because of its high rate of oxidation and the danger of fire (the element is pyrophoric).Molybdenum is ductile and work-hardening, so it can produce poor surface finish. Sharp tools are necessary.Nickel-based alloys are work-hardening, abrasive, and strong at high temperatures. Their machinability is similar to that of stainless steels.Tantalum is very work-hardening, ductile, and soft. It produces a poor surface finish; tool wear is high.Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity (indeed, the lowest of all metals), causing significant temperature rise and built-up edge; they can be difficult to machine.Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very abrasive, so its machinability is low, although it greatly improves at elevated temperatures.Zirconium has good machinability. It requires a coolant-type cutting fluid, however, because of the explosion and fire.20.9.3 Machinability of Various Materials; n+ {0 C# N' t: K& D5 Y7 nGraphite is abrasive; it requires hard, abrasion-resistant, sharp tools.Thermoplastics generally have low thermal conductivity, low elastic modulus, and low softening temperature. Consequently, machining them requires tools with positive rake angles (to reduce cutting forces), large relief angles, small depths of cut and feed, relatively high speeds, andproper support of the workpiece. Tools should be sharp.External cooling of the cutting zone may be necessary to keep the chips from becoming “gummy” and sticking to the tools. Cooling can usually be achieved with a jet of air, vapor mist, or water-soluble oils. Residual stresses may develop during machining. To relieve these stresses, machined parts can be annealed for a period of time at temperatures ranging from % Q6 X5 q6 [ C$ F9 Ito / C+ z W( L4 N& I$ }( to ), and then cooled slowly and uniformly to room temperature.Thermosetting plastics are brittle and sensitive to thermal gradients during cutting. Their machinability is generally similar to that of thermoplastics.Because of the fibers present, reinforced plastics are very abrasive and are difficult to machine. Fiber tearing, pulling, and edge delamination are significant problems; they can lead to severe reduction in the load-carrying capacity of the component. Furthermore, machining of these materials requires careful removal of machining debris to avoid contact with and inhaling of the fibers.The machinability of ceramics has improved steadily with the development of nanoceramics (Section 8.2.5) and with the selection of appropriate processing parameters, such as ductile-regime cutting (Section 22.4.2).Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be difficult to machine, depending on the properties of the individual components, i.e., reinforcing or whiskers, as well as the matrix material.20.9.4 Thermally Assisted MachiningMetals and alloys that are difficult to machine at room temperature can be machined more easily at elevated temperatures. In thermally assisted machining (hot machining), the source of heat—a torch, induction coil, high-energy beam (such as laser or electron beam), or plasma arc—is forces, (b) increased tool life, (c) use of inexpensive cutting-tool materials, (d) higher material-removal rates, and (e) reduced tendency for vibration and chatter.It may be difficult to heat and maintain a uniform temperature distribution within the workpiece. Also, the original microstructure of the workpiece may be adversely affected by elevated temperatures. Most applications of hot machining are in the turning of high-strength metals and alloys, although experiments are in progress to machine ceramics such as silicon nitride.SUMMARY' k4 F( E u# |: n6 i6 hMachinability is usually defined in terms of surface finish, tool life, force and power requirements, and chip control. Machinability of materials depends not only on their intrinsic properties and microstructure, but also on proper selection and control of process variables.因文章太长,译文请点链接
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学术英语论文格式规范
随着论文不断的被普及,各种各样的论文格式五花八门,规范的论文格式是怎样的呢?
(一)题名(Title,Topic)
题名又称题目或标题。题名是以最恰当、最简明的词语反映论文中最重要的特定内容的逻辑组合。
论文题目是一篇论文给出的涉及论文范围与水平的第一个重要信息,也是必须考虑到有助于选定关键词不达意和编制题录、索引等二次文献可以提供检索的特定实用信息。 论文题目十分重要,必须用心斟酌选定。有人描述其重要性,用了下面的一句话:论文题目是文章的一半。 对论文题目的要求是:准确得体:简短精炼:外延和内涵恰如其分:醒目。
对这四方面的要求分述如下:
1.准确得体
要求论文题目能准确表达论文内容,恰当反映所研究的范围和深度。 常见毛病是:过于笼统,题不扣文。关键问题在于题目要紧扣论文内容,或论文内容民论文题目要互相匹配、紧扣,即题要扣文,文也要扣题。这是撰写论文的基本准则。
2.简短精炼
力求题目的字数要少,用词需要精选。至于多少字算是合乎要求,并无统一的硬性规定,一般希望一篇论文题目不要超出20个字,不过,不能由于一味追求字数少而影响题目对内容的恰当反映,在遇到两者确有矛时,宁可多用几个字也要力求表达明确。 若简短题名不足以显示论文内容或反映出属于系列研究的性质,则可利用正、副标题的方法解决,以加副标题来补充说明特定的实验材料,方法及内容等信息使标题成为既充实准确又不流于笼统和一般化。
3.外延和内涵要恰如其分
外延和内涵属于形式逻辑中的概念。所谓外延,是指一个概念所反映的每一个对象;而所谓内涵,则是指对每一个概念对象特有属性的反映。 命题时,若不考虑逻辑上有关外延和内涵的恰当运用,则有可能出现谬误,至少是不当。
4.醒目
论文题目虽然居于首先映入读者眼帘的醒目位置,但仍然存在题目是否醒目的问题,因为题目所用字句及其所表现的内容是否醒目,其产生的效果是相距甚远的。 有人对36种公开发行的医学科技期刊1987年发表的论文的部分标题,作过统计分析,从中筛选100条有错误的标题。在100条有错误的标题中,属于省略不当错误的占20%;属于介词使用不当错误的占12%)。在使用介词时产生的错误主要有:
①省略主语第一人称代词不达意后,没有使用介词结构,使辅助成分误为主语;
②需要使用介词时又没有使用;
③不需要使
用介词结构时使用。属于主事的错误的占11%;属于并列关系使用不当错误的占9%;属于用词不当、句子混乱错误的各占9%,其它类型的.错误,如标题冗长、文题不符、重复、歧意等亦时有发生。
(二)作者姓名和单位(Author and department)
这一项属于论文署名问题。署名一是为了表明文责自负,二是记录作用的劳动成果,三是便于读者与作者的联系及文献检索(作者索引)。大致分为二种情形,即:单个作者论文和多作者论文。后者按署名顺序列为第一作者、第二作者。重要的是坚持实事求是的态度,对研究工作与论文撰写实际贡献最大的列为第一作者,贡献次之的,列为第二作者,余类推。注明作者所在单位同样是为了便于读者与作者的联系。
(三)摘要(Abstract)
论文一般应有摘要,有些为了国际交流,还有外文(多用英文)摘要。它是论文内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述。其他用是不阅读论文全文即能获得必要的信息。 摘要应包含以下内容:
①从事这一研究的目的和重要性;
②研究的主要内容,指明完成了哪些工作;
③获得的基本结论和研究成果,突出论文的新见解;
④结论或结果的意义。
论文摘要虽然要反映以上内容,但文字必须十分简炼,内容亦需充分概括,篇幅大小一般限制其字数不超过论文字数的5%。例如,对于6000字的一篇论文,其摘要一般不超出300字。
论文摘要不要列举例证,不讲研究过程,不用图表,不给化学结构式,也不要作自我评价。 撰写论文摘要的常见毛病,一是照搬论文正文中的小标题(目录)或论文结论部分的文字;二是内容不浓缩、不概括,文字篇幅过长。
(四)关键词(Key words)
关键词属于主题词中的一类。主题词除关键词外,还包含有单元词、标题词的叙词。
主题词是用来描述文献资料主题和给出检索文献资料的一种新型的情报检索语言词汇,正是由于它的出现和发展,才使得情报检索计算机化(计算机检索)成为可能。 主题词是指以概念的特性关系来区分事物,用自然语言来表达,并且具有组配功能,用以准确显示词与词之间的语义概念关系的动态性的词或词组。
关键词是标示文献关建主题内容,但未经规范处理的主题词。关键词是为了文献标引工作,从论文中选取出来,用以表示全文主要内容信息款目的单词或术语。一篇论文可选取3~8个词作为关键词。
关键词或主题词的一般选择方法是:
由作者在完成论文写作后,纵观全文,先出能表示论文主要内容的信息或词汇,这些住处或词江,可以从论文标题中去找和选,也可以从论文内容中去找和选。例如上例,关键词选用了6个,其中前三个就是从论文标题中选出的,而后三个却是从论文内容中选取出来的。后三个关键词的选取,补充了论文标题所未能表示出的主要内容信息,也提高了所涉及的概念深度。需要选出,与从标题中选出的关键词一道,组成该论文的关键词组。
关键词与主题词的运用,主要是为了适应计算机检索的需要,以及适应国际计算机联机检索的需要。一个刊物增加关键词这一项,就为该刊物提高引用率、增加知名度开辟了一个新的途径。
(五)引言(Introduction)
引言又称前言,属于整篇论文的引论部分。其写作内容包括:研究的理由、目的、背景、前人的工作和知识空白,理论依据和实验基础,预期的结果及其在相关领域里的地位、作用和意义。
引言的文字不可冗长,内容选择不必过于分散、琐碎,措词要精炼,要吸引读者读下去。引言的篇幅大小,并无硬性的统一规定,需视整篇论文篇幅的大小及论文内容的需要来确定,长的可达700~800字或1000字左右,短的可不到100字。
(六)正文(Main body)
正文是一篇论文的本论,属于论文的主体,它占据论文的最大篇幅。论文所体现的创造性成果或新的研究结果,都将在这一部分得到充分的反映。因此,要求这一部分内容充实,论据充分、可靠,论证有力,主题明确。为了满足这一系列要求,同时也为了做到层次分明、脉络清晰,常常将正文部分人成几个大的段落。这些段落即所谓逻辑段,一个逻辑段可包含几个自然段。每一逻辑段落可冠以适当标题(分标题或小标题)。
段落和划分,应视论文性质与内容而定。
一般常见的划分方式有:
①实验原材料和材料/实验方法/实验结果和分析。
②理论分析/实验装置和方法/实验结果比较与分析。
根据论文内容的需要,还可以灵活地采用其它的段落划分方案,但就一般性情况而言,大体上应包含实验部分和理论分析部分的内容。实验结果和分析这一部分是论文的关键部分。有人曾说:实验的结果是论文的必脏,这并不为过,论文的新意主要在这里体现。
不少学科的论文,还可再简化一点,例如,医学论文,常将正文部分分成两个大段落,即:材料和方法(或对象和方法),结果和讨论(工结果和分析)。
要写好材料和方法这一节,应给出诸如实验所用原料或材料的技术要求、数量、来源以及制备方法等诸方面的信息,有时甚至要列出所用试剂的有关化学性质和物理性质。
要避免使用商业名称,通常应使用通用化学名称。实验方法应介绍主要的实验过程,但不要机械地按通常以年、月的次序进行描述,而应该将各有关的方法结合起来描述。
这样做的目的主要是使有能力的科技工作者按论文这一部分提供的信息,可以生复文中的试验及其结果,并即达到再现性或可重复性、确证性的要求。缺少论文写作经验与素养的人,容易将这一部分写成实验报告。
中国是世界上机械发展最早的国家之一。中国的机械工程技术不但历史悠久,而且成就十分辉煌,不仅对中国的物质文化和社会经济的发展起到了重要的促进作用,而且对世界技术文明的进步做出了重大贡献.传统机械方面,我国在很长一段时期内都领先于世界。到了近代由于特别是从18世纪初到19世纪40年代,由于经济社会等诸多原因,我国的机械行业发展停滞不前,在这100多年的时间里正是西方资产阶级政治革命和产业革命时期,机械科学技术飞速发展,远远超过了中国的水平。这样,中国机械的发展水平与西方的差距急剧拉大,到十九世纪中期已经落后西方一百多年。新中国建立后特别是近三十年来,我国的机械科学技术发展速度很快。向机械产品大型化,精密化、自动化和成套化的趋势发展。在有些方面已经达到或超过了世界先进水平。总的来说,就目前而言中国机械科学技术的成就是巨大的,发展速度之快,水平之高也是前所未有的。这一时期还没有结束,我国的机械科学技术还将向更高的水平发展。只要我们能够采取正确的方针、政策、用好科技发展规律并勇于创新,我国的机械工业和机械科技一定能够振兴,重新引领世界机械工业发展潮流。就小型夯实机械而言:上世纪60年代以前,我国小型夯实机械非常缺乏,很多小型场地的夯实基本上采用人工夯实。上世纪60年代初期,长沙建设机械研究所与北京建筑工程学院等单位合作,在群众性技术革新成果的基础上总结发明了具有中国特色的蛙式夯实机,1962年获国家科技发明奖。蛙式夯实机结构简单,维修、使用方便,很快成为我国60年代夯实机械的主导产品。据不完全统计蛙式夯实机累计产量达到50000多台,在我国经济建设中发挥了重要作用。70年代以后,蛙式夯实机逐渐被性能更先进的振动冲击夯和振动平板夯所替代,目前蛙式夯实机已经很少,基本被淘汰。1964年,长沙建设机械研究所开发了HB120型内燃式夯实机,开始由上海工程机械厂生产,后来主要由津市洞庭工程机械厂生产,年产量200台左右。80年代,内燃式夯实机产品质量有较大提高,曾出口东南亚和非洲地区。90年代以后,内燃式夯实机产销售量也在逐渐减少,目前只有少数小型民营企业生产。1977年,长沙建设机械研究所和柳州市建筑机械厂开发了我国第一台HZR250型和HZR70型振动平板夯,这两种产品分别于1979 年和1982年通过了由建设部组织的鉴定。随后义乌建筑机械厂、四平建筑机械厂、安阳振动器厂、津市洞庭工程机械厂等多家企业都开始生产振动平板夯。1986年长沙建设机械研究所又开发了较大的HZR450型振动平板夯。上世纪90年代以后,振动平板夯在我国有了较快的发展,产品品种、规格和生产企业增多,国外的振动平板夯陆续进入中国市场。1983年,长沙建设机械研究所和湖北振动器厂联合开发了我国第一台HZR70型振动冲击夯,1984年通过了由建设部组织的鉴定,1985年获建设部科技进步三等奖。由于振动冲击夯具有压实效果好、生产率高、体积和重量小、轻便灵活等突出特点,深受用户欢迎,得到了迅速的推广使用,并很快发展到资江机器厂、新乡第三机床厂和津市洞庭工程机械厂等几十家企业生产。振动冲击夯虽然比振动平板夯开发晚,但发展速度、产销量和使用广泛性比振动平板夯大得多,目前已成为我国夯实机械中产销量最大的主导产品。上世纪90年代以后,国外的振动平板夯陆续进入中国市场。振动冲击夯和振动平板夯在我国的成功开发,不仅为我国建设施工部门提供了性能先进的夯实机械,取得了良好的经济效益和社会效益,而且使我国夯实机械技术向前跨进了一大步,缩短了与世界先进水平的差距,促进了我国压实机械的发展。就机械加工而言:热加工 铸造 据考古发现,在北京平谷、昌平、房山等处曾出土了公元前16世纪(商代)的青铜礼器。 明永乐年间(1403~1424年),北京制造出享誉世界的明永乐大铜钟(46.5吨)和钟楼大铜钟(63吨)及铁钟(25吨),采用分炉熔化、地坑造型和陶范法铸造。 20世纪50年代以前,北京在铸造上采用粘土砂手工造型。1955年,北京第一机床厂开始采用漏模造型、双面模型型板及铁型板和标准砂箱造型。1965年,开始采用塑料模型。 1980 年,北京市机电研究院与北京玛钢厂研制成功工频无芯塞杆底注式保温浇注电炉。1982年,该院与北京机床铸造二厂研究成功冲天炉风口吹氧技术。 1985~1988年,北京机床研究所试验成功浮动端面密封环的压力铸造工艺。 锻压 1959年,北京第二通用机械厂(后改名北京重型机器厂)建成2500吨水压机。1971年,该厂制造出6000吨水压机,这是当时北京最大的锻压设备。 1968~1979年,北京起重机器厂先后采用300吨油压机和2000吨油压机制造出起重机吊臂和大型覆盖件。 80年代,北京市机电研究院和北京市模具中心研制出一系列高精度多工位冲裁模具,接近或达到进口模具水平,改变了北京精密冲裁模具依赖进口的局面。 热处理 1949年前,北京已采用电炉、盐溶炉、热电偶等手段进行零件退火、回火、淬火、正火、调质、渗碳等热处理。 1956年,北京第一机床厂开始采用高频感应淬火。1961年,北京第二机床厂开始采用气体氮化淬火。1969年,北京量具刃具厂开始采用光亮淬火。 1978年,北京机床研究所研究完成机床导轨表面接触淬火工艺及设备、淬火质量检查技术条件的研究。1979年,铁道科学研究院和中国科学院力学研究所等合作完成大功率柴油机缸套表面的激光改性处理的研究。 1979年,北京市机电研究院研制成功千瓦级二氧化碳激光器,并于80年代初分别应用于汽缸套和邮票印刷设备的激光热处理。其中,清华大学、北京市机电研究院、北京邮票厂共同完成邮票厂七色机打孔器表面激光强化研究。 1984~1990年,北京市热处理研究所研究成功真空热处理、气体渗碳微机控制技术(与北京航空航天大学合作)、稀土软氮化、粉末冶金制品表面强化、煤油加甲醇小滴量法微机可控渗碳、固体渗硼、渗碳过程微机辅助工艺设计及跟踪控制系统等热处理新技术,并应用于生产。 焊接与切割 1949年,北京已有气焊、电弧焊及氧乙炔火焰切割等手工作业。 1963年,北京金属结构厂与一机部机械科学研究院合作开发出钨极氩弧焊,并实现了氮气等离子切割不锈钢。1964年,用直流钨极氩弧焊及焊丝合金化技术解决了核工业用倾斜式电解糟纯镍焊接。 1966年,北京金属结构厂开发出了使被焊球体旋转的埋弧自动焊。1968年,该厂开始以液化石油气代替乙炔切割。 80年代初,清华大学发明了新型MIG焊接电弧控制法,在控制电弧技术上取得突破。 80年代初,北京城建设计院等完成液化石油气移动式气压焊轨技术的研究和应用。 1990年,北京金属结构厂开始采用数控精密切割和具有光电跟踪及数控寻踪读入自动编程的大功率等离子切割技术。可见,我国机械发展在近代发展其迅速。China is the world's first national machinery development. Chinese mechanical engineering technology not only has a long history and splendid achievements in Chinese is not only the material culture and social economic development plays an important role in the world, and to promote the progress of civilization, technology has made great contribution to Chinese traditional machine. And in a long period ahead in the world. In modern times, especially from the early 18th century, due to the nineteen forties, due to the economic and social reasons, such as the China machinery industry, stagnation, in the 100 years is western bourgeois political revolution and industrial revolution, mechanical science and technology is developing rapidly, and far more than the level of China. So, China mechanical development level and the western gap widens, sharply to the 19th century middle behind western one hundred years.After the founding of new China, especially in the past 30 years, our country's mechanical science and technology development speed. To the mechanical product large-scale, precision, automation and discusses the trend of development. In some aspects has reached or exceeded the world advanced level. Generally speaking, currently China mechanical science and technology achievement is huge, developing fast, high level of unprecedented. In this period, China has no end of mechanical science and technology will develop to a higher level. As long as we can adopt the correct policy, with good technology development and innovation, our machinery industry and mechanical technology can revitalize, leading to the development trend of mechanical industry.Just small ramming machinery:In the 1960s, China mechanical very small tamp lack, many small venues ramming basically USES artificial ramming.Early 1960s, changsha construction machinery institute and Beijing architectural engineering institute, etc., the technical innovation achievements in mass on the basis of summing up Chinese characteristic invented the breaststroke ramming machine, 1962 exceeded national science and technology. The breaststroke ramming machine structure is simple, easy to use and maintenance in 1960s, soon became the dominant products to consolidate machinery. According to not complete count breaststroke tamp cumulative yield reached more than 50,000 machine, in the economic development of our country has played an important role. Since 1970's, the breaststroke ramming machine was gradually more advanced performance of vibration shock ram and vibrating plate ram, now replaced by laying machine has rarely breaststroke, basically be eliminated.In 1964, changsha construction machinery institute HB120 developed movable type, type of Shanghai began laying machine, engineering machine production mainly by tianjin municipal later, annual production engineering machinery dongting about 200. In the 1980s, movable type ramming machine product quality has increased greatly, have exported to southeast Asia and Africa. Since 1990s, internal-combustion type ramming machine production sales, and gradually decreased in only a few small private enterprise production.In 1977, changsha construction machinery factory buildings and developed in liuzhou HZR250 type and the HZR70 type vibrating plate ram, these two kinds of products in 1979 and 1982 passed by the ministry of construction of the organization. Then yiwu building construction machinery factory, siping, anyang vibrators factory, tianjin municipal engineering machinery dongting and other enterprises have started producing vibrating plate ram. In 1986, changsha construction machinery research and develop a larger HZR450 type of vibrating plate ram. Since 1990s, vibrating plate ram in our country has developed very quickly, varieties of products, specifications and increase production enterprises, foreign vibrating plate ram gradually to enter the Chinese market.In 1983, changsha construction machinery institute and the joint development of hubei vibration in the first HZR70 type vibration shock ramming, 1984, passed by the ministry of construction, organization construction technology progress in 1985 won prizes. Due to the vibration impact compaction result has good ramming, productivity, high volume and weight of small, lightweight flexible outstanding characteristics, deeply user etc, obtained a rapid promotion, and soon ZiJiang development to the factory, xinxiang municipal engineering machine tool plant and tianjin dozens of dongting production factory etc. Vibration shock ramming although than vibrating plate ram, but later development speed of development, production and use of extensive than vibrating plate ram, has become the largest in China in the ramming machinery products. Since 1990s, foreign vibrating plate ram gradually to enter the Chinese market.Vibration shock ramming and vibrating plate ram the successful development in our country, not only for our construction department provides advanced performance of mechanical, laying have achieved good economic benefit and social benefit, and make our ramming mechanical technology into a big step forward, shorten the gap with the advanced world level, promoting the development of compaction machine.The mechanical processing:According to the archaeological discovery, hot-working casting in Beijing pinggu, changping and so have proved that the 16th century BC shang dynasty (bronze objects. Ming yongle (1403-1424 years), Beijing produce world-renowned Ming yongle great 3-ton bell made (46.5 tons) and tower (63 tons of great 3-ton bell made of iron clock (25) and the furnace of melting, pit TaoFan model and method of casting. In the 1950s, Beijing based on clay sand castings in manual. In 1955, Beijing first machine tool plant began using leakage mould modelling, double-sided model and iron plate type plate and standard sand box modelling. In 1965, start using plastic model. In 1980, the institute and Beijing municipal electrical factory has successfully developed line frequency coreless bathroom plug stem bottom note type electric insulation casting. In 1982, hospital and Beijing the casting machine research cupola tuyere oxygen blowing technology. 1985-1988, Beijing institute of machine of floating end face seal ring by die successful test pressure casting process.In 1959, Beijing second metalforming machinery general factory changed (Beijing) built 2500 ton heavy-duty hydraulic press. In 1971, the factory produced 6,000 tons, which is then Beijing hydrtesting biggest metalforming equipment. 1968-1979, Beijing hoisting machine factory has 300 tons of using hydraulic press 2000 tons and create crane and large panel. In the 1980s, Beijing institute of electrical and developed a series of Beijing mould centre high-precision cutting die, the multistage close to or to import mould level, changed Beijing precision punching moulds dependence on imports.Before 1949, Beijing has heat treatment furnace, salt dissolved by thermocouples means furnace, quenching and tempering, parts of annealing, normalizing, quenching and tempering, carburizing and etc. In 1956, Beijing first began using high-frequency quenching machine tool plant. In 1961, the Beijing second machine tool plant began using gas nitriding quenching. In 1969, the following enterprise by Beijing gage start light quenching. In 1978, the complete machine tool research institute of Beijing guide surface contact quenching process and equipment, quenching condition of quality inspection. In 1979, scientific research institute of China academy of railway and mechanical institute of high-power diesel engine cylinder collaboration of surface modification of laser. In 1979, Beijing institute of electrical carbon dioxide laser is developed, and the kilowatt in early 1980s respectively applied in cylinder and stamp printing equipments of laser treatment. Among them, tsinghua university, Beijing, Beijing institute of electrical YouPiaoChang jointly completed YouPiaoChang seven color machine DaKongQi laser surface strengthening research. From 1984 to 1990, Beijing institute of vacuum heat treatment research, gas carburizing microcomputer control technology (Beijing university of aeronautics &astronautics and cooperation), rare earth soft nitriding, powder metallurgy products surface strengthening, kerosene and methanol small drops of microcomputer control method of carburizing, solid boriding and carburizing process computer aided process planning and tracking control system, and the application of new technology heat in production. Welding and cutting in 1949, Beijing has geo-drilling, electric welding and cutting etc oxyacetylene flame manual operation. In 1963, Beijing metal structure and YiJiBu mechanical science research cooperation to develop tungsten argon arc welding, and realize the nitrogen plasma cutting stainless steel. In 1964, the use of dc argon arc welding and tungsten wire alloying technology solved by tilting electrolysis industry worse pure nickel welding. In 1966, Beijing metal structure factory developed by rotating sphere of the submerged arc welding automatic welding. In 1968, the plant began to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) instead of acetylene cutting. In the early 1980s, tsinghua university invented new MIG welding arc arc technology in control, control a breakthrough. In the early 1980s, the Beijing urban construction design completed liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) mobile pneumatic rail welding technology research and application. In 1990, Beijing metal structure factory to adopt CNC precision cutting and with photo-electricity tracking and CNC pursuit of high input automatic programming technology plasma cutting.Visible, China mechanical development in modern development of its rapid.
英文参考文献引用格式有两种:APA格式和MLA格式。
1、APA格式:APA(American Psychological Association)是一种标明参考来源的格式,主要使用在社会科学领域及其他学术准则中,国内很多期刊也是采用的APA格式。
APA文内注的参考文献格式是:“(作者姓氏,发表年份)”。
APA文末的参考文献目录格式是:Reference List, 必须以姓(Family name)的字母顺序来排列,基本结构为:
期刊类:【作者】【发表年份】【文章名】【期刊名】【卷号/期数:起止页码】Smith,J.(2006).The title of the article.The title of Journal,1,101-105。
非期刊类:【作者】【发表年份】【书籍名】【出版地:出版社】Sussan.G.(2002).What computers can't do.New York:Harp&Row。
2、MLA格式:MLA是美国现代语言协会(Modern Language Association)制定的论文指导格式,多用于人文学科(Liberal Arts)。
MLA文内注的基本格式:“(作者姓氏,文献页码)”。
MLA文末的参考文献目录格式:在MLA格式中称为Works Cited,同样是以姓(Family name)的字母顺序来排列,基本结构为:
期刊类:【作者】【“文章名”】【期刊名】【卷号或期数】【发表年份】起止页码】Nwezeh,C.E.“The Comparative Approachto Modern African Literature.”Year book of General and Comparative Literature 28(1979):22。
非期刊类:【作者】【书籍名】【出版地:出版社】【发表年份】Winfield,Richard Dien.Law in Civil Society.Madison:U of Wisconsin P,1995。
文献引用不符合要求具体表现是:
1、所列文献范围过宽,凡所参阅过的均列出其中,如教材、内部刊物、获奖过但并未公开发表的成果报告等。
2、所列文献过多,如有些医生认为文献越多越好,将参阅过的文章书籍后的参考文献也悉数收录,有些文献作者并没有亲自阅读,只是认为跟自己的文章搭点边,也凑数其后。
3、所列文献过少,有些医生怕自己文章引述别人东西太多,被人认为抄袭,故意将一些重要参考文献略去。
4、对文献的理解偏面,以为只有引用文献原文才需要列出。
5、大而不当,将整期刊物甚至连续几期杂志或整张报纸作为参考文献。
[序号]主要责任者.文献题名[J].刊名,年,卷(期):起止页码。例如:[1]何龄修.读南明史[J].中国史研究,1998,(3):167-173。[2]OU J P,SOONG T T,et al.Recent advance in research on applications of passive energy dissipation systems[J].Earthquack Eng,1997,38(3):358-361。
[24] Allen, Richard S, Charles S. White, Margaret B. Takeda, Rewards and organizational performance in Japan and the United States,[J]. 2004, 7-14.Rewards and organizational performance in Japan and the United States这貌似不是一本书吧,是他们的成就的表现。如果不是你就把这换成他们的书。[25] Marylin M. Helms, A comparison, Compensation and Benefits Review [J]. 2004, 7-14.[26] Andrews, Alice O,The effect of the chief executive officer’s financial orientation,[M]. 2000,25(1), 93-106.[27] Theresa M, Welbourne, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice [M]. 2000,25(1), 93-106.[28] Heneman, Robert L., Judith W. Tansky, Sheng Wang , Compensation practices in small entrepreneurial and high-growth companies in the United States and China,[M],2002,13-22[29]Zhong-Ming Wang, Compensation and Benefits Review,[M],2002,13-22希望有帮助。呵呵你看看,对你有帮助:毕业论文参考文献规范格式一、参考文献的类型参考文献(即引文出处)的类型以单字母方式标识,具体如下:M——专著 C——论文集 N——报纸文章 J——期刊文章 D——学位论文 R——报告 对于不属于上述的文献类型,采用字母“Z”标识。对于英文参考文献,还应注意以下两点:①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则,具体格式是: 姓,名字的首字母. 如: Malcolm Richard Cowley 应为:Cowley, M.R.,如果有两位作者,第一位作者方式不变,&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面,姓放在后面,如:Frank Norris 与Irving Gordon应为:Norris, F. & I.Gordon.;②书名、报刊名使用斜体字,如:Mastering English Literature,English Weekly。二、参考文献的格式及举例1.期刊类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名,出版年份,卷号(期号):起止页码.【举例】[1] 王海粟.浅议会计信息披露模式[J].财政研究,2004,21(1):56-58.[2] 夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业论文教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育,2004(1):46-52.[3] Heider, E.R.& D.C.Oliver. The structure of color space in naming and memory of two languages [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1999, (3): 62 – 67.2.专著类【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地:出版社,出版年份:起止页码.【举例】[4] 葛家澍,林志军.现代西方财务会计理论[M].厦门:厦门大学出版社,2001:42.[5] Gill, R. Mastering English Literature [M]. London: Macmillan, 1985: 42-45.3.报纸类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名,出版日期(版次).【举例】[6] 李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N]. 光明日报,1998-12-27(3).[7] French, W. Between Silences: A Voice from China[N]. Atlantic Weekly, 1987-8-15(33).4.论文集【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[C].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[8] 伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C]. 上海:上海译文出版社,1979:12-17.[9] Spivak,G. “Can the Subaltern Speak?”[A]. In C.Nelson & L. Grossberg(eds.). Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, pp.271-313.[10] Almarza, G.G. Student foreign language teacher’s knowledge growth [A]. In D.Freeman and J.C.Richards (eds.). Teacher Learning in Language Teaching [C]. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1996. pp.50-78.5.学位论文【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地:保存者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[11] 张筑生.微分半动力系统的不变集[D].北京:北京大学数学系数学研究所, 1983:1-7.6.研究报告【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[R].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[12] 冯西桥.核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析[R].北京:清华大学核能技术设计研究院, 1997:9-10.7.条例【格式】[序号]颁布单位.条例名称.发布日期【举例】[15] 中华人民共和国科学技术委员会.科学技术期刊管理办法[Z].1991—06—058.译著【格式】[序号]原著作者. 书名[M].译者,译.出版地:出版社,出版年份:起止页码.三、注释注释是对论文正文中某一特定内容的进一步解释或补充说明。注释前面用圈码①、②、③等标识。四、参考文献 参考文献与文中注(王小龙,2005)对应。标号在标点符号内。多个都需要标注出来,而不是1-6等等 ,并列写出来。
这里将参考文献格式分为两种,一种是文内注(In-text Citation),另一种是文章结尾的参考文献目录,一般称为Reference List,也有不同叫法的,下面会说到。
一般来说,许多参考文献格式都是基于两种格式:APA格式和MLA格式,另外还有CMS格式和哈佛文献格式(Harvard System)等,都是比较常见的参考文献格式。下面就分别对这四种格式做一个简要的说明。
1.APA 格式
APA是美国心理协会的缩写,全称是The American Psychological Association,APA格式指的是该协会出版的《美国心理协会刊物准则》,目前已出版至第7版。主要用于社会科学和自然科学类(Social and Natural Sciences)的文章。国内很多期刊也是采用的APA格式。
APA格式的细节十分复杂,这里就不赘述了,如果想深入了解,普渡大学官网有一个版块:里面对前面提到的前三种格式都有详细的介绍。APA文内注的基本格式是“(作者姓氏,发表年份)”。文末的参考文献目录是Reference List,必须以姓(Family name)的字母顺序来排列,基本结构为:
期刊类:
【作者】【发表年份】【文章名】【期刊名】【卷号/期数:起止页码】
Smith, J. (2006). The title of the article. The title of Journal, 1, 101-105.
非期刊类:
【作者】【发表年份】【书籍名】【出版地:出版社】
Sussan.G.(2002).What computers can’t do. New York: Harp& Row.
2.MLA格式
MLA 是美国现代语言协会(Modern Language Association)制定的论文指导格式,多用于人文学科(Liberal Arts)。MLA文内注的基本格式是“(作者姓氏,文献页码)”。文末的参考文献目录在MLA格式中称为Works Cited,同样是以姓(Family name)的字母顺序来排列,基本结构为:
期刊类:
【作者】【“文章名”】【期刊名】【卷号或期数】【发表年份】起止页码】
Nwezeh, C.E. “The Comparative Approach to Modern African Literature.” Year book of General and Comparative Literature 28 (1979): 22.
非期刊类:
【作者】【书籍名】【出版地:出版社】【发表年份】
Winfield, Richard Dien. Law in Civil Society. Madison: U of Wisconsin P, 1995.
3.CMS格式
CMS格式,又叫芝加哥论文格式,全称The Chicago Manual of Style,源于芝加哥大学出版社在1906年出版的Manual Style,目前已出至第十七版,主要用于人文学科(humanities),它使用脚注、尾注和参考文献目录来注明文献来源。
芝加哥格式的文内注和APA格式一样,采取作者姓氏加上年份,如果需要,还可以加上页码,比如:(Goman 1989, 59)。脚注和尾注(Footnote or endnote)的结构为:
期刊类:
【作者】【“文章名”】【期刊名】【卷号或期数】【发表年份】【起止页码】
Susan Peck MacDonald, “The Erasure of Language,” College Composition and Communication 58,no. 4 (2007): 619.
非期刊类:
【作者】【书籍名】【出版地:出版社】【出版年份】
First name Lastname, Title of Book (Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication), page number.
文末参考文献称为bibliography或者References,其结构为:
期刊类:
【作者】【“文章名”】【期刊名】【卷号或期数】【发表年份】【起止页码】
MacDonald, SusanPeck. “The Erasure of Language.” College Composition and Communication 58, no. 4 (2007): 585-625.
非期刊类:
【作者】【书籍名】【出版地:出版社】【出版年份】
Last name, Firstname. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.
4.哈佛文献格式
顾名思义,是哈佛大学的论文参考文献标准,全名为:哈佛注释体系(Harvard System),起源于美国,但是在英国和澳洲等国家运用得比较多,尤其在物理和自然科学领域。
哈佛格式的文内注也和APA格式一样,采取作者姓氏加上年份的方式。文末的参考文献目录的基本结构为:
期刊类:
【作者】【发表年份】【文章名】【期刊名】【卷号或期数】【起止页码】
Ross, N. (2015). On Truth Content and False Consciousness in Adorno’s Aesthetic Theory. Philosophy Today, 59(2), pp. 269-290.
非期刊类:
【作者】【出版年份】【书籍名】【出版地:出版社】
以上就是四种参考文献格式的一个最简要介绍,每一种格式的规定中还有非常多的细节,比如相同姓氏的作者、多个作者、电子出版物、会议论文等等情况,另外还有排版、字号、缩进、空格等等,具体在写作中采用哪一种再去查找相关细则。