关于女性的研究英文论文

The feminist movement (also known as the Women's Movement or Women's Liberation) is a series of campaigns on issues such as reproductive rights (sometimes including abortion), domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, sexual harassment, and sexual violence. The goals of the movement vary from country to country, . opposition to female genital cutting in Sudan, or to the glass ceiling in Western countries. The history of feminist movements has been divided into three "waves" by feminist scholars. Each is described as dealing with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave refers to the feminism movement of the 19th through early 20th centuries, which dealt mainly with the Suffrage movement. The second wave (1960s-1980s) dealt with the inequality of laws, as well as cultural inequalities. The Third wave of Feminism (1990s-current), is seen as both a continuation and a response to the perceived failures of the Second-wave. The feminist movement reaches far back before the 18th century, but the seeds of modern feminist movement were planted during the late part of that century. Christine de Pizan, a late medieval writer, was possibly the earliest feminist in the western tradition. She is believed to be the first woman to make a living out of writing. Feminist thought began to take a more substantial shape during The Enlightenment with such thinkers as Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and the Marquis de Condorcet championing women's education. The first scientific society for women was founded in Middleberg, a city in the south of the Dutch republic, in 1785. Journals for women which focused on issues like science became popular during this period as well. The period of feminist activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in the United Kingdom and the United States is referred to as the first wave of feminism. It focused primarily on gaining the right of women's suffrage. The term, "first-wave," was coined retrospectively after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as further political inequalities.

More than 1,200 representatives of China's 650 million women will discuss women's progress over the last five years at the Tenth National Women's Congress from Oct. 28 to 31. 本月28日至31日,第十届妇女代表大会将召开,届时将有超过1200名出席者代表全国亿的妇女,参会讨论近五年来妇女的发展.In September 2004, the Fourth Plenary Session of the 16th Communist Party of China (CPC) Central Committee stressed the training and selection of women cadres. 2004年9月,中国共产党第16大4中全会,着重指出加强培训机制和妇女骨干的选拔.The Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women, which was amended in 2005, stipulated that "gender equality is a basic national policy". 2005年修改的"妇女利益权力保护"法律中,规定了"性别平等是基本国家政策".Last year, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council ordered an end to sex discrimination and demanded better education on laws and regulations on women and children's rights during family planning work. 去年在家庭计划工作会议上,国务院下令禁止性别歧视,并要求妇女儿童接受教育的权力的相关法律规范出台.Training centers and organizations have been established to provide services for migrant women workers. 建立了培训中心和机构,为外来务工妇女提供服务.Women account for percent of China's total employed population and for more than 40 percent of all public servants. 在中国总务工人口中,妇女占了,有超过40%的从事公众服务型行业.Female deputies comprise percent of the National People's Congress (NPC), up percentage points from the previous congress, and women make up percent of the National Committee of the 11th Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), up 1 percentage point.女性代表占与会人数的,比上届会议增长了个百分点. 同时,在第11届政协会议中,妇女人数占,比上届增长1个百分点.

前言：本文是对 UC Berkeley 语言学家 Robin Lakoff 在1972年发表的论文《Language and woman's place》的主题和内容进行解析的文章，摘录了 Lakoff 在文中所提出的部分典型例子、结合她所处的时代/英文语境以及我自己所处的时代/中文语境的体验，进行解析、对比及延伸。

论文总体介绍： 这篇论文常被视为在社会语言学领域、讨论语言与性别关系的具有开创意义的重要之作，启发了往后至今很多关于这方面的话题和观点。Lakoff 认为，当前在日常语言使用习惯中，有很多例子都反映了女性在社会上被边缘化和不被作为独立个体重视（not being taken seriously）的情况，以及根深蒂固且可能无意识的性别歧视。主要包括以下几种现象：

1. 女性使用的词语表达更显“琐碎”（trivial）。 2. 女性不被鼓励使用感情色彩强烈的用语（strong expression）。 3. 一些形容女性的词语需要被委婉语替代/美化（euphemism）。

另外，论文的论点和例子都是基于 Lakoff 自己的研究和生活观察，并没有统计数据做支撑（不过她也在论文开头论述了自己搜集素材和结论的合理性），同时我延伸的例子和讨论也是基于自己的生活体验，因此不免有少虑和多虑的情况，但会尽量避免以偏概全。读者可斟酌接纳观点、或可直接通过评论和私信和我讨论。

Lakoff 首先提出了一个例子：女性通常比男性更能准确地区分并命名颜色，比如紫色里可以分紫色/淡紫色/薰衣草紫（purple/mauve/lavender）等等。我也举个很简单的生活例子——口红的颜色，大家就懂了。

像上图这样的段子很常见，一些男性朋友也常以此自黑。而Lakoff提到：

男性会认为能不能说准口红色号根本不重要（类似的例子包括衣服样式、花的种类等），而从这个词汇现象中反映的则是现实中比较普遍的认知偏见：女性会更专注在一些琐碎的事情上，而在一些重要的事情上不应该让她们做决定（women are not expected to make decisions on important matters），包括商业层面、政治层面的决策等。

为什么说是偏见？因为这些“琐碎”的事情本身不一定是琐碎的，只是被男性认为是不重要的（因为与自己无关），然后冠以“不重要”的标签。久而久之，社会上就形成一种刻板印象——“女性很擅长处理那些琐碎的事务，就让她们干这个吧”——作为降低女性的地位、稳固自身群体地位的借口。

b 句采用了感情色彩比较强烈的用语（通常带粗话），相比之下 a 句的语气比较温和她表示，一般情况下的日常对话中，上面的 a 句更倾向于被认为是出自女性之口、b 句出自男性之口。虽然也有一些女性会习惯使用 b 类句，尤其是当下网络时代，但在面对面对话场景中女性使用 b 类句还是会或多或少被烙以“粗鲁”的印象，而人们对男性使用这类句子的容忍度会更高。

如果把上面两类用语简单分为“女性语言”和“男性语言”，我们会发现另一个现象：一部分女性会开始使用“男性语言”，但反过来，“女性语言”很少被男性使用。Lakoff 基于这个现象引申出：一些以往被男性主导的工作也开始有女性参与，但很少男性会主动去参与以往被女性主导的工作（如家庭主妇、护士）。这可能是因为：

在社会上掌握主导权的群体，他们的言行、观念会被其它群体所吸收接受，反过来却不成立。 在父权社会中，女性如果想被尊重，需要“像男人一样强悍”、证明“我也能做男人做的事” ，而男性没有任何必要去理解女性群体、接纳她们的观点。

回到上面的两个例句，Lakoff 认为这也代表了一种看待男女性的态度的差异（尤其是对孩童）：人们希望男孩能有“男子气概”、充满精神斗志（high spirits）、需要强硬一点，而希望女孩能更加温顺、贤惠。在交谈讨论的过程中，使用语气强烈、态度明确的用语，往往能更容易获得对方的注意。同样的，当一个人能自由准确地表达自己的情绪时，才能被别人重视（as a real individual in one's own right）。因此，这种在用语上的区别对待也更加巩固了在社会中男性的强势地位。

当一个常用的含贬义的单词或用语、或一个单词常被人联系到一些让人不安、尴尬的事物时，人们就会用一些 委婉词（euphemism） 去取代它/美化它，以便能让人们在公众场合放心地使用它。

其中“woman”这个词就是 Lakoff 提到的一个重要例子。在她观察到的、在英文的很多语境中，“lady”都会作为委婉词去替代 woman，她称 woman 常被联想到 housewife（家庭主妇）甚至是 broad（对女性的不尊称呼，相当于中文的“婆娘”），称呼 lady 比称呼 woman 听起来更有礼貌。

在中文语境也有很典型的例子，就是原本一个很正常的描述“妇女节”，近年来被很多花里胡哨的“女神节/女王节”的称呼取代。主要原因应该还是在于“妇女”这个词常与已婚女性、家庭主妇、年长女性等概念挂钩（即使本来的定义是“14岁以上的女性”）。

我不清楚这个趋势是从什么时候开始的，但我知道商业市场是其中一大推力。通过对妇女节再包装，冠以女王女神等时尚的名头，本来“平平无奇”的、赞扬女性社会贡献的日子，摇身一变成为电商狂欢节。事实上，很多女性也吃这一套，觉得这种称呼的变化是美化了自己的形象，也让这个日子更加被重视。

但真的是这样吗？委婉语确实可以让人更舒服地去谈论一个事物/概念，但也很容易让人忽视这个事物原本的意义，因为越来越少人谈论它。而世界范围内大部分有关女性权益的组织、官方定义等都以“妇女（woman）”为准，包括妇女联合会、National Organization for Women 等。如果我们都把“妇女”贬义化，避而不谈，那么女性就更有可能被随意定义了。

妇女这个词不被正视，很容易导致女性权益不被正视； 对妇女节的商业包装，很容易导致女性被商业化和物化。

所以可以发现，今年电商平台有关“女神节”的logo或装饰都没以往显眼（上面以及下面的截图已经是个二级页面了），或者直接改为“3·8节”。

另外，Lakoff 也指出了 woman 的另一个委婉语 girl，通常是用作讨好女性、说她们很年轻。 在中文语境里也有类似的例子，比如祝福女性生日快乐时会习惯祝福“年年十八”、“永葆青春”之类的，一些女性自己生日时也会说“又一个18岁生日”。而在偏正式的环境里（比如办公环境），“我们办公室的一个女生/女孩......”，这两种称呼都很正常，但很少会出现“我们办公室的一个男孩......”这样的用法。

形容女性年轻，本身没什么问题，但要知道，“年轻”本身也容易让人联系到“不成熟”、“没担当”等特征。如果过分强调女性都是年轻的，就很容易形成女性都不成熟的刻板印象。

在 Lakoff 37页的论文里，还有很多其它语言现象的例子，能够说明女性在社会的地位是不受重视的，但我们没有必要对每个用语都锱铢必较，或者说要求人们一个个纠正，因为这只是人们在认知层面、社会层面就已经形成的固有思维（对女性地位的不重视）的具体表现，之一。正如 Lakoff 论文结尾所说的：

最重要的还是让人们意识到不公真实存在、广泛存在（这也是这篇论文和我写这篇文章的主要目的），重新好好地思考导致不公的原因，重新去了解、认识女性，而不是沿用父权社会一代又一代流传下来的那套观念（包括部分女性也无意识地把自己套到了这些观念里）。引用【My Fair Lady】里的一句台词：

同样的，女性在我们眼中是怎样的，取决于我们以何种态度看待她们。

The portrayal of women’s images in magazine advertisements: Goffman’s gender analysis revisited期刊 Sex Roles出版社 Springer NetherlandsISSN 0360-0025 (Print) 1573-2762 (Online)期 Volume 37, Numbers 11-12 / 1997年12月DOI 页 979-996学科分类 行为科学SpringerLink Date 2008年10月9日Mee-Eun Kang1(1) University of Michigan, Department of Communication, 2020 Frieze Building, University of Michigan, 48105 Ann Arbor, MIAbstract The research objective of this paper was to study the specific behaviors mentioned above and determine what gender behavior patterns have been most prevalent in magazine advertisements in 1979 and 1991. In this research, comparisons were made regarding gender displays between the years of 1979 and 1991 with random samples of print advertisements. The basic and essential starting question of this research project is: What messages about women have been given to society through magazine advertisements? This study was intended to be a conceptual replication of Erving Gofian’s study of Gender Advertisements to see how gender images in print advertisements have changed since Goffman’s study. For this research, advertisements were analyzed the gender behavior portrayed, utilizing Goffman’s categories of decoding behavior: relative size, feminine touch, function ranking, ritualization of subordination, and licensed withdrawal. Body display and IndependencelSelf-assertiveness categories were added. Advertisements that featured human subjects were collected from 1979 and 1991 women’s popular magazines. The random sampling procedure resulted in 252 samples in 1979 magazine advertisements and 252 samples in 1991 counterparts. This research showed that few changes have been made in the images of women in magazine advertisements since Goffman’s 1979 study. The findings indicate that the images of women in 1991 advertisements did not significantly change from the images found in 1979 advertisements. However; distribution or dispersion of stereotypical portrayal of women did change. In the categories of licensed withdrawal and body display, the magazine advertisements from 1991 showed more stereotyping of women than those from 1979. Two of Goffman’s categories-Relative Size and Function Ranking-were not prevalent depictions in magazine 's Magazine Fiction: A Content Analysis of the Roles, Attributes, and Occupations of Main Characters期刊 Sex Roles出版社 Springer NetherlandsISSN 0360-0025 (Print) 1573-2762 (Online)期 Volume 37, Numbers 7-8 / 1997年10月DOI 页 581-593学科分类 行为科学SpringerLink Date 2004年11月3日UniSA FindIt添加入标记条目中添加入收藏条目中Permissions & Reprints推荐此文章PDF ( KB)Women's Magazine Fiction: A Content Analysis of the Roles, Attributes, and Occupations of Main CharactersKate Peirce1(1) Department of Mass Communication, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, 78666Abstract A content analysis of the fiction stories in seven national women's magazines revealed that the primary problem for most of the main characters is romantic. Most of the characters are atractive, single, white Americans younger than 45. They live in the city, have zero to two children, are middle class, and college educated, and they have careers or jobs. Less than half of them are able to solve their own problems, and occupations are assigned sterotypically by gender. The conclusion drawn is that the fiction in these magazines is, in many ways, as traditional as has been found in the past.还有些别的给我邮箱吧 我发给你