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这个好办，我弄过类似的。帮你
浅谈商务英语翻译中的几点问题 [论文关键词〕商务英语国际贫易翻译 [论文摘要」商务英语翻译与普通英语的翻译差别甚大，不论是在专业词汇还是译法方面都需要特别的注意。而随着我国全球化的加深，商务英语翻译也显得越来越重要。此文，笔者从几个方面总结了商务英语翻译的重点和难点。 随着我国经济金融以及全球化的进一步发展，越来越多也越频繁的各种国际贸易在被展开;除此之外，与海外市场其他形式的接触也是与日俱增，例如:中外商务会谈、招商引资、跨国并购、国际性招投标等;英语作为一种国际性的语言，在这些事务中都是离不开的。现如今的中国也早已意识到了这一点，于是掀起了一浪又一浪的英语学习狂潮。说明国家和社会对英语教育的重视进一步加深。但上面所提到的方方面面都属于英语学习中一个更加细分的部分—商务英语。虽然商务英语现如今也算是一个热点词，很多办学机构都有开设商务英语类似课程，但社会对商务英语的重视度仍较低，还是远远不够的。专业的商务英语人才少之又少，系统的商务英语专业课程也是很缺乏。另外，商务英语的翻译也和普通英语大不相同。很多人认为，只要有一本商务英语词典，即使普通英语专业的毕业生也可做商务英语翻译，而且，这正是现在正在发生的事实情况，很多商务英语翻译者都不是专业学习商务英语的，因为早前还没有这个专业。其实这种观点是相当错误的。对商务英语的翻译，无论在词汇上还是译法上都是要专门研究学习的。以下笔者总结了其中的几点。 一、缩略词的翻译 在国际化的商务英语环境中，很多报刊文章、新闻报道或者研究著作等，对一些特定或是常用的英文词普遍采用缩略形式。这些词通常包括机构名称、国际组织名称、国际上普遍认可的商业惯例、普遍使用的投资形式、经常发生的商业行为等等。这便更加大了商务英语翻译的难度。因为缩略词可以用许多不同形式展开，而这些缩略词往往在全文中又占了很重要的地位，所以一旦发生错译，便会影响整篇文章的理解。下面举几个例子: IMF = International Monetary Fund国际货币基金组织 WTO = World Trade Organization世界贸易组织 EU=European Union欧盟 NAFTA=North American Free Trade Agreement 北美自由贸易协定 EFTA二Emvpean Free Trade Association 欧洲自由贸易联盟 FDI二Foreign Direct Investment外国直接投资 L/C = letter of credit信用证 B/L=bill of lading提单 以上举的这些例子只是冰山一角，在真正的国际环境中，缩略词的使用频率很高，数量也很多。并且来自国际商务的各个环节。我们可以发现，有些非常常用的，比如WTO，还可以说耳熟能详，人人知道;但另外一些，就不是单纯学习英语的人所能了解的了，这就需要专业的商务英语的培训和长期大量的接触并识记，才能在以后的工作中发挥作用。 二、合同用语的翻译 另外一个备受大家关注的便是合同的翻译了。合同是交易双方执行责任义务并享有权利的最终法律依据，是有法律效力的。不论哪个交易中，都难免出现冲突和摩擦，是否能够在最短的时间、用最少的人力财力、最有效地被解决，全看合同的订立了。所以，在合同中，一个词一个字都要求做到最严谨最合理。因此，对合同翻译的要求也远远高过于普通文件。而在合同的翻译中，有些特定的用词和方法，也是需要系统地学习和长期经验的积累的。 1.用here, there, where和after, by, in, of, on, to, un-der, upon, with等词结合使用，可以更简洁准确地表达合同中的一些意思: This contract shall come into force from the date of execu- tion hereof by the buyer and the builder. 本合同自买方和建造方签署之日生效。 The undersigned hereby agrees that the new products where-to this trade name is more appropriate are made in China. 下述签署人同意在中国制造新产品，其品牌以此为合适。 2. abide by和comply with表达不同的遵守: Both parties shall abide by the contractual stipulation. 双方都应遵守合同规定。 All of the activities of both parties shall comply with thecontractual stipulation. 双方的一切活动都应遵守合同规定。 可见，当句子的主语为“人”时，使用abide by，句子主语“非人”时，使用comply with o 3. Change A to B和change A into B Both parties agree that change the time of shipment to Au-gust and change US dollar into RMB. 双方都同意将交货期改为8月并将美元折合成人民币。 可见前者是“改为”而后者翻译成“折合成”。 4. ex / per / by的使用中，ex表示货物由某船运来，per表示货物是由某船运走的，而by则表示货物由某船承运。 The last batch per S. S. " Victoria" will arrive at London onOctober.(S. S.二steamship汽船，轮船) 由维多利亚号轮运走的最后一批货将于10月抵达伦软。(维多利亚号从出发港出发，但到达目的港伦软的并不一定是维多利亚号)。 The last batch ex S. S. " Victoria" will arrive at London onOctober. 由维多利亚号轮运来的最后一批货将于10月抵达伦敦。(从出发港出发时是哪艘船起运的未知，但是维多利亚号运送到目的港伦敦的)。 5. by和before The vendor shall deliver the goods to the vendee before June 15. 卖方须在6月15日之前将货交给买方。 The vendor shall deliver the goods to the vendee by June 15. 卖方须在6月15日之前(包括当天)将货交给买方。 所以可见，在给合同做翻译时，一个词的使用错误就会使整个合同发生歧义，影响到将来正常顺利的交易，产生贸易摩擦和冲突，浪费时间、人力和财力。三、广告用语的翻译 在商务英语翻译中，还有一个领域是较难的领域，同时也是乐趣最多惊喜最多的翻译领域，那就是广告用语的翻译。国际商务英语中，广告词往往带有跨文化、跨语言的色彩，所以翻译的难度较大。由于不同的文化背景、成长环境、生活态度和思维方式造就了不同的理解，有些广告语在东道主国很出彩，但是被翻译成外语之后便显得平淡无味、毫无新意。所以对于这种翻译，我们多采用四字成语、生活谚语等来延续它的说服力与感染力，而且更重要的是翻译时的灵感和经验。 Good to the last drop滴滴香浓，意犹未尽。 Hi一Fi, Hi一Fun, Hi一Fashion, only from Sony. 高保真，高乐趣，高时尚，只来自索尼。 Where there is a road, there is Toyota. 车到山前必有路，有路必有丰田车。 Intelligence everywhere智慧演绎，无处不在。 Nothing can come of nothing.物有其本，事有其源。 For the road ahead.康庄大道 看这些经典的广告语翻译，翻译之后语言的力道更强，更富有创新性和感染力。这就是成功的翻译，要通过不停地尝试与磨炼，系统地学习与研究才可能达到的境界。只凭几本字典和基础的英语学习是远远不够的。 四、专业词汇的翻译 其次，商务英语翻译当中的一个难点便是专业词汇的翻译。这是最需要专业商务英语学习之后才能胜任的一项任务。在商务英语中，专业的词汇数量很多，涉及的层面很广。也是靠系统学习以及在工作生活中点点滴滴的积累才行的。这些词，表面看起来很简单，很容易翻译，但是其实意思是和普通英语是大不相同的，有些有细微差别的，如果翻译错误，显得不专业，太通俗，而有些意思差别较大的，如果翻译错误，整篇文章的意思都会被扭曲。也正是这些词，才能反映一个翻译者的专业程度是否深。下面笔者举几个例子，大家便可以理解商务英语之所以被细分出来的原因了。 1.在信用证(letter of credit)的交易中，买方银行需要开立的信用证中要标明付款行的付款方式，常用两个词:by ne-gotiation和by payment来表示，前者是议付行垫付货款后无论发生什么事情，都不可再向卖方追回已付货款，而后者表示议付行在垫付货款后，如果无法从买方处得到交款，便可回头向卖方追回已付货款。然而，单看字面negotiation和payment，是看不出这点区别的。 2. shipper和carrier，这两个词，在普通英语中显得差别不大，但在商务英语中，尤其是国际贸易中，却便是完全不同的两方。Shipper指运送货物的人，即将货物交出的人，是卖方或卖方委托的人;而carrier指承运人，即运送公司，在卖方与买方之间承担运送货物获取酬劳的中间方。 3. incoterms，这个词本身在普通英语中是不存在的，但在商务英语长期的使用变化过程中，人们会将耳熟能详的一些常见词缩写变成一个新的英语词。Incoterms是interna-tional commercial terms的缩写，即国际贸易术语解释通则，这个贸易术语在国际贸易中使用的频率非常高，所以对于所有从事国际贸易的人来讲，international commercial terms再熟悉不过了，因此，人们将之简化成为incoterms流传下来了。 在成千上万的商务英语用词中，专业的学习者都不一定全部了解，更何况非专业者呢?所以，使用非商务英语专业的人来进行商务英语的翻译是大错特错的，除非其进行了专业的进修培训，或者有很多年的相关工作经验。 五、多意词的翻译 很多简单的英语用词，到了商务英语中就要给予特定的翻译，而不能随便来。例:document我们可以翻译为文件、公文，文档等等，很多意思，但是都比较相似;而在国际贸易中，常常被翻译为单据;posi-lion我们通常翻译为位置、职位、立场等，而在金融中，被翻译为‘。头寸”，与之匹配的有long position多头头寸、short posi-lion空头头寸、close position平仓等。 六、结语 商务英语是英语教学的一个细分，专业化更深，所以商务英语翻译也对英语的运用能力提出了更高的要求。在国际交流越来越频繁的今天，我们需要的商务英语人才也随之越来越多，专业化要求也越来越强。而笔者的这篇文章，只是从很少的几个方面谈了商务英语翻译中现存的几个问题或者难点，难免会不全面。相关的学者可做进一步的研究。也望社会能够更加重视商务英语这个专业，培养足够多的商务英语人才，来应对全球化的发展。
商务英语翻译的文化适应性问题探析内容摘要:随着世界经济一体化趋势日渐明显,国家、地区之间联系紧密化态势不断增强,商务英语在经济组织交往活动中日益发挥重要作用,如何有效利用商务英语实现经济组织交往的无缝对接成为亟待解决的难题。本文立足商务英语翻译现状,以企业文化理论为分析背景,以企业文化适应性特征为切入点,探讨了商务英语翻译过程中的文化适应性问题,以期为商务英语翻译工作提供有益借鉴和参考。 关键词:商务英语 翻译 文化适应性 商务英语翻译问题概述 从某种意义上讲,国家间、地区间经济交往的实质是国家文化、地区文化的互动、交流与接触。在不同文化的交互过程中,首先面临的问题就是弱化和消除文化障碍,实现文化沟通和交流。英语作为国家间、地区间经济交往和商务往来的有效工具,具有存在形式的多样性与表达方式的多样性等特点,这些特征不仅反映着国家、地区间文化的差异性,也影响着商务英语翻译的准确性。因此,商务英语翻译必须注重国外企业与本国企业之间的文化差异。 作为一种社会存在,文化环境是一个不同区域、行业、特征和性质的文化交织影响、能动渗透的有机能动场,尤其是其中的文化传统有着较强的波及力和辐射力,会对社会生活的诸多方面造成影响效应,商务英语翻译也不例外。企业文化是企业在长期发展演化过程中形成的历史产物,是社会文化在企业组织管理实践中的折射,也是西方管理理论在经历“经济人”、“社会人”、“自我实现的人”与“复杂人”假设之后,对组织的文化价值、经营理念、管理过程和未来经营业绩关系的又一次重新审视。企业文化渗透于企业的一切活动中,又流溢于企业的一切活动之上,既是企业组织的基因和灵魂,也是企业持续发展的潜在动力和重要保障;既是制度性和非制度性、绝对性和相对性的辩证统一,也是批判性和继承性、稳定性和动态性的有机结合。商务英语翻译过程中的文化适应,应关注和把握以下三个方面: 重视商务英语翻译的外部环境 密切关注国外企业文化的最新成果,充分考虑商务英语翻译的外部环境。随着我国企业改革的深化、国内市场经济进程的加快和经济全球化趋势的推进,东西方文化的交流渗透成为不可逆转的历史潮流,学习市场经济国家先进的企业文化逐渐成为培育和创新我国企业文化的重要途径。但实事求是地分析,对如何借鉴、学习、吸收和内化国外先进企业文化成果在商务英语翻译过程中的适应性、可移植性等关键问题,并没有从理论上、学术上加以明确描述和科学阐明。目前,商务英语翻译过程中对待国外先进企业文化或多或少、或轻或重存在以下方面的不足: 局限和满足于介绍和翻译,而忽视根据本土社会特殊的文化背景、文化特征进行商务英语翻译,以及对国外先进企业文化的吸收、修正和创造性地应用。 忽视文化盘点,即忽视国外先进企业文化的制约性,不注重原产地文化与本土文化的差异性与共同性分析,在商务英语翻译过程中未从方法论角度把握其来龙去脉,缺乏对国外先进企业文化成果深层次的文化学透视。 缺乏对我国本土文化独特性的准确认识,未经系统科学地分析就直接从国外先进的企业文化中演绎出各种关于商务英语翻译的手段、设想、方式与模式,企图在较短的时期内来完成商务英语翻译工作。实践证明,单纯考虑国外企业文化,不会产生与国内企业商务交往活动的英语翻译理论及实践操作方式,也不会促进国内企业商务活动的持续、深入和有效地开展,反而给企业商务交往与活动的有效开展带来很大障碍,造成企业生存力、发展力和竞争力的巨大破坏。把握国内外企业文化之间的内在耦合性与本质差异性 事实上,在商务英语翻译过程中一个非常重要而又往往被忽视的环节就是文化的适应性。当然,文化适应性的观点决不是否认不同商务英语翻译的相互借鉴和学习,但国外先进企业文化不能原封不动地渗透到商务英语翻译过程中,商务英语翻译必须注意文化适应性问题。国内外众多专家学者的研究表明,东西方管理文化存在诸多方面的差异,彼此各有优势,很难找到一条客观、有效的商务英语翻译标准。对于商务英语翻译过程中存在的一些现象和问题,究其本质是由国内外企业文化之间的内在耦合性与本质差异性所致。因此,在我国企业商务英语翻译过程中一定要注意文化适应性问题,注重跨文化的比较研究,反映国外企业文化特性,才能更好的造就企业商务英语翻译在企业商务创新实践中实现实质性转变和历史性飞跃。本文认为,商务英语翻译的首要前提应该是注重国内外企业文化之间的内在耦合性与本质差异性,有效体现国内外企业商务活动交往之间的文化适应性。 全面构建商务英语翻译的内部环境 文化适应性作为商务英语翻译能否取得实质性突破的关键要素,说明商务英语翻译要与我国传统文化价值理念相一致。商务英语翻译是体现企业亚文化的一种手段,是社会宏观的大文化在企业中的投射,因而商务英语翻译必须体现出社会的宏观大文化。所以,中国企业商务英语翻译的文化基础就应该是中国优秀的传统文化,中华五千年的历史文化是人类的一种本原文化,是在与各种文化、思想、观念不断碰撞、借鉴和融合的历史过程中积淀而成,是中华民族智慧的结晶与表征。儒家的“仁、义、礼、智、信”思想,道家的“天人合一”思想,“道可道,非常道”的真理追求意识,“无为而治”的管理意识和“有生于无”的创造观以及孙子的“五事七计”以道为首的思想等优秀传统文化,无疑是培育和建构商务英语翻译理论的重要基石。 长期以来,我国商务英语翻译理论缺乏中国特色,究其原因主要是没有把中国传统文化中的思想精华借鉴和应用到商务英语翻译理论中。实践表明,只有建立扎根于现实土壤、具有我国传统文化特色的商务英语翻译,才能使企业发展具备永续的原动力和发展的持久力。例如,海尔的“In Good Faith Forever”,集中反映了德、信、人尊、人与人之间亲和的传统精神在企业文化中的延续,也正是由于海尔把传统文化作为商务英语翻译过程中的一个重要因素和重要组成部分来认识,从无序到有序,从有序到体系,从体系到高度,从高度到延伸,将诸多竞争对手远远抛于身后。 综上所述,商务英语翻译应置于中国的传统文化背景中去深入探讨。研究商务英语翻译与中国传统文化和当代社会文化的关系,商务英语翻译与企业管理、企业环境、企业发展和企业创新的关系等,提出具有中国特色的商务英语翻译理论体系和模式,加强商务英语翻译理论应用、测量、评估、诊断和追踪的实证性研究,从而形成独具特色的商务英语翻译管理模式,推动经济组织交往的无缝对接。 参考文献: 1.赵雪涛,王明辉.浅谈商务英语翻译与文化关联[J].商场现代化,2008(24) 2.杨恕华.商务英语翻译的特点[J].科技信息(学术版),2006(7) 3.刘洁.谈商业广告翻译中的文化对接现象[J].商业时代,2008(36)
Derivatives, as financial instruments, have gained an increasingly important role to the financial status of big companies around the globe. Their importance can be primarily illustrated by the huge development of the derivatives exchange markets in the most developed countries, with banks usually being at the centre of trading of these powerful financial tools. The very essence of their importance lies to the fact that companies can use them to reduce uncertainty or risk that stems from entrepreneurial activities. Financial managers use derivatives to understand the risks that their firms are exposed to daily and thus are able to pursue higher returns, given the fact that higher returns impose higher risks. The management of high risks enables companies to reduce the danger of financial losses and in the same time achieve higher returns. The extended use of derivatives can also attribute further benefits to the financial position of firms by improving several other corporate actions like cheaper borrowing, tax planning and ensuring safer loan payback. However, derivatives’ trading has been a cause for huge corporate losses for many companies, the financial management of which ignored the high risks involved in the use of those financial instruments. This essay will attempt to examine the ways in which companies can use derivatives to modify their financial position.A derivative (or derivative security) can be defined as a tradable asset whose intrinsic value depends on or derives from the value of an underlying asset (like shares or bonds), a commodity (like oil or gold) or an abstract measure (like interest rates or indexes). This dependency of the derivatives’ value is the reason why they are also called contingent claims. This last definition of derivatives describes accurately their nature of being an exercisable right or obligation rather than a tradable good. This right or obligation is the exact legal contract that acquires value like a real asset, and therefore can be traded. People have implemented derivatives, as legal contracts, since ancient times, although their systematic use and trading began in the late nineteenth century. However, the past thirty years witnessed a massive growth in the volume of derivatives’ trading. Nowadays, derivative markets account for a significant amount of the world financial exchange system, and their types and use keeps developing and adapting to the different financial needs of the various industries. Common types of derivatives are options, futures, forwards, forward rate agreements and swaps, while other less common types are caps, floors, exotic options, Over-The Counter (OTCs) and exchange-traded derivatives. A brief description of the most common derivatives is given below.An option is a contractual agreement that the gives the right and not the obligation in one party to buy or sell an underlying commodity or asset at a given price anytime during a pre-specified period of time. At the end of the pre-specified period this right can be exercised or not, according to the option’s holder needs, thus the name of the derivative. If an option gives the buyer the right to purchase an asset (a number of shares for example) at a given price during a time period, this option is called call option. By the end of the period the right expires and after that date the option loses its value. On the contrary, if a similar contract gives the buyer the right to sell an asset (at an agreed price and up to a given date), it is then called put option. Call and Put options enable their holders to make profits, reducing the uncertainty of the future value of the underlying asset because they can be tradable at any time before the expiry date. If the underlying asset is a share index like FTSE 100, S&P 500 etc. then the purchased right is called index option.Futures are also contractual agreements between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a specific time and a pre-specified price. However, a future represents an obligation, not a right, to proceed in the specific transaction, thus neither of the two parties can back away once the agreement is made (or the future is purchased). Thus a holder of a future buys the obligation of the other party and not the right, as in options. However, futures are tradable derivatives and are exchanged in a regulated market, like options. This characteristic allows their holders to change their position, according to the change of the underlying asset value through time before the date of the contracted transaction. However, they are very standardised and so they might not be very attractive to companies with specific financial needs. A future having as underlying asset the short-term interest rate of a currency deposit in a foreign bank is called interest rate future.On the other hand, forwards are similar agreements to futures in the sense that they both represent obligation of the contracted parts to proceed to a transaction of an agreed price at a specified date. However, forwards are not standardised contracts that can be traded in exchanges, but are tailored-to-need agreements for the specific clients and are usually available over-the-counter (for instance between a bank and the purchaser). Foreign exchange is the one of the most important underlying assets that forwards are used for, providing special trading markets for currencies. Fluctuating interest rates of different currencies create uncertainty for the future repayment of loans obtained with flexible rates. For this reason, forward rate agreements (FRAs) can be made between banks and companies, which assure that they will receive a premium from the banks if the floating rates associated with the re-payment of their loans exceeds a pre-specified amount. FRAs are also tradable, and usually are contracted for short time periods, varying from 3, 6 or 12 months.The exact way in which loans are re-paid as related to floating interest rates created the need for swaps. Swaps are private contracts between companies to exchange interest payment obligations to banks. Under a swap arrangement, companies might be able to mutually devise loan repayments that are cheaper for both parts. Swaps, unlike FRAs, are commonly negotiated for longer periods and can be contracted and traded in similar ways to options.From the above description of the most common derivatives, it is clear that companies have a powerful toolbox of financial instruments that can be implemented to improve their financial position. The most predominant objective of their use is the mitigation of uncertainty, with regards to future values of assets or commodities. This practice is known as hedging of risk. Hedging can be done with options. If for example a pharmaceutical company announces that in 6 months they might have a cure for cancer, the share price will go sky-high, however the financial managers might be concerned of a failure to meet this announcement. They can protect the financial position of the company by buying put options that can be exercised in case the company fails to discover the cure for cancer (and so its share will bottom down).Such options that are issued by the company itself are called warrants. Hedging with options or warrants can be used against numerous potential declines in the share price or the whole market. Thus hedging helps to protect companies against financial instability. Options can also be used in incentive payment schemes from companies to employees, who can be offered call options that can be exercised in the future when the corporate share will be higher. This offer provides a motivation to workers to push the share up by improving their working performance. Thus companies achieve with this indirect payment method increased productivity gains.Another potential beneficial use of options is tax planning. Big multinational corporations can make use the of differences in tax legislation in the different countries they operate, and manage to reduce the whole payable tax or their cost of capital by trading options in different jurisdictions. Tax practitioners can design option trading in such ways that they achieve tax deductions without significant changes in the financial position of the corporation. Hedging can also take place with futures on underlying commodities. Many major producers are uncertain of the future price of commodities essential to their business and so they use futures to ensure their production costs against price rises. Thus, they are willing to pay a premium that will ensure them against price volatilities. Under the same rationale, large investors that hold big and diversified portfolios, which are sensitive to the overall movements of share indexes, might want to hedge with share index futures. In that way they can reduce their losses if the indexes plunge.All derivatives that are contingent to interest rate payments can also be used to hedge risks that occur from floating rates. FRAs are specifically useful in this case since they assure their holders against interest rate falls. Slightly alternative interest rate hedging techniques are used in Caps and Floors. These hedging techniques are particularly useful to firms that need to eliminate or reduce their exposure to interest rate short-term fluctuations and thus they are willing to pay a risk premium.Risks that are associated with exchange rate volatility can also be hedged by using derivatives. Intra country economic transactions are priced according to the relative exchange rates of the currencies involved. For instance, an exported commodity that is priced one British pound in the UK does not have a steady value in Euros throughout time. This means that the same transaction can have different value, according to the level of the currency exchange rate. Multinational corporations and firms that are directly implicated to foreign trade (imports/exports) are exceptionally sensitive to volatile exchange rates and thus they are looking to employ derivatives that can help reduce this uncertainty. Futures can be used to ensure a currency transaction in the future, regardless of the exchange rate in that future time. Or when firms require greater flexibility they can use currency forwards that are not as standardised as futures and can also be individually tailored. Alternatively, firms can use currency options that not only allow them to hedge foreign exchange risk but also to make additional profits if the exchange rate is favourable. In conclusion, derivative securities have increased the capability of financial managers to improve the financial position of their firms and mitigate uncertainty regarding the future of the business and the financial markets. The importance of derivatives can nowadays be observed by the exploding evolution of derivative exchange markets in developed economies all over the world. Derivatives, that represent a contractual agreement towards either the right or the obligation of the contractors to proceed to a pre-specified transaction in the future, can take different forms and variations, according to the specific needs of the business. However, their most common function is to reduce the risk involved in future economic transactions, so that firms or institutions can be more secured against economic uncertainty that has noticeably has imposed immense costs on entrepreneurial activities in the past. This altering of the risk profile of corporate activity, also known as hedging, can sometimes also contribute to the simultaneous achievement of great profits, allocating even more importance to derivative instruments. Furthermore, derivatives can prove beneficial to companies when used in incentive payment schemes, tax planning or loan repayments. Following the increasing use of derivative instruments the last thirty years, it is certain that their corporate use will be even more augmented through the design and implementation of new types.ReferencesArnold, G. (2005), Handbook of corporate finance, Financial Times Prentice HallEales, B., A., (1995), Financial Risk Management, McGraw Hill: MaidenheadHull, J., C., (2000), Options futures and other derivatives, (5th edit.), Prentice Hall InternationalTaylor, F., (2000), Mastering derivatives markets, (2nd edit.), Financial Times Prentice HallWinston, D., (1995), Financial Derivatives, Chapman and Hall: London发不下了，邮箱上传中。。。
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Derivatives, as financial instruments, have gained an increasingly important role to the financial status of big companies around the globe. Their importance can be primarily illustrated by the huge development of the derivatives exchange markets in the most developed countries, with banks usually being at the centre of trading of these powerful financial tools. The very essence of their importance lies to the fact that companies can use them to reduce uncertainty or risk that stems from entrepreneurial activities. Financial managers use derivatives to understand the risks that their firms are exposed to daily and thus are able to pursue higher returns, given the fact that higher returns impose higher risks. The management of high risks enables companies to reduce the danger of financial losses and in the same time achieve higher returns. The extended use of derivatives can also attribute further benefits to the financial position of firms by improving several other corporate actions like cheaper borrowing, tax planning and ensuring safer loan payback. However, derivatives’ trading has been a cause for huge corporate losses for many companies, the financial management of which ignored the high risks involved in the use of those financial instruments. This essay will attempt to examine the ways in which companies can use derivatives to modify their financial position.A derivative (or derivative security) can be defined as a tradable asset whose intrinsic value depends on or derives from the value of an underlying asset (like shares or bonds), a commodity (like oil or gold) or an abstract measure (like interest rates or indexes). This dependency of the derivatives’ value is the reason why they are also called contingent claims. This last definition of derivatives describes accurately their nature of being an exercisable right or obligation rather than a tradable good. This right or obligation is the exact legal contract that acquires value like a real asset, and therefore can be traded. People have implemented derivatives, as legal contracts, since ancient times, although their systematic use and trading began in the late nineteenth century. However, the past thirty years witnessed a massive growth in the volume of derivatives’ trading. Nowadays, derivative markets account for a significant amount of the world financial exchange system, and their types and use keeps developing and adapting to the different financial needs of the various industries. Common types of derivatives are options, futures, forwards, forward rate agreements and swaps, while other less common types are caps, floors, exotic options, Over-The Counter (OTCs) and exchange-traded derivatives. A brief description of the most common derivatives is given below.An option is a contractual agreement that the gives the right and not the obligation in one party to buy or sell an underlying commodity or asset at a given price anytime during a pre-specified period of time. At the end of the pre-specified period this right can be exercised or not, according to the option’s holder needs, thus the name of the derivative. If an option gives the buyer the right to purchase an asset (a number of shares for example) at a given price during a time period, this option is called call option. By the end of the period the right expires and after that date the option loses its value. On the contrary, if a similar contract gives the buyer the right to sell an asset (at an agreed price and up to a given date), it is then called put option. Call and Put options enable their holders to make profits, reducing the uncertainty of the future value of the underlying asset because they can be tradable at any time before the expiry date. If the underlying asset is a share index like FTSE 100, S&P 500 etc. then the purchased right is called index option.Futures are also contractual agreements between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a specific time and a pre-specified price. However, a future represents an obligation, not a right, to proceed in the specific transaction, thus neither of the two parties can back away once the agreement is made (or the future is purchased). Thus a holder of a future buys the obligation of the other party and not the right, as in options. However, futures are tradable derivatives and are exchanged in a regulated market, like options. This characteristic allows their holders to change their position, according to the change of the underlying asset value through time before the date of the contracted transaction. However, they are very standardised and so they might not be very attractive to companies with specific financial needs. A future having as underlying asset the short-term interest rate of a currency deposit in a foreign bank is called interest rate future.On the other hand, forwards are similar agreements to futures in the sense that they both represent obligation of the contracted parts to proceed to a transaction of an agreed price at a specified date. However, forwards are not standardised contracts that can be traded in exchanges, but are tailored-to-need agreements for the specific clients and are usually available over-the-counter (for instance between a bank and the purchaser). Foreign exchange is the one of the most important underlying assets that forwards are used for, providing special trading markets for currencies. Fluctuating interest rates of different currencies create uncertainty for the future repayment of loans obtained with flexible rates. For this reason, forward rate agreements (FRAs) can be made between banks and companies, which assure that they will receive a premium from the banks if the floating rates associated with the re-payment of their loans exceeds a pre-specified amount. FRAs are also tradable, and usually are contracted for short time periods, varying from 3, 6 or 12 months.The exact way in which loans are re-paid as related to floating interest rates created the need for swaps. Swaps are private contracts between companies to exchange interest payment obligations to banks. Under a swap arrangement, companies might be able to mutually devise loan repayments that are cheaper for both parts. Swaps, unlike FRAs, are commonly negotiated for longer periods and can be contracted and traded in similar ways to options.From the above description of the most common derivatives, it is clear that companies have a powerful toolbox of financial instruments that can be implemented to improve their financial position. The most predominant objective of their use is the mitigation of uncertainty, with regards to future values of assets or commodities. This practice is known as hedging of risk. Hedging can be done with options. If for example a pharmaceutical company announces that in 6 months they might have a cure for cancer, the share price will go sky-high, however the financial managers might be concerned of a failure to meet this announcement. They can protect the financial position of the company by buying put options that can be exercised in case the company fails to discover the cure for cancer (and so its share will bottom down).Such options that are issued by the company itself are called warrants. Hedging with options or warrants can be used against numerous potential declines in the share price or the whole market. Thus hedging helps to protect companies against financial instability. Options can also be used in incentive payment schemes from companies to employees, who can be offered call options that can be exercised in the future when the corporate share will be higher. This offer provides a motivation to workers to push the share up by improving their working performance. Thus companies achieve with this indirect payment method increased productivity gains.Another potential beneficial use of options is tax planning. Big multinational corporations can make use the of differences in tax legislation in the different countries they operate, and manage to reduce the whole payable tax or their cost of capital by trading options in different jurisdictions. Tax practitioners can design option trading in such ways that they achieve tax deductions without significant changes in the financial position of the corporation. Hedging can also take place with futures on underlying commodities. Many major producers are uncertain of the future price of commodities essential to their business and so they use futures to ensure their production costs against price rises. Thus, they are willing to pay a premium that will ensure them against price volatilities. Under the same rationale, large investors that hold big and diversified portfolios, which are sensitive to the overall movements of share indexes, might want to hedge with share index futures. In that way they can reduce their losses if the indexes plunge.All derivatives that are contingent to interest rate payments can also be used to hedge risks that occur from floating rates. FRAs are specifically useful in this case since they assure their holders against interest rate falls. Slightly alternative interest rate hedging techniques are used in Caps and Floors. These hedging techniques are particularly useful to firms that need to eliminate or reduce their exposure to interest rate short-term fluctuations and thus they are willing to pay a risk premium.Risks that are associated with exchange rate volatility can also be hedged by using derivatives. Intra country economic transactions are priced according to the relative exchange rates of the currencies involved. For instance, an exported commodity that is priced one British pound in the UK does not have a steady value in Euros throughout time. This means that the same transaction can have different value, according to the level of the currency exchange rate. Multinational corporations and firms that are directly implicated to foreign trade (imports/exports) are exceptionally sensitive to volatile exchange rates and thus they are looking to employ derivatives that can help reduce this uncertainty. Futures can be used to ensure a currency transaction in the future, regardless of the exchange rate in that future time. Or when firms require greater flexibility they can use currency forwards that are not as standardised as futures and can also be individually tailored. Alternatively, firms can use currency options that not only allow them to hedge foreign exchange risk but also to make additional profits if the exchange rate is favourable. In conclusion, derivative securities have increased the capability of financial managers to improve the financial position of their firms and mitigate uncertainty regarding the future of the business and the financial markets. The importance of derivatives can nowadays be observed by the exploding evolution of derivative exchange markets in developed economies all over the world. Derivatives, that represent a contractual agreement towards either the right or the obligation of the contractors to proceed to a pre-specified transaction in the future, can take different forms and variations, according to the specific needs of the business. However, their most common function is to reduce the risk involved in future economic transactions, so that firms or institutions can be more secured against economic uncertainty that has noticeably has imposed immense costs on entrepreneurial activities in the past. This altering of the risk profile of corporate activity, also known as hedging, can sometimes also contribute to the simultaneous achievement of great profits, allocating even more importance to derivative instruments. Furthermore, derivatives can prove beneficial to companies when used in incentive payment schemes, tax planning or loan repayments. Following the increasing use of derivative instruments the last thirty years, it is certain that their corporate use will be even more augmented through the design and implementation of new types.ReferencesArnold, G. (2005), Handbook of corporate finance, Financial Times Prentice HallEales, B., A., (1995), Financial Risk Management, McGraw Hill: MaidenheadHull, J., C., (2000), Options futures and other derivatives, (5th edit.), Prentice Hall InternationalTaylor, F., (2000), Mastering derivatives markets, (2nd edit.), Financial Times Prentice HallWinston, D., (1995), Financial Derivatives, Chapman and Hall: London发不下了，邮箱上传中。。。
我倒是正好有以前的，可你给的分也太少了吧，那可是2000字，能高点分吗
商科论文写作通常可以遵循以下步骤：
1、定义主题
撰写商科论文的第一步是定义主题。了解论文的主要目的是什么(教育、宣传、推广)以及针对谁。这一步至关重要，因为它为整篇论文奠定了基础。
2、创建大纲
大纲在撰写商科论文时至关重要。要想论文讲得通，唯一的途径就是整合逻辑。首先创建一个简单的草图，描述论文整体的框架，包括各个部分应该写什么内容。这会防止同学在实际写作时偏离要点。
3、广泛研究
这是撰写论文时收集所有必要信息的部分。遵循之前创建的大纲，以避免浪费时间。充分利用所有可用的资源，例如：书籍、网络、采访等，只收集相关和必要的信息即可。这部分将构成论文的主体，所以同学需要获得充分的信息。
4、撰写初稿
有了详细的大纲和相关的材料支撑，这一步应该很容易。初稿很少是完美的，但通常需要耗费大量时间。有几个最重要的部分需要同学留意：
5、校对修改
千万不要直接提交初稿，因为很有可能里面全是错误。同学要消除所有的语法和结构错误。尽可能地浓缩观点，并通过修改论点来突出要点。
Discuss its causes and solutions(不少于2000字) china business ethics ： The
The characteristics of the world top 500 enterprises and its enlightenment to Chinese enterprisesA, the definition of us-funded enterprises in the worldWorld us-funded enterprises that adopt diversified business, implement the strategy of globalization, assets, strong, has a large and strong, the core competitiveness of enterprises has significant influence on the development of world economy and stability of the world's leading multinational companies.Second, the world a us-funded enterprise features1) ability to innovateEverything in the world has a production, development and decline of life cycle.Enterprise as economic actors also undergoes a start-up period, rising period, height, decay time and ruin the life course.Enterprise is the key of the length of the life cycle after a start-up period, how to accelerate the rise period, prolong their heyday, the arrival of the postponed its decline period.Product life cycle relative to the enterprise life cycle is short, the enterprise must develop more innovative products of market value, one or several products meet after rising and heyday, when its not yet enter the decline phase, the other one or several products have reached the peak.So interlocking, bobo is connected, the enterprise will be endless.In 2004, in "fortune" the world "of the" top 500 enterprises in the 21st, annual revenues of $80.501 billion of Siemens to reveal a "longevity" enterprise: the secret of technology innovation.After more than a century and a half of the long journey, Siemens technology innovation constantly, constantly develop innovative products, always all is given priority to with invention of technology innovation in the work first, attaches great importance to scientific research and development work, and constantly put scientific research achievements into realistic productivity as soon as possible.Can say, Siemens is the birth and development of enterprises in technological innovation.Technology innovation has become a strong core of the enterprise values, become thick accumulation of enterprise culture, is the source of continuously improve enterprise core competitiveness.2) the implementation of the strategy of differentiationDifferentiation strategy is the product or service provided by enterprises implement differentiation, to establish enterprise something unique in the industry, is to build enterprise core competitive ability.The implementation of differentiation strategy to make the enterprise the management in the industry competition superior and obtain higher returns.Positioning differentiation is to provide customers with unique product and industry competition is very different and super service, by customer requirement and enterprise competence of matching to determine the positioning of the enterprise, as the essence of the differentiation strategy.Porsche as Germany's small and medium-sized automobile company, in a wide variety of automotive industry, only choose sports as main products, with high and new technology to create excellent performance and is famous for its excellent quality, framed with a "technology" to harness the wisdom, roam the motorists customers.Thus formed the unique product positioning, unique customer orientation, unique price positioning, as well as to meet the needs of customers and constant innovation of technology, unique in the world of its own, as the world's largest special automobile manufacturing company, Germany's famous sports car production enterprises, become the model of implementing differentiation strategy.3) the brand advantageThe world famous brand, refers to the world market with outstanding performance, get customer recognition and favor, have a huge effect, with a strong competitive advantage of product brand, trademark and trade name.As the world famous brand, must have the following characteristics: first, has the high international reputation.Second, has the very high international reputation.Third, has great economic value.Fourth, have a high degree of international market share and market globalization.Fifth, brand culture and product has a high degree of international integration.In an increasingly turbulent and changeable market economy, brand has become a winning customer loyalty and enterprise for long-term survival and growth of the key.In 2004, in "fortune" the world ranked 70th in the "top 500" enterprises, the annual business income is 48.318 billion dollars in unilever as the world's top consumer goods manufacturers, in the process of its development, has been successful for more than international brand acquisition operation, and good at would buy local brands promoted to international brand, to become the world's most important soap, LengDongPin, ice cream and tea maker.4) corporate cultureThe connotation of enterprise culture is the core of the enterprise concept, management philosophy, management mode, system of choose and employ persons, all of a code of conduct.One of the most important is the enterprise's core values.It is the enterprise constantly in the process of growth is the result of accumulation and precipitation, induction and abstraction is a key success factor for the company, is engaged in which industry characteristics and the change of external environment and the result of self-criticism, process).Enterprises under the guidance of core values, formed a high-quality, high level and high unity team of professional staff and professional managers.Them in the work atmosphere of mutual appreciation and recognition, technology, innovation, value innovation, create brand, to create excellent benefits, joint efforts for the common value goal, make the enterprise with a strong cohesion and competitiveness, ultimately win the competition, for enterprise survival and development for long.Nokia's success lies in it to find its own core values, and stick to their own core values in the operation, to form the nokia distinctive management thought and business philosophy, to crystallize its corporate culture.5) the core competitivenessEnterprise core competitive ability is the enterprise in the long time development, formed in the process of implication in the essence of enterprise, enterprise unique for enterprise to bring the value of sex, support enterprises in the past, present and future competitive advantage, and internal competition environment for a long time in the enterprise can obtain the active ability of competition.The core of the market competition in the talent, the enterprise should place in the fierce market competition, we must establish a high-quality talent team.Although the core competition ability does not exist and the individual, but the formation of core competence in the final analysis is the knowledge, skills, learning and accumulation.The talent is the carrier of the intellectual resources, therefore, enterprise core competence to a high degree of dependence to talents.In 2004, in "fortune" the world ranked 327th in the "top 500" enterprises, the annual revenue of $15.878 billion in l 'oreal can emerge from Paris many cosmetic industry, out of the France international, successfully sell himself to the world, let l 'oreal name around the world, it has to do with l 'oreal unique "way" of choose and employ persons is a direct relationship.L 'oreal unique talent view of "integrating poet and peasants", attracting talent "global online business strategy competition" approach, attaches great importance to the talent of innovation of science and technology, enable the image spokesperson of interpretations of the concept of fashion products, are based on the concept of "talent is the knowledge capital carrier"Third, China's top 500 with the world top 500With the rapid development of China's economy, Chinese companies are at an unprecedented rate the sprint world 500 strong reclined at the table.In the recently released by the fortune magazine ranked in the top 500 global latest annual, with 500 of the 18 Chinese companies.Sinopec and petrochina at sprint speed kill into the top 50, ranked 31st and 46th respectively.Ranking 46th national grid line upgrade last year, this year ranked 40th.However, compared to the list of top 500 China and the world top 500, schoolwork and the gap still exists obviously jiaotong university.The comparison of the gap on both the pure digital, also include some other deeper gap.待续~~~~
而从目前开设商务英语的一些学校的课程设置情况来看，可以分为两个专业方向的课程有，一是以商务基础为背景的英语读、写、译、视、听、说教程，如：国际金融英语、国际商法英语、商务英语研究，国际贸易英语阅读、外贸英语信函、商务英语翻...
噢 还有就是 目前我在学的ABC天芐欧美外教口语的老师要我明白 就是想将英语学好是轻松的；必然要有一个适宜的学习空间与闇练口语对象，老师水平是关键 纯正欧美口音(非东南亚)很重要，不间断逐日练习口语 1 on 1家教式教学才能有更.好.的学习成效~课程结束后同样要重复复习课堂录音档，把所学知识融会贯通。如果真的无口语交谈的人的情况 那么就到可可或BBC取得课余学习材料阅读，多问多听不知不觉的口语就培养起来，学习成效是必定突飞猛进的。我记得以前上口译课的时候说到了翻译中会出现的问题，譬如是音译，意译还是组合在一起音译当然是比较简单的，意译的话就要考虑到语境的变化，双方文化的差异以及习惯的影响商务英语通常比较正式，那么从单个的词到整句话的组合都有很多讲究了，譬如英文都是you咯，但翻译过来肯定是您或者贵公司，这是文字。其次是态度，整段文字都是有态度的，大多的应该是温和中有坚定，略有agreesive，特别是谈判时候的语境更为复杂。第三呢还有文化背景造成的差异，这就是翻译中都会碰到的问题了这个题目吧可以较泛的谈，那么每一点呢就都不用太深入，只要结构清楚可能好写一点。或者抓住其中一个点发散开，个人prefer这一种，找资料的时候比较有针对性。你跟导师商量一下吧
我倒是正好有以前的，可你给的分也太少了吧，那可是2000字，能高点分吗
1、论文格式的论文题目：（下附署名）要求准确、简练、醒目、新颖。 2、论文格式的目录 目录是论文中主要段落的简表。（短篇论文不必列目录） 3、论文格式的内容提要： 是文章主要内容的摘录，要求短、精、完整。字数少可几十字，多不超过三百字为宜。 4、论文格式的关键词或主题词 关键词是从论文的题名、提要和正文中选取出来的，是对表述论文的中心内容有实质意义的词汇。关键词是用作计算机系统标引论文内容特征的词语，便于信息系统汇集，以供读者检索。每篇论文一般选取3-8个词汇作为关键词，另起一行，排在“提要”的左下方。 主题词是经过规范化的词，在确定主题词时，要对论文进行主题分析，依照标引和组配规则转换成主题词表中的规范词语。（参见《汉语主题词表》和《世界汉语主题词表》）。 5、论文格式的论文正文： （1）引言：引言又称前言、序言和导言，用在论文的开头。引言一般要概括地写出作者意图，说明选题的目的和意义, 并指出论文写作的范围。引言要短小精悍、紧扣主题。 〈2）论文正文：正文是论文的主体，正文应包括论点、论据、论证过程和结论。主体部分包括以下内容： a.提出问题-论点； b.分析问题-论据和论证； c.解决问题-论证方法与步骤； d.结论。希望对你有用
提供一些商务英语专业毕业论文的题目，供参考。1. 《影响中国学生英语口语流利性的障碍研究》 2. 《跨文化交际中英语口语能力的培养》3. 《商务英语的特点及翻译技巧》4. 《商务英语函电在对外贸易中的作用》5. 《单证员/报关员/跟单员等在国际贸易中的地位》6. 《商务英语函电翻译技巧》7. 《商务谈判中英语的重要性》8. 《浅谈出口结汇风险的防范》9. 《中国退税制度的改革及其影响》10. 《商标名称的翻译与策略》11. 《外贸企业信用风险管理与控制》12. 《２００７年外资银行在我国本土注册探讨》13. 《我国利用国际贷款/国际援助现状分析》14. 《WTO与我国反倾销探讨》15. 《我国对外直接投资之现状》16. 《内陆地区对外贸易发展策略研究》17. 《中印两国两国对外贸易战略分析》18. 《人民币升值对我国出口贸易的影响》19. 《浅谈商务英语写作时避免修饰语错位的方法 》20. 《商务函电翻译的用词技巧》21. 《外商直接在华投资探讨》22. 《社会文化迁移对中国式英语的影响》23. 《我国外贸出口品牌战略的实施与研究》24. 《商务英语专业口语课程教学探讨》25. 《入世对我国农产品贸易的影响与对策研究》26. 《应对经济全球化，加快我国企业跨国经营》27. 《英语写作中常见中式英语分析》28. 《入世商务英语写作的研究》29. 《制单工作在国际结算中的地位》30. 《关税壁垒与非关税壁垒探讨》31. 《浅谈实质利益谈判法》32. 《国际电子商务发展面临的新问题》33. 《学生商务英语写作中的错误与商务英语写作教学之间的关系》34. 《大学生在运用定语从句时常见错误及分析其原因》35. 《跨国公司在华扩张模式透析》36. 《汉译英中遇到新词语的译法问题》37. 英汉互译中词义的不对应（文化意义、风格意义、修辞意义等）38. 形象语在写作中的修辞效果39. 形象语在英汉诗歌互译中处理手段上的差异40. 我国中小企业开拓国际市场之探讨41. ＂１０＋１＂自由贸易区未来前景展望42. 汉语中新词汇的翻译技巧43. 商务英语的特征与翻译44. 珠江三角洲外贸现状及存在的问题45. 南昌现利用外资纵谈46. 广州／深圳等地区三资企业结构分析47. 浅谈广州等地区外贸企业的困境与出路
浅析违反方式原则在商务英语中的运用*摘要:由于商务英语的特殊运用场合和特殊用途,其句法结构有其自身鲜明的特点。美国哲学家Grice提出的会话准则之一的方式准则,即用结构严谨,简练的语言来表达,但是在商务英语中却存在有一些看似违反这一准则的用语的使用。本文便是从这两点看似矛盾的地方着手考虑违反方式原则在商务英语中的语用分析。关键词:商务英语;方式原则;模糊化;语用功能引言随着国际贸易的飞速发展,国际商务活动已经成为各国商务经济的主体内容。作为国际商务交际中的语言载体,商务英语的使用变得越来越广泛,表达的正确与否在商务交际中起着举足轻重的作用,而语言表达质量也逐渐显得重要。商务英语被运用到商务活动的各个领域当中,从经济贸易活动到商务函件等文本书写,商务英语用语要求精准、严谨。很多传统语言学家指出在语言交际活动中要求说话人语言清楚准确,但是从商务英语交际实例中笔者总结发现在很多商务活动中,某一方为了达到目的,语言的表达却使用得含蓄模糊。从表面上看这与传统语用原则存在着矛盾。本文将从Grice提出的会话准则之一的方式准则出发,探讨这看似矛盾的二者在商务英语中的具体体现。一、方式原则美国哲学家保罗·格赖斯(Grice)在20世纪60年代后期提出了会话合作原则(Cooperative Principle),旨在解释会话含义。他提出自然语言有其独特的逻辑关系。会话的最高原则是合作,称为合作原则。该原则由四条准则组成———数量准则、质量准则、关联准则、方式准则(LogicandConversation 1975)。格赖斯认为在所有的语言交际活动中,说话人和听话人之间存在一种默契,一种双方都应遵守的原则。具体说就是每个参加交谈者在整个交谈过程中所说的话符合这一次交谈的目标或方向。方式准则要求说话人应避免晦涩的词语,避免歧义,说话要简要(避免赘述) ,要有条理。虽然会话参与者几乎总是遵守合作原则的,但并非严格遵守。由于种种原因,这些原则经常被违反,而对合作原则的违反则导致产生格赖斯所说的“会话含义”。也就是说,对任何一种合作原则的违反,都会使语言变得间接。当说话人公然不遵循某一条准则,即说话人知道自己违反了一条准则,同时还想让听话人知道他违反了一条准则,这时就会产生会话含义。而在商务英语中,由于商务活动具有较强的交际目的以及特定的交际对象,商务用语中往往会出现一些看似模糊,表意并不是很清楚的语言表达。表面上看这些语言表达违反了方式准则,但是却恰恰符合商务英语的一般特征。二、商务英语的一般特征英语作为商务交际,包括口头和书面表达的基本介质,从其表达方式上看它既具备英语表达的一般特征,也具备其自身的特点:用语专业准确化,用语得体简洁化,用语礼貌化。1.用语专业准确化商务英语相对于普通英语来说,在词汇上有其最大特点,即要求专业词汇的准确使用。而这些极具商业意义的词汇不论从意义还是用法上都与普通英语有着很大的区别。例如:一些缩略词EXW=ExWorks(工厂交货价), 4P代表produc,tprice, place, promotion,FAQ= FairAverage Quality (中等品、大陆货)。又如“duplicate/photocopy of original certificate oChina originGSP fromA issued by competentauthority.”(有官方机构出具的GSP产地证正本一式两份或正本影印件)中,常会有一些企业会将“duplicate”和“copy”的意思混为一谈,都认为表示副本。而在此时“duplicate”并不能简单理解为“copy”。“duplicate”译为复制的或两份(可为一正一副),但其本身并不等于“copy”(副本)。2.用语得体简洁化商务英语作为一种有特定使用场合的交际语言,使用者要求这些语言具有高效性,能在尽量简短的话语中表达所需要的信息。对于商务人员来说,时间是宝贵的资源。针对这样的特殊使用人群,语言表意需要清楚明晰,因此语言简洁避免冗繁和矫饰使之成为商务英语的一个重要特点。同时交易语言得体还可以为会话双方留下良好印象而打下基础,这对商务人员来说也是极其重要的。同时,商务用语的得体简洁化还体现在用语的朴实上,尽量避免使用陈旧过时的商业术语和套话。任何事情都需要适可而止,用语使用过分礼貌,显得做作。并且对于大多数将英语作为第二语言使用的人来说,过于陈旧的语言在一定程度上还影响了对会话意思的理解。例如,We are inreceipt of…(兹收到)→We have received…We beg (have) to acknowledge (兹收到)→Thank you for…Adverting to your favour (感谢贵方的来函)→Thankyou for your letter.Please be advised that…(兹通知贵方)→(omitted)Expressmy heartfelt gratitude to you for (衷心感谢)→Thank you for…试比较下列两句:(1)Please be advised thatwe have received yourL/C.兹通知贵方,信用证已收到。(2)Your invoiceNo. 248 has been received.贵方信用证已收到。比较这两个句子,很明显, (1)句使用陈旧的商业术语,句子显得做作复杂,相对而言(2)句简洁明了,直抒主题,适合用于商业这样的特定场合。3.用语礼貌化礼貌是人类文明的标志,是人类活动的一条重要准绳。作为一种社会活动,语言活动也同样受到这条准绳的约束。礼貌是建立良好的人际关系和合作关系的前提。特别是商务活动只有建立在良好的关系基础之上才可能达成合作。如果在商务交际中缺乏稳定和谐的人际关系和合作关系,商务活动将很难进行。因此,在商务活动中,注意用语礼貌是商务活动顺利进行的重要保证。三、违反方式准则在用语礼貌化中的语用分析根据上述商务英语的一般特征,特别针对用语礼貌化的特点,对商务英语中所出现的违反方式准则的表达进行语用及功能分析并举例。1.词语的模糊化与不确定化由于客观事物本身就具有不确定性,有时候使用一些模糊词汇或表达反而更准确。特别是在商务谈判中,针对一些不能提供确定信息,但必须使合作达成的情况下,会经常使用一些模糊语言。虽然这样违反了会话方式原则中的要求避免使用晦涩语言,但却恰好提高了商务英语的客观准确性,保证了信息表达的真实性。例如:The sample is the nearest in size to the goods you need.形容词最高级在语义上更加模糊化。这里的“the nea-rest”并未指出具体有多么相似,但将理解和想象的空间交给顾客,既保证了自己在介绍产品时并未夸大其词,也更好地鼓动和吸引了顾客的购买欲。2.人称所指的不明确化人们在交际时,需要注意用语礼貌,让会话在和谐的气氛下进行,从而实现交际目的。但在国际交际中,当遇到一些对方存在明显错误而又不好直接指出时,通常都会采取一些表达,有意地让人称所指弱化,从而避免对方听到责怪的语言而让双方关系破裂的情况。例如:(1) If you had thought aboutyourneeds beforehand, thisproblem would never have arisen.(2) Problem of this type do notnormally occur if custom-ers’needs are sufficiently clear.试比较以上两个句子,虽然两句话表示同一个意思,但是在(1)中明显带有指责对方的含义,而(2)句使用“cus-tomers”,弱化人称所指,这样会让对方觉得这只是对方在说明一种普遍存在的情况,而并不是在对自己进行指责。3.否定内容的含蓄表达化悲观消极的语言表达常常会让人产生消极的心态。因此在商务活动中,我们要尽量避免这种消极现象的出现。而作为商务活动的语言支撑更是要注意到这点。即使在交际中出现悲观消极的情况,也总能找到一些含蓄的表达,甚至积极乐观的因素进行替换,保证整个商务交际能在一种积极、乐观的氛围中进行。例如:(1)Your orderwill be delayed for twoweeks. (Negative)(2) Your orderwill be shipped in twoweeks. (Positive)试比较上述两句, (1)句“delayed”一词带有否定,消极色彩。相对而言, (2)句中“shipped”在此则属于积极词汇。两个不同感情色彩的使用直接影响到听话者的心态,并对对方的办事效率产生不同的理解。4.所指内容的抽象化由于某些商业活动具有极强的目的性,它要求在交际过程中既要注意重要内容的保密性但又要达到商业目的。这时使用不确定的词汇和表达将具体内容抽象化则成为达到这一语用功能的最佳办法。例如:In order to start a concrete transaction between us, wetake pleasure inmaking you a special offer.一些关于价格的询盘,买方常会根据具体情况报虚盘。在上述句子中,采用“a special offer”而避免使用具体的数字。这样做既可以对价值较高的商业信息做到保密,又可以达到期望的商业目的。结语在世界经济迅速全球一体化的今天,国际商务活动对专业人才有了大量的需求。这些经贸人员不仅要掌握普通英语,更要对商务英语的特殊性有所掌握。熟悉这些特征及其语用功能对经贸人员准确有效地使用、翻译、交际以及促进国际贸易的发展起着很好的指导作用。参考文献:[1]Grice, PaulH. Logic and conversation[A]. Cole, P; andJ.Morgan eds. Syntax and Semantics 3: Speechacts[C].New York: AcademicPress, 1975.[2] Carston R.Thoughts and Utterances: The Prag-matics ofExplicitCommunication[M] .Malden: BlackwellPublish-ing, 2002.[3]程迎春.商务英语词汇特点和学法探究[J].商场现代化, 2007, (4).[4]陈春燕,缪东玲.国际贸易实务[M].北京:电子工业出版社, 2007.[5]冯庆华.实用翻译教程[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2002.[6]廖瑛.实用外贸英语电函[M].武汉:华中科技大学出版社, 2005.[7]梅桂能.当代外贸信函英语的礼貌原则[J].中国科技翻译, 2004, (2).
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谈商务英语教学中商务文化意识的培养 摘 要:文化因素渗透在国际商务活动之中,并对其起到很重要的作用。能否跨越文化障碍,避免文化冲突,这是国际商务活动能否顺利开展的关键。该文对国际商务活动中所面临的较明显的商务文化冲突进行分析,明确在商务英语教学中加强商务文化意识培养的重要性,并就强化商务文化意识提出若干建议。 关键词:商务英语教学;商务文化冲突;文化意识培养 1.引言 在商务英语教学中,一些英语教师只重视语言知识和技能,而忽略了商务文化介入,使语言与文化脱节。而商务英语的各个环节都涉及到中西方文化的差异问题,如果在贸易实务中忽视这个问题,就会产生很多分歧,就不利于成功地达成交易。李太志明确提出了培养健康的商务文化意识有利于商务英语学习,陈建平就强化商务文化意识提出了若干建议,陈邦国、柯群胜也强调了商务英语教学中要加强商务文化渗透。在经济全球化的今天,商务英语教学的最终目的是要培养懂国际商务规则、掌握世界各民族文化特点的复合型人才,而能否跨越文化障碍、避免文化冲突,是国际商务活动能否顺利开展的关键。因此,在商务英语教学中加强商务文化意识的培养已被提到越来越重要的位置。 1.1商务英语中的商务文化 文化深深根植于语言,语言蕴涵丰富的文化因素。不同民族不同国家的商务传统风俗、商务礼仪习惯等存在差异。在英汉语言文化中,某些商务英语词语与汉语所指表面上一致,而涵义却不同。这就是语言文化差异。 1.2商务英语中的文化现象 不同民族对于不同价值观念有不同取向,在商务文化中,不同国家有不同的风俗习惯、不同的礼仪习惯等。例如我们中国公司的商务人员见到外商时常会递上一支烟。在中国,向客人敬烟是表示礼貌和友好,而在国外,特别是欧美国家,有不少人反对吸烟,向客人敬烟反而是不礼貌的表现。再如,不同国家民族的送礼规矩也不大一样。在英国,客户请你吃饭,带礼物去是不必要的。如果你要带酒,事先要问一下主人喜欢什么酒,这才恰当得体。在日本却恰恰相反,当你被邀到家里吃饭,你不带礼物去就太失礼,并会被认为鲁莽,如果事先问一下需要送什么礼,你会被认为粗鲁。诸如此类的文化现象在商务英语中比比皆是。 2.商务活动中常见的商务文化冲突及分析 当前我国的商务英语教学基本都依照“英语+商务”的模式进行。这种单一教学模式使学生误以为会说英语,懂得商务知识就能顺利进行商务活动,造成跨文化交际意识缺乏,更谈不上培养跨文化交际能力了。事实上,不少成绩优秀的学生毕业踏入工作深感交流的困难。当然语言能力的因素很少,主要是文化能力欠缺。因为在具体的交际实践中,他们会不自觉地借助母语的语言规则,交际习惯,文化背景和思维方式来表达思想,与不同的文化因素发生交叉与碰撞,于是产生误解和冲突,有时甚至直接影响商务谈判的成功。 下面是一位学者国外友人举办的招待会上交际失败的例子。宴会上,中国学者(C)见到一位美国教授(A)从自己皮包里面取出餐巾纸给他用,便有了下面一番对话。 C: They are so beautiful, aren’t they? A: They really are. I bought them in New York. C: Well, well. We don’t have to use them. You may save them for your important guests. A: What do you mean? Don’t you think you are my important guest? 在中国人心目中,一旦对方为自己所接纳,友谊的方式往往是视对方为“自己人”,在交往中,无须过于客气。对话中的C本来想表达接受款待时的谦虚,言外之意是“既然我们是很好的朋友,您也就无须用如此好的餐巾纸来给我用,不如留作它用”。C所说的important guest指关系疏远而需要讲究礼节的客人。C间接的客套出发点是为了加强友谊,而结果却截然相反。在美国友人眼里,C好像不是important guest。结果,双方的脸面都受到不应有的伤害,这是C万万没有料到的。 再如在机场迎接时,看到外商就热情地上前握手,“You must have had a tough journey. Please let me help you with the luggage.”(您一路辛苦了,请让我来帮您拿行李)通常对方会感到吃惊甚至不悦,“No, no. My journey is OK, and I can manage my luggage.”又如一刚毕业的大学生陪同六十多岁的英国客户来到预定的宾馆,临走不无关切地说,“You must be very tired, Sir. You' d better have a good rest since you are old……”不料这位老绅士很生气地回答,“No, I am NOT old, and I am NOT tired at all.”年轻人的困惑和尴尬就可想而知了。 以上两个简单事例充分说明了忽视文化差异的严重性,我们眼中的热情周到的招待,老外却毫不领情甚至生气厌恶。殊不知,在普遍崇尚“独立”精神(independence)的西方社会,人人都习惯以自我为中心(individualism),因此他们视过多地接受别人的建议和帮助为耻辱,更不愿倚老卖老,因为“老”就是无用的代名词。这两个场合得体的表达可以这样:How about your journey? How are you doing, Sir? A little rest would do you some good, wouldn't it? 由上所述,在日益频繁的商务交际活动中,不同的文化因素在交流的同时会产生交叉和碰撞。如果不具备跨文化差异和不同的交流沟通方式的知识,就可能会产生误解和冲突,甚至会直接导致商务活动的成败。商务英语教学的最终目的是为了培养出能够熟练运用英语语言进行涉外商务的复合型人才,以适应中国加入WTO之后商务环境日益国际化的发展趋势。因此,在商务英语教学中加强商务文化意识的培养已刻不容缓。 3.商务英语教学中商务文化意识的培养 商务英语的教学任务以及教学现状,要求必须强化商务文化教学,提高学生的商务文化意识。 3.1明确教学指导思想,提高教育者自身素质 高校的商务英语教师必须更新教学观念,在教学指导思想方面,明确商务英语教学的任务是培养在不同的商务环境、文化背景下进行交际的涉外商务人才;强调文化因素在涉外商务活动中的重要作用,把目的语文化意识培养作为教学、学习的目标之一。 教师必须不断学习,不断提高自身的文化素养,使自己具有较强的目的语商务文化意识,对英语国家的政治制度、法律体系、商务环境、管理理念、经营方式、商业观念等有较全面的了解,这样才能更好地帮助学生了解英语国家的商务文化、熟悉母语文化与目的语文化的差异。 3.2具体教学过程中加强商务文化意识的培养 在具体教学过程中,商务英语教师必须从文化层面上考虑教学内容和教学方法,把商务文化知识渗透到语言知识技能学习中,努力培养学生商务文化意识或素养,把商务文化介入和商务文化意识培养与商务英语语言学习结合起来,使其相辅相成,互相促进。 3.2.1课堂教学导入跨文化意识,注重文化教学 教师除传授必要的语言和专业知识,还应培养学生的社会文化能力,让他们深刻理解中西文化传统的差异。课堂内容结合真实的语言材料(authentic materials),向学生讲解西方国家中称呼语、介绍、访问、宴请、告别等社会交往的文化因素,潜移默化中帮学生提高语言形式的正确性,重视语言应用的得体性,从而逐步获得跨文化的敏感性。 3.2.2教学模式以学生为中心,培养交际能力 商务英语教学一定要打破教师“一言堂”的沉闷局面,展现商务英语的交际特性。教学方法体现灵活性、趣味性和多样性。例如交替采用情景教学法(situational approach),任务教学法(task approach),认知法(cognitive approach)等交际教学法,激发学生学习兴趣,开发创造性思维,培养他们独立思考和解决问题的能力。 3.2.3利用多媒体及其它手段进行跨文化训练 这是提高学生跨文化意识的专项培训,通常可以采用以下三种方式:(1)案例分析:通过对反映商务文化冲突的典型案例进行分析、解释,并组织学生展开讨论,以了解外国文化与本国文化的差异。(2)亲自体验:通过角色扮演或田野作业(field work),营造一种文化气氛,学生在这种环境中学会应对各种问题的能力,并能体会到异国文化的特点,提高对文化的敏感性。(3)信息介绍:通过演讲、材料阅读、电影录像等方法对异国商务文化进行介绍;也可邀请外国专家作专题讲座或进行交流,以学习对方的文化习俗和各种交际技巧。 综上所述,商务文化因素渗透在国际商务活动之中,而且经常会引起文化障碍,造成文化冲突。因此,涉外商务人员不仅要具备扎实的专业知识、过硬的外语运用能力,而且必须了解、熟悉异国的政治制度、经济环境、法律体系、经营习惯以及商业价值观,提高商务文化意识。在商务英语教学中,只有认识文化特征,加强文化意识,将语言与文化的教学有机地结合起来,才能提高学生的语言学习和运用的准确性,才能在国际商务活动中取得成效。商务英语教学工作者应充分认识到跨文化交际能力的重要性,培养出跨文化交际能力强,适应市场需求的复合型外语人才。