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基本都是有情爱的。只有一个是很极端的，曹七巧，金锁记里面的住人公。这个是一个很好的切入点和讨论重点。海内外，张的名声，一部分就是这个人物撑起来的。其他的还有本来有，又失去了的：茉莉香片里的聂传庆（男的）沉香屑：第一炉香里的葛薇龙沉香屑：第二炉香里的愫西散戏里的女主人公。（丧失了爱）同学少年都不贱里面的几个女人都又点不正常我想到的久这些了。张的文章里面缺失是少的
[1] 熊秋菊. 一曲美丽而苍凉的哀歌——论《半生缘》的审美风格[J]. 沧桑, 2006,(02) . [2] 秦军,王旭. 论张爱玲小说中的悲剧人生[J]. 黑河学刊, 2006,(01) . 中国期刊全文数据库 共找到 7 条[1] 陈坤. 母爱的缺失——张爱玲小说世界的“审母”情结[J]. 北华大学学报(社会科学版), 2008,(04) . [2] 胡晓虹. 谈《半生缘》的自然主义色彩[J]. 福建商业高等专科学校学报, 2006,(04) . [3] 徐娜. 浅析《金锁记》中女性的命运[J]. 安徽文学(下半月), 2008,(05) . [4] 尹正纯. 张爱玲小说中男性人物形象分析[J]. 保山师专学报, 2008,(06) . [5] 张英. 浅析张爱玲读者接受心理特点[J]. 辽宁工业大学学报(社会科学版), 2008,(02) . [6] 闫云霄,马芳. 电影《半生缘》改编的遗憾[J]. 徐州教育学院学报, 2006,(04) . [7] 高园园. 谈《半生缘》的舞台表现手法[J]. 戏剧-中央戏剧学院学报, 2005,(03) . [1] 田春林. 悲欢半生缘苍凉一世情——读张爱玲《十八春》[J]. 青春男女生(少年作家), 2006,(06) . [2] 袁瑾. 永未言尽的苍凉故事——从《半生缘》品读张爱玲小说的悲剧意味[J]. 沙洋师范高等专科学校学报, 2002,(05) . [3] 林幸谦. 《半生缘》再解读:姐妹情谊的反动与女性冲突主题[J]. 海南师范学院学报(人文社会科学版), 2000,(01) . [4] 麦凤庄. 救赎与毁灭——以曼桢为例浅谈对《半生缘》的女性价值反思[J]. 贵州文史丛刊, 2006,(03) . [5] 邓筠!96(2)班. 回不去的《半生缘》──张爱玲小说阅读笔记[J]. 南京师范大学文学院学报, 2000,(01) . [6] 袁瑾. 悲剧人生 苍凉最美——从《半生缘》品读张爱玲小说的悲剧意味[J]. 天津大学学报(社会科学版), 2003,(03) . [7] 熊秋菊. 一曲美丽而苍凉的哀歌——论《半生缘》的审美风格[J]. 沧桑, 2006,(02) . [8] 王朝彦. 读张爱玲的《十八春》及《半生缘》[J]. 中南民族学院学报(人文社会科学版), 2001,(03) . [9] 胡晓虹. 谈《半生缘》的自然主义色彩[J]. 福建商业高等专科学校学报, 2006,(04) . [10] 张廷山. 评《半生缘》兼析张爱玲小说的审美特征[J]. 中共郑州市委党校学报, 2005,(02) .
CLOTHING MARKET : The UK retail clothing market was worth $43 billion in 2000, having grown by just since 1999. Women’s, girls' and children's clothing account for the major share of the market, making up of the total value. The increase in working women might have been expected to cause an upsurge in demand for smart clothing, but a major feature of the market has been a trend towards dressing down. Men's tailors, such as Moss Bros Group and Austin Reed Group, have suffered from the demise of the formal suit, while the retail chain Ted Baker, which targets the 18-25 year old market, has embraced the trend and recently recorded a pre-tax profit margin almost four times that of the industry average. In the world of UK fashion, it is the ability to identify and respond immediately to trends that is all-important. Textile manufacturing is in serious decline and clothing retailers continue to find trading conditions difficult in the face of weak consumer demand and heavy discounting. Marks and Spencer, Arcadia Group, BhS Ltd, and Moss Bros Group are among the stores struggling to maintain their position. Meanwhile, the Dutch multiple chain C&A has admitted defeat and has now completely withdrawn from the British market. It is companies such as these, competing in the middle market, which are finding business so hard, since the market favors either value or premium brands. Those that are thriving include discount chains such as Matalan, Peacock's and Primark Stores, which are expanding rapidly and are predicted to increase their market share. With depressed demand and the prevalence of discounters, UK clothing retailing is expected to see modest growth in the near future. The market value is expected to reach $51 billion by 2005, an increase of 19% from 2000. MARKET OVERVIEW The main sectors in the market for clothing retailing are Outerwear, Underwear and Hosiery. Outerwear includes men's shirts, suits, jackets, smart trousers, coats, sweaters, T-shirts and jeans. Women's dresses, blouses and skirts also fall under this category. Underwear is made up of briefs and vests for men, womens lingerie - panties, corsetry, petticoats, teddies and camisoles. Hosiery covers men's, women's and children's socks, and women's pantyhose and stockings Expenditure on clothing, as well as having to compete with other durable and non-durable household goods, is threatened by increased expenditure on leisure, travel and financial services, including savings. Figures show that spending on clothing as a percentage of total household expenditure has dropped from percent in 1995 to percent in 2000. The popularity of heavy discounting stores is likely to be a factor in this decline. MARKET TRENDS A Diminishing Mid-Price Market The chain of C&A has been one of the casualties of an ongoing shrinking of the mid-price clothing market. Consumers are now tending towards the budget end of the market, which is targeted by companies such as Primark, Peacock's and Matalan, or the designer, premium-priced extreme. The mid-market has consequently become very competitive, with the struggles of Marks and Spencer, Arcadia Group and BhS to retain market share being well documented. Designer Outlets The first Designer Outlet centre opened in 1995. There are now several such centres that offer discounts of up to 50% on branded fashionwear, footwear, accessories, and housewares. Discount retailing is an important and growing part of several retail markets, and clothing is no exception. Gap, Tommy Hilfiger and Nike are among the names operating in these shopping `villages'. So called 'Off-Price' clothing is said to account for around 30% of the . clothing market. Although it is still a relatively immature part of the UK market, it is expected to grow rapidly as both established and new retailers (. Marks and Spencer and Matalan) plan to set up discount stores and enter the shopping villages. Informality Modern lifestyles, on the whole, have become much less formal, a trend reflected in clothing. While some places of work may maintain a strict dress code, they are fewer and further between — especially in the information technology industry. Many offices have a policy of `dress down Friday' where it is quite acceptable, indeed expected, to dress casually. This attitude extends into social life. Certainly some clubs and restaurants insist on a formal dress code, but many more think it unnecessary. A prime example of this movement toward informality is the huge resurgence in the denim market. UK sales of denim clothing in 2000 shot up by 8% on the previous year to reach $ billion. Sportswear Participation in sports has increased over the long term, and there is a high level of branding in sports clothes. A particular feature of the sports clothing sector is its acceptability as leisurewear, whether or not any participation in sport is intended. With the growing trend towards informality, the sportswear market is set to grow. This is evident on the UK High St with the entrance of . chains such as Footlocker. Brand Extension In the fiercely competitive UK retail market, the extension of an established brand name into other products has become common practice. This trend is becoming more popular in the clothing industry. For example, Oasis Stores PLC has developed an own-brand toiletries range, launched in October 1999. Meanwhile, designer Tommy Hilfiger has introduced new fragrances targeted at young adults. Other clothes chains with cosmetics, skincare or fragrance ranges include Ted Baker, French Connection Retail Ltd and Karen Millen Ltd. This kind of brand extension is continuing as more and more retailers are following the trend in an effort to compete with each other and offer their customers a complete product range. High street retailer H & M (Hennes and Mauritz) have recently launched a range of cosmetics and cosmetic accessories. Technology in Textiles Before the 1940s, clothes were made of wool, silk or cotton. The 1950s saw the introduction of synthetic fibres that would revolutionise the industry. Elastane microfibres, such as Lycra and Tactel, combine the qualities of stretch and control while being comfortable, durable and easy to care for. Manufacturers now claim to produce fabrics with other characteristics, such as anti-bacterial or moisturising properties, even cellulite-reducing hosiery. As a result of these changes in textile technology, prices are likely to increase, therefore assisting in growing the value of the market. Awareness of Fashion Marks and Spencer, BhS, and Mothercare have lost market share in the children's clothing market to Woolworths, ASDA Group Ltd and Next. Young people are becoming more fashion conscious at a younger age, and shun the somewhat conservative and old-fashioned image of traditional shops. This is in favour of those with a more trendy image, such as Gap, Next and Miss Selfridge. Similarly, older, and often affluent, consumers remain fashion conscious. The product offering for those older consumers wanting to appear in tune with fashion, has improved in recent years. Previously it was almost non-existent, especially at the cheaper end of the market. Larger Sizes Research has shown that British women are now taller, and more curvaceous, than in the past. This trend has been confirmed by bra manufacturer, Triumph, which has found that the average bra size has grown from a 34B to a 36C in less than a decade. Accordingly, Marks and Spencer, for one, is to use a UK size 14 (US size 10) rather than UK size 12 (US size 8) as its base model. Size 14 bust, waist and hip measurements have also been increased. With 62 percent of women in the UK wearing a UK size 14 (. size 10) or larger, there are undoubtedly opportunities for growth in the larger size clothing market. IMPORTS An estimated two-thirds of the value of the UK clothing market is imported, a percentage that is increasing as more countries with low-cost labour join the supply chain. Traditional sources, primarily Hong Kong and India, are now facing competition from countries such as Morocco and Romania. There is, however, some variation across the product sectors. Germany, Italy and Hong Kong are principal sources of women's, girls' and children's jackets. Men's suits and jackets come primarily from Italy and Portugal. Hong Kong is a significant source of imports of both men's and women's overcoats and raincoats, although in the case of men's coats, the Netherlands is the most important. Hong Kong is by far the most significant exporter of men and women's trousers to the UK, and of women's dresses and skirts. Many British companies are transferring production overseas. Much of the recent growth in value of imports into the UK can therefore be attributed to British companies, and their subsidiaries. The UK imported over $81 million worth of clothing from the . in 2000, a figure which has declined over the last few years. UK imports of . clothing goods 1997 $81,621,996 $81,139,559 $103,448,033 $121,300,429 EXPORTS Total clothing exports from the UK were $ billion in 1999 – a drop from the 1998 figure of $2 billion. In 2000, the UK exported $ million worth of clothing to the . There has been a recent trend towards exporting more British clothing to countries outside Europe, but less to countries within the European Union (EU). The UK has a reputation for quality in, for example, woollens and knitwear. However, it has been hard hit by the strength of sterling and the recent downturn in economies such as Japan, which are of great importance to UK trade. COMPETITION The Marketplace Vertical integration is a feature of the UK market for clothing. Companies such as Alexon Group, Laura Ashley, River Island Clothing Co., and Austin Reed Group manufacture collections for retail in their own stores. Place of Purchase In order of popularity, department stores, chain stores, independents, fashion multiples and sports shops are the most commonly used retail outlets for clothing. Age and sex are important determining factors in this however. For example, although department stores appeal to all age groups, fashion multiples are generally used by younger shoppers. For all the above outlets, penetration levels are higher among men than women except for independents and sports stores. Traditional mail order catalogues continue to come under pressure from discount stores. They cannot keep up with changes in prices, as their catalogues are printed weeks in advance of a season. The internet and digital television have introduced online shopping but there are hurdles to overcome if this kind of purchasing is to grow the clothing market considerably. Many consumers are hesitant to give credit card details and they like to be able to see and feel garments before they purchase. Brand recognition is important in online shopping, and it, therefore, seems likely that established High St stores may find it easier to make the step from 'brick to click' than a new online only retailer. Brand Awareness There is a high level of brand awareness in some sectors of the clothing industry. For example, the name Levi-Strauss & Co. is synonymous with jeans, like that of Nike with sports clothing. These brands will maintain sales due to firm establishment in their specific markets. However, with more and more discount stores introducing their own labels (. George at Asda, and Matalan), and the consumers decreasing clothing expenditure, mid market retailers will undoubtedly suffer. As mentioned previously, strong brand names are increasingly moving outside their original product. While this might ensure the success of, for example, Ted Baker skincare products, it also opens the clothing market for infiltration by outside brands. Market Leaders and their Brands The UK retail market for clothing is one spanning many extremes. Exclusive designer names are at one end of the scale, while discount stores and market stalls are at the other. In between is a variety of retailers aimed at the middle mass market. It is some of these that are currently finding survival so difficult. C&A is a prime example, but its demise obviously provides opportunities for other stores and products. This is not least because its withdrawal from the UK is freeing up valuable High Street sites. A relatively new entrant to the market is the grocery multiple, and the most successful example is ASDA Group Ltd. The UK's third largest supermarket, taken over by Wal-Mart Stores Incorporated last year, has its own George at ASDA brand of clothing (which had a turnover of $893m in 1999). Tesco PLC, the country's most successful supermarket chain, also devotes significant space to children's clothing, and women's and men's underwear. END USERS The total population of the UK is approximately 60 million, and is split roughly equally beween men and women. By age, the population is divided as follows: AGE % 0-19 20-49 49 + Over 83 percent of clothing and accessories are purchased by women over 25. Even 28 percent of menswear purchased in the UK is bought by women. According to the Family Expenditure survery (FES), average weekly household expenditure on commodities and services was $520 in 1999. On average, $32 of this was spent on clothing - this amounts to just over 6% of total expenditure. Although expenditure on clothing, both male and female, has grown in the past ten years, attitudes of consumers have changed. The proportion of spending on clothing that people regard as essential has declined. In 1989, conspicuous consumption was at its height and people were far more concerned with keeping up with the latest fashions. By the end of the recession in 1994, attitudes had changed and fashion had much less of a following - people still care about their appearance, but not to the same extent. This declining regard for fashion is apparent in all socio-economic groups. It is, however, more pronounced in the upper income brackets and the 25-34 and 35-44 age groups. Within these groups, people now view a holiday or products for the home as a priority over new/fashionable clothing. Despite the decline in regard for fashion, the desire to be fashionable still exists and is generally higher among teens, low income households, and the unemployed - hence the success of the discount retailers. MARKET ACCESS The UK clothing industry is an aggressively competitive marketplace, and is dominated by a handful of powerful chains. It has lower productivity than leading European competitors, and opportunities exist, therefore, for low-cost foreign competitors. The UK clothing market has to be instant in its response to changes in fashion in order for spending on clothing to compete with expenditure on other personal and household goods, leisure activities and savings. The market needs to accurately interpret trends so as to avoid surplus stock having to be sold cheaply. Rail upon rail of discounted clothes not only eats into any profit margin, but also damages the image of a shop, giving it a somewhat desperate look. There is one legal requirement regarding the labeling of textiles for clothing. The label must bear an accurate description of the fiber content. This is an obligatory marking requirement. Washing instructions and the size of garment are optional information, but must not be false or misleading. This would result in a breach of the UK Trade Descriptions Act. There are no requirements for a "Keep Away from Fire" label on any childrens daywear (but there is for all nightwear). However, there must be a flammability label on all babywear 0-3 months (day and night wear). This also applies to babywear with a chest size of 21 inches or less. There is no EU Directive on flammability labels on clothing. Clothing falls under the harmonized code of – and there is currently a maximum duty of payable. SALES PROSPECTS Clothing is an essential requisite, although consumers can also be tempted to purchase on impulse. Nowadays, few people have the necessary dressmaking and knitting skills to make their own clothing, so nearly all clothing is bought. Unusual garments and colour combinations, can differentiate one product offering from another and may be the determining factor in remaining competitive. The exit of C&A from UK retailing in 2001 has made prime High Street sites available for other chains and product offerings. In addition to this, the removal of tariffs and quotas protecting foreign markets (under the Multi Fibre Arrangement) in 2005, will increase opportunities for overseas companies. However, overseas competitors should be aware of the increased emphasis on design that differentiates British product makes it less vulnerable to cheaper foreign competition. Opportunties for . manufactured goods exist, as they are more likely to be able to compete with British designed product. Men's lifestyle magazines are helping to increase interest in men's and boys' fashion and men are more interested in fashion than they were ten years ago. Women are more financially dependent and able to spend as they like on their wardrobe, and as the proportion of working women increases, they are likely to require more clothes than they would if they stayed at home. However, as mentioned previously, the trend towards dressing down is increasing, therefore clothing purchased for the office will not necessarily include business suits. Home shopping through catalogues, the Internet, and interactive television means that goods, including clothing, can be bought at any time of the day, 7 days a week. However, people will always prefer to see the clothing and feel fabrics and textiles before purchasing so it is unlikely that home shopping will seriously threaten the High Street retailers. CONCLUSION The UK clothing market will see steady but modest growth over the next few years and is expected to reach $51. billion by 2005, an increase of 19% from 2000. Judging by current trends and evidence, it appears that the majority of this growth will come from the success of discount retailers. The diminishing mid market in fashion retailing means that best opportunities for . companies exist at this end of the scale. For more information on the UK Clothing Market, please contact: 瞎找的 看都没看
CLOTHING MARKET : The UK retail clothing market was worth $43 billion in 2000, having grown by just since 1999. Women’s, girls' and children's clothing account for the major share of the market, making up of the total value. The increase in working women might have been expected to cause an upsurge in demand for smart clothing, but a major feature of the market has been a trend towards dressing down. Men's tailors, such as Moss Bros Group and Austin Reed Group, have suffered from the demise of the formal suit, while the retail chain Ted Baker, which targets the 18-25 year old market, has embraced the trend and recently recorded a pre-tax profit margin almost four times that of the industry average. In the world of UK fashion, it is the ability to identify and respond immediately to trends that is all-important. Textile manufacturing is in serious decline and clothing retailers continue to find trading conditions difficult in the face of weak consumer demand and heavy discounting. Marks and Spencer, Arcadia Group, BhS Ltd, and Moss Bros Group are among the stores struggling to maintain their position. Meanwhile, the Dutch multiple chain C&A has admitted defeat and has now completely withdrawn from the British market. It is companies such as these, competing in the middle market, which are finding business so hard, since the market favors either value or premium brands. Those that are thriving include discount chains such as Matalan, Peacock's and Primark Stores, which are expanding rapidly and are predicted to increase their market share. With depressed demand and the prevalence of discounters, UK clothing retailing is expected to see modest growth in the near future. The market value is expected to reach $51 billion by 2005, an increase of 19% from 2000. MARKET OVERVIEW The main sectors in the market for clothing retailing are Outerwear, Underwear and Hosiery. Outerwear includes men's shirts, suits, jackets, smart trousers, coats, sweaters, T-shirts and jeans. Women's dresses, blouses and skirts also fall under this category. Underwear is made up of briefs and vests for men, womens lingerie - panties, corsetry, petticoats, teddies and camisoles. Hosiery covers men's, women's and children's socks, and women's pantyhose and stockings Expenditure on clothing, as well as having to compete with other durable and non-durable household goods, is threatened by increased expenditure on leisure, travel and financial services, including savings. Figures show that spending on clothing as a percentage of total household expenditure has dropped from percent in 1995 to percent in 2000. The popularity of heavy discounting stores is likely to be a factor in this decline. MARKET TRENDS A Diminishing Mid-Price Market The chain of C&A has been one of the casualties of an ongoing shrinking of the mid-price clothing market. Consumers are now tending towards the budget end of the market, which is targeted by companies such as Primark, Peacock's and Matalan, or the designer, premium-priced extreme. The mid-market has consequently become very competitive, with the struggles of Marks and Spencer, Arcadia Group and BhS to retain market share being well documented. Designer Outlets The first Designer Outlet centre opened in 1995. There are now several such centres that offer discounts of up to 50% on branded fashionwear, footwear, accessories, and housewares. Discount retailing is an important and growing part of several retail markets, and clothing is no exception. Gap, Tommy Hilfiger and Nike are among the names operating in these shopping `villages'. So called 'Off-Price' clothing is said to account for around 30% of the . clothing market. Although it is still a relatively immature part of the UK market, it is expected to grow rapidly as both established and new retailers (. Marks and Spencer and Matalan) plan to set up discount stores and enter the shopping villages. Informality Modern lifestyles, on the whole, have become much less formal, a trend reflected in clothing. While some places of work may maintain a strict dress code, they are fewer and further between — especially in the information technology industry. Many offices have a policy of `dress down Friday' where it is quite acceptable, indeed expected, to dress casually. This attitude extends into social life. Certainly some clubs and restaurants insist on a formal dress code, but many more think it unnecessary. A prime example of this movement toward informality is the huge resurgence in the denim market. UK sales of denim clothing in 2000 shot up by 8% on the previous year to reach $ billion. Sportswear Participation in sports has increased over the long term, and there is a high level of branding in sports clothes. A particular feature of the sports clothing sector is its acceptability as leisurewear, whether or not any participation in sport is intended. With the growing trend towards informality, the sportswear market is set to grow. This is evident on the UK High St with the entrance of . chains such as Footlocker. Brand Extension In the fiercely competitive UK retail market, the extension of an established brand name into other products has become common practice. This trend is becoming more popular in the clothing industry. For example, Oasis Stores PLC has developed an own-brand toiletries range, launched in October 1999. Meanwhile, designer Tommy Hilfiger has introduced new fragrances targeted at young adults. Other clothes chains with cosmetics, skincare or fragrance ranges include Ted Baker, French Connection Retail Ltd and Karen Millen Ltd. This kind of brand extension is continuing as more and more retailers are following the trend in an effort to compete with each other and offer their customers a complete product range. High street retailer H & M (Hennes and Mauritz) have recently launched a range of cosmetics and cosmetic accessories. Technology in Textiles Before the 1940s, clothes were made of wool, silk or cotton. The 1950s saw the introduction of synthetic fibres that would revolutionise the industry. Elastane microfibres, such as Lycra and Tactel, combine the qualities of stretch and control while being comfortable, durable and easy to care for. Manufacturers now claim to produce fabrics with other characteristics, such as anti-bacterial or moisturising properties, even cellulite-reducing hosiery. As a result of these changes in textile technology, prices are likely to increase, therefore assisting in growing the value of the market. Awareness of Fashion Marks and Spencer, BhS, and Mothercare have lost market share in the children's clothing market to Woolworths, ASDA Group Ltd and Next. Young people are becoming more fashion conscious at a younger age, and shun the somewhat conservative and old-fashioned image of traditional shops. This is in favour of those with a more trendy image, such as Gap, Next and Miss Selfridge. Similarly, older, and often affluent, consumers remain fashion conscious. The product offering for those older consumers wanting to appear in tune with fashion, has improved in recent years. Previously it was almost non-existent, especially at the cheaper end of the market. Larger Sizes Research has shown that British women are now taller, and more curvaceous, than in the past. This trend has been confirmed by bra manufacturer, Triumph, which has found that the average bra size has grown from a 34B to a 36C in less than a decade. Accordingly, Marks and Spencer, for one, is to use a UK size 14 (US size 10) rather than UK size 12 (US size 8) as its base model. Size 14 bust, waist and hip measurements have also been increased. With 62 percent of women in the UK wearing a UK size 14 (. size 10) or larger, there are undoubtedly opportunities for growth in the larger size clothing market. IMPORTS An estimated two-thirds of the value of the UK clothing market is imported, a percentage that is increasing as more countries with low-cost labour join the supply chain. Traditional sources, primarily Hong Kong and India, are now facing competition from countries such as Morocco and Romania. There is, however, some variation across the product sectors. Germany, Italy and Hong Kong are principal sources of women's, girls' and children's jackets. Men's suits and jackets come primarily from Italy and Portugal. Hong Kong is a significant source of imports of both men's and women's overcoats and raincoats, although in the case of men's coats, the Netherlands is the most important. Hong Kong is by far the most significant exporter of men and women's trousers to the UK, and of women's dresses and skirts. Many British companies are transferring production overseas. Much of the recent growth in value of imports into the UK can therefore be attributed to British companies, and their subsidiaries. The UK imported over $81 million worth of clothing from the . in 2000, a figure which has declined over the last few years. UK imports of . clothing goods 1997 $81,621,996 $81,139,559 $103,448,033 $121,300,429 EXPORTS Total clothing exports from the UK were $ billion in 1999 – a drop from the 1998 figure of $2 billion. In 2000, the UK exported $ million worth of clothing to the . There has been a recent trend towards exporting more British clothing to countries outside Europe, but less to countries within the European Union (EU). The UK has a reputation for quality in, for example, woollens and knitwear. However, it has been hard hit by the strength of sterling and the recent downturn in economies such as Japan, which are of great importance to UK trade. COMPETITION The Marketplace Vertical integration is a feature of the UK market for clothing. Companies such as Alexon Group, Laura Ashley, River Island Clothing Co., and Austin Reed Group manufacture collections for retail in their own stores. Place of Purchase In order of popularity, department stores, chain stores, independents, fashion multiples and sports shops are the most commonly used retail outlets for clothing. Age and sex are important determining factors in this however. For example, although department stores appeal to all age groups, fashion multiples are generally used by younger shoppers. For all the above outlets, penetration levels are higher among men than women except for independents and sports stores. Traditional mail order catalogues continue to come under pressure from discount stores. They cannot keep up with changes in prices, as their catalogues are printed weeks in advance of a season. The internet and digital television have introduced online shopping but there are hurdles to overcome if this kind of purchasing is to grow the clothing market considerably. Many consumers are hesitant to give credit card details and they like to be able to see and feel garments before they purchase. Brand recognition is important in online shopping, and it, therefore, seems likely that established High St stores may find it easier to make the step from 'brick to click' than a new online only retailer. Brand Awareness There is a high level of brand awareness in some sectors of the clothing industry. For example, the name Levi-Strauss & Co. is synonymous with jeans, like that of Nike with sports clothing. These brands will maintain sales due to firm establishment in their specific markets. However, with more and more discount stores introducing their own labels (. George at Asda, and Matalan), and the consumers decreasing clothing expenditure, mid market retailers will undoubtedly suffer. As mentioned previously, strong brand names are increasingly moving outside their original product. While this might ensure the success of, for example, Ted Baker skincare products, it also opens the clothing market for infiltration by outside brands. Market Leaders and their Brands The UK retail market for clothing is one spanning many extremes. Exclusive designer names are at one end of the scale, while discount stores and market stalls are at the other. In between is a variety of retailers aimed at the middle mass market. It is some of these that are currently finding survival so difficult. C&A is a prime example, but its demise obviously provides opportunities for other stores and products. This is not least because its withdrawal from the UK is freeing up valuable High Street sites. A relatively new entrant to the market is the grocery multiple, and the most successful example is ASDA Group Ltd. The UK's third largest supermarket, taken over by Wal-Mart Stores Incorporated last year, has its own George at ASDA brand of clothing (which had a turnover of $893m in 1999). Tesco PLC, the country's most successful supermarket chain, also devotes significant space to children's clothing, and women's and men's underwear. END USERS The total population of the UK is approximately 60 million, and is split roughly equally beween men and women. By age, the population is divided as follows: AGE % 0-19 20-49 49 + Over 83 percent of clothing and accessories are purchased by women over 25. Even 28 percent of menswear purchased in the UK is bought by women. According to the Family Expenditure survery (FES), average weekly household expenditure on commodities and services was $520 in 1999. On average, $32 of this was spent on clothing - this amounts to just over 6% of total expenditure. Although expenditure on clothing, both male and female, has grown in the past ten years, attitudes of consumers have changed. The proportion of spending on clothing that people regard as essential has declined. In 1989, conspicuous consumption was at its height and people were far more concerned with keeping up with the latest fashions. By the end of the recession in 1994, attitudes had changed and fashion had much less of a following - people still care about their appearance, but not to the same extent. This declining regard for fashion is apparent in all socio-economic groups. It is, however, more pronounced in the upper income brackets and the 25-34 and 35-44 age groups. Within these groups, people now view a holiday or products for the home as a priority over new/fashionable clothing. Despite the decline in regard for fashion, the desire to be fashionable still exists and is generally higher among teens, low income households, and the unemployed - hence the success of the discount retailers. MARKET ACCESS The UK clothing industry is an aggressively competitive marketplace, and is dominated by a handful of powerful chains. It has lower productivity than leading European competitors, and opportunities exist, therefore, for low-cost foreign competitors. The UK clothing market has to be instant in its response to changes in fashion in order for spending on clothing to compete with expenditure on other personal and household goods, leisure activities and savings. The market needs to accurately interpret trends so as to avoid surplus stock having to be sold cheaply. Rail upon rail of discounted clothes not only eats into any profit margin, but also damages the image of a shop, giving it a somewhat desperate look. There is one legal requirement regarding the labeling of textiles for clothing. The label must bear an accurate description of the fiber content. This is an obligatory marking requirement. Washing instructions and the size of garment are optional information, but must not be false or misleading. This would result in a breach of the UK Trade Descriptions Act. There are no requirements for a "Keep Away from Fire" label on any childrens daywear (but there is for all nightwear). However, there must be a flammability label on all babywear 0-3 months (day and night wear). This also applies to babywear with a chest size of 21 inches or less. There is no EU Directive on flammability labels on clothing. Clothing falls under the harmonized code of – and there is currently a maximum duty of payable. SALES PROSPECTS Clothing is an essential requisite, although consumers can also be tempted to purchase on impulse. Nowadays, few people have the necessary dressmaking and knitting skills to make their own clothing, so nearly all clothing is bought. Unusual garments and colour combinations, can differentiate one product offering from another and may be the determining factor in remaining competitive. The exit of C&A from UK retailing in 2001 has made prime High Street sites available for other chains and product offerings. In addition to this, the removal of tariffs and quotas protecting foreign markets (under the Multi Fibre Arrangement) in 2005, will increase opportunities for overseas companies. However, overseas competitors should be aware of the increased emphasis on design that differentiates British product makes it less vulnerable to cheaper foreign competition. Opportunties for . manufactured goods exist, as they are more likely to be able to compete with British designed product. Men's lifestyle magazines are helping to increase interest in men's and boys' fashion and men are more interested in fashion than they were ten years ago. Women are more financially dependent and able to spend as they like on their wardrobe, and as the proportion of working women increases, they are likely to require more clothes than they would if they stayed at home. However, as mentioned previously, the trend towards dressing down is increasing, therefore clothing purchased for the office will not necessarily include business suits. Home shopping through catalogues, the Internet, and interactive television means that goods, including clothing, can be bought at any time of the day, 7 days a week. However, people will always prefer to see the clothing and feel fabrics and textiles before purchasing so it is unlikely that home shopping will seriously threaten the High Street retailers. CONCLUSION The UK clothing market will see steady but modest growth over the next few years and is expected to reach $51. billion by 2005, an increase of 19% from 2000. Judging by current trends and evidence, it appears that the majority of this growth will come from the success of discount retailers. The diminishing mid market in fashion retailing means that best opportunities for . companies exist at this end of the scale. For more information on the UK Clothing Market, please contact: 瞎找的 看都没看
周芳芸，《曹七巧论》，四川师范大学学报，1990年第3期周芳芸，《中国现代文学悲剧女性形象研究》，天地出版社，1999鲁建平，《母性的陨落——张爱玲笔下的母亲形象与母女关系探析》陈慧茹，《母性的沦丧与异化——张爱玲小说中的母亲形象及母女关系探析》，太原大学学报缺失的情爱，一要从当时十里洋场的特殊社会背景去分析，封建主义与资本主义的双重压迫，使得女性不得不以出卖青春、爱情、肉体等方式获得生存，有人心甘情愿做了金丝雀，如《沉香屑》里的葛薇龙，《倾城之恋》里的白流苏；二是要从性压抑问题上去探讨女性所受的屈辱，《金锁记》里曹七巧是一个从被人食、到食人，再到自食的典型。还可以讲张爱玲塑造的女性形象与现代文学其他的形象作比较。
长篇：半生缘，多少恨，倾城之恋，十八春，怨女。怨女是我的最爱散文：爱，打人，道路以目，到底是上海人，更衣记，公寓生活记趣，借银灯，双声，私语，雨伞下，造人，，等等，，这些本人喜欢，，，中篇：不辛的她，霸王别姬，等，创世纪，封锁，留情，，，相见欢，，，等等。。。很多的呢，，这些我本人喜欢
基本都是有情爱的。只有一个是很极端的，曹七巧，金锁记里面的住人公。这个是一个很好的切入点和讨论重点。海内外，张的名声，一部分就是这个人物撑起来的。其他的还有本来有，又失去了的：茉莉香片里的聂传庆（男的）沉香屑：第一炉香里的葛薇龙沉香屑：第二炉香里的愫西散戏里的女主人公。（丧失了爱）同学少年都不贱里面的几个女人都又点不正常我想到的久这些了。张的文章里面缺失是少的
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试论张爱玲小说的语言特色(原创）[摘 要] 张爱玲在其小说中对凄凉的故事背景、氛围的营造，悲凉的人情关系的揭示和苍凉的人生感悟的描摹，形成了独具一格的审美和创作风格。本文探讨了张爱玲小说语言构成奇喻、奇景、奇彩、奇情方面的几个特点及其性格对小说产生重要影响的原因。[关键词] 张爱玲小说 苍凉 奇喻 语言特色张爱玲是中国现代文学史上一位独树一帜的、极富传奇色彩的作家，她被傅雷称为“我们文坛上最美的收获之一”。其小说的魅力，不只在于她以一支细致传神的笔精彩地描绘了殖民地香港和沦陷区上海独特的时代风情，也不只在于在她那个时代，她执着于自己的世界，抒写普通人的悲欢离合，而更多的在于她对人性的深刻洞察，对人生悲剧性的深刻认知，以及她在作品中所表现出的独特的悲剧美。张爱玲的小说不仅在人性方面有深刻入微的挖掘，表现“压抑的悲哀”相当出色，更令笔者惊叹的是她的语言特色，可称出神入化，有诸多令人叫绝的奇喻、奇景、奇彩、奇情。以一个年青女子的柔婉作此入木三分、冷艳逼人的刻划，她的观察之细致，笔力之张扬，语言之放恣，且不论作品是否在超级发挥上达到了大师水准，奇秀精当四字形容她无疑是相宜的。大致说来，张爱玲的小说语言在运用中构成奇喻、奇景、奇彩、奇情方面有以下几个特点：一、 用词新鲜、独特，好用“苍凉的手势”构成奇情奇景在中国现代小说的百花园中，张爱玲的小说堪称一绝。她的小说仿佛是一树的繁花异果，又似刚刚从人间的温厚情感里洗练出来的，词语新鲜而独特，令人爱不释手。(1) 意象对应营造故事氛围《金锁记》的开头说到三十年前的月亮，像朵云轩信笺上落了一滴泪，陈旧而迷糊，然后接着说三十年前的故事，使读者的想象回到梦一般的三十年前的时光里去，很有效果。好像一部影片的开头，以音响或画面来传达故事的气氛一样，真是不同凡响。(2) 对“凉”字的偏爱张爱玲的小说里，“凉”字用得特别多。如“苍凉的手势”、“悲凉的风”、“冰凉的感觉”等等。她的故事大都有着“苍凉”、“悲凉”的意味，读起来自有一种忧郁感，但并不沉重，是所谓一种淡淡的哀怨，一种很美、很舒服的感觉。张爱玲在《传奇再版前言》里写道：“有一天我们的文明，不论是升华还是浮华，都要成为过去。如果我最常用的字是荒凉，那是因为思想背景里有惘惘的威胁。”《倾城之恋》开头第二段是“胡琴咿咿呀呀拉着，在万盏灯的夜晚，拉过来又拉过去，说不尽的苍凉的故事——不问也罢！”结尾也是这样，一个“破落户”家的离婚女儿，被穷酸兄嫂的冷潮热讽撵出娘家，跟一个饱经世故、狡猾精刮的老留学生谈恋爱，是香港的陷落成全了这场旷世恋情。张爱玲用词新鲜、独特，一层一层刻划出了疲乏、厚倦、苟且、浑身小智小慧的柳原和白流苏。他们没有悲壮，只有苍凉。“悲壮是一种完成，而苍凉则是一种启示”。“从浅水湾饭店过去一截子路，空中飞跨着一座桥梁，桥那边是山，桥这边是一块灰砖砌成的墙壁，拦住了这边……柳原看着她道：这堵墙，不知为什么使我想起地老天荒那一类的话……有一天，我们的文明整个地毁掉了，什么都完了——烧完了，炸完了，坍完了，也许还剩下这堵墙。流苏，如果我们那时候再在这墙根底下遇见了……流苏，也许我会对你有一点真心。”好一个辽阔浩荡的境界！这是个被毁灭了的、虚伪的世界，所以流苏也只能“拥被坐着，听着那悲凉的风。”“在这不可理喻的世界里，谁知道什么是因，什么是果？谁知道呢？也许就因为要成全她，一个大都市倾覆了。成千上万的人死去，成千上万的人痛苦着，跟着是惊天动地的大改革……流苏并不觉得她在历史上的地位有什么微妙之处。她只是笑吟吟地站起身来，将蚊烟香盘踢到桌子底下去。”真是笑里藏刀，读来不由得从内心升起一股寒意，可满心的是欢喜。张爱玲的用词就是这样处处柔中带刚，绵里藏针，且又细水长流。张爱玲写流苏搬进新房子那段，“客厅里门窗上的油漆还没干，她用食指摸着试了一试。然后把那黏指头贴在墙上，一贴一个绿迹子。为什么不？这又不犯法！这是她的家！她笑了。索性在那蒲公英黄的粉墙上打了一个鲜明的绿手印。”这阴郁而强烈的感情，充满了悲凉的气氛，也处处缀上了张爱玲那飞扬的、任性的且勃勃生气的个性。张爱玲借她笔下的人物淋漓尽致地写出了一段中国历史，以及在历史长河中的一节乱世的情爱，一个经典的故事，带有些许落寞的、渴望毁灭旧事物的梦幻，我们分明看到了张爱玲自己在四十年代的上海和香港的乱世情结。正如胡兰成评张爱玲：“因为爱悦自己，她会穿上短衣长裤，古典的绣花的装束，走到街上去，无视于行人的注目，而自个儿陶醉于倾倒于她会在戏台上看到或从小说里读到，而以想像使之美化的一位公主，或者仅仅是丫环的一个俏丽的动作，有如她之为《借红灯》这美丽的字眼所感动，至于愿使自已变成就是这个美丽的字眼那样。这并不是自恋。自恋是伤感的，执著的，而她却是跋扈的。倘要比方，则基督在人群中走过，有一个声音说道：‘看哪，主人来了！’她的爱悦自己是和这相似的，诚如她文中的人物和语言。”《倾城之恋》里，人生成了警句。柳原说得不错：“死生契阔——执子之手，与子偕老”是一首悲哀的诗，世界是荒凉的，并且太沉重了，他的机智与风趣只是萤烛的微蓝的光，在黑暗中照亮自己。张爱玲就是喜欢用“苍凉”、“悲凉”、“荒凉”、“悲壮”这些词儿来形容人生。她深知家常的中国，懂得平凡生命的乐趣，咂摸到它的滋味，能亭受生活，也“在享用的瞬间领悟到生命的悲怆和不可理喻。”张爱玲在《自己的文章》里说：“我不喜欢壮烈。我是喜欢悲壮，更喜欢苍凉。壮烈只有力，没有美，似乎缺少人性。悲壮则如大红大绿的配色，是一种强烈的对照。但它的刺激性还是大于启发性。苍凉之所以有更深长的回味，就因为它像葱绿配桃红，是一种参差的对照。”张爱玲的贵族气与平民化的交融，是她的个性使然，她亦用这种独特新鲜的语言来阐释着她的爱恨，她似乎不革命的，但笔下却是人性的、有灵魂的小人物的家常生活，她的小说有血有肉，是冷静的，充满了智慧和逼人的冷艳。唯其如此，人性才有了永恒的韵味，有了一种家长里短的真实感。张爱玲的语言之所以有特别的魅力，是因为她能和珍奥斯汀一样地涉笔成趣，一样地笔中带刺，但是刮破她滑稽的表面，我们可以看出她的“大悲”——对于人生热情的荒谬与无聊的一种非个人的深刻悲哀。张爱玲一方面有乔叟式的能亭受人生乐趣的襟怀，可是在观察人生处境这方面，她的态度又是老练的，带有悲剧感的——这两种性质的混合，使得这位写“传奇”的年轻作家，成为中国当年文坛上独一无二的人物，我们也就不难理解她的“苍凉”了。二、 比喻的感觉化及暗示化张爱玲的小说有诸多令人叫绝的奇喻，处处显出精雕细刻，如同画出，无论是活力氤氲还是意趣蕴藉，都给人以意外的惊喜和不尽的回味。(1) 感觉化的比喻在描写战争来了，柳原和流苏逃难那一节里，作者写道：“流弹撕裂了空气，撕毁了神经。淡蓝的天幕被扯成一条条在寒风中簌簌飘动。风里同时飘着无数剪断了的神经的尖端，那炸弹轰天震地一声响，整个的世界黑了下来，像一只硕大无朋的箱子，拍地关上了盖，数不清的罗愁绮恨，全关在里面了。”张爱玲的比喻真是巧妙，就象一个冷静的旁观者，在参与导演一出绝妙的好戏，看戏和作戏的人，都沉静在大自然的音响效果中，画面辽阔、壮观、热闹，还有一种即将被毁灭的绝望与彻肤彻骨的巨痛，叫人感受着这份痛，根源却又无从说起，说不出。这就是张爱玲用奇喻的高明之处。张爱玲的小说世界里充满了自然景物的意象，她的比喻生动、形象，构成方式为外物感觉化。人生是舞台，个人逃不脱要扮演其中的某个角色。张爱玲却在这人生舞台导演着，如同解说，用笔娓娓动听地为我们介绍过去一场或正在进行的人生戏剧里的奇情奇景，她用自然景物衬托了人物的心灵空间，让人从中领悟出最悲怆的人生之谜。如“那口渴的太阳汩汩地做着海水，漱着、吐着，哗啦哗啦的响。人身上的水份全给它吸干了，人成了金色的枯叶子，轻飘飘的。流苏渐渐感到那奇异的眩晕与愉快……”张爱玲的论事论物，处处皆有这样的回春妙语，她的比喻奇妙、精当，令人回味无穷，可见其观察力之细致。张爱玲以这种心态观彼时的众生，无疑将是清醒而又冷静的，因而也能真实且富有历史感地为我们解读了一幕幕人生悲喜剧。(2) 暗示化的比喻在《金锁记》里，她写道：“她到了窗前，揭开了那边上缀有小绒球的墨绿洋式窗帘，季泽正在弄堂里往外走，长衫搭在臂上，晴天的风像一群白鸽子钻进他的纺绸裤褂里去，哪儿都钻到了，飘飘拍着翅子。”这是人物处于阴沉压抑的环境中，爱情终归破灭的情境。没有大段的铺张描写和渲染，文字经济动人，却将那种伤感表现得非常深入。这真是神来之笔，自然灵动。这种奇喻的效果比机智的议论更为出奇制胜，“金锁”锁住的不自由处境却偏以白鸽来作喻，且那么贴切、形象、突兀而自然、传神，仿佛信手拈来，这就令人不得不承认作家天才的存在了。凭张爱玲灵敏的头脑和对感觉快感的爱好，她小说里用喻及意象的丰富，在中国现代小说家中可以说是首屈一指的。钱钟书善用巧妙的譬喻，沈从文善写山水风景喻情，他们在用喻方面与张爱玲一样巧用心思，但他们的观察范围较为狭小。不似张爱玲用喻气势宏大。张爱玲的用喻表现为明显的暗示化。曹七巧用黄金锁住了爱情，结果却锁住了自己。爱情折磨了她一世和一家，她战败了，她是弱者。这种暗示化的比喻由于作者深切的怜悯，也唤起了读者的怜悯。张爱玲对人物的心理分析，并不采用冗长的独白或枯索繁琐的解剖，她利用暗示，把动作、言语、心理三者打成一片，“轻描淡写地呵出一片苍凉的气氛和风格。”两次叔嫂调情的场面，不仅是那种造型美显得动人，而且还综合着含蓄、细腻、朴素、强烈、抑止、大胆，这许多似乎相反的优点。例如童世舫与长安订婚以后这段描写：“空旷的绿草地上，许多人跑着，笑着，谈着，可是他们走的是寂寂的绮丽的回廊——走不完的寂寂的回廊。”这些暗示化的比喻，组合成了张爱玲小说语言的精华。张爱玲的奇喻在她的作品中俯拾皆是，触处生辉，一方面是观察的力，一方面是表现的力，因此大大丰富了她艺术的内涵和外延。如：“有人虽遇见怎样的东西亦水滴不入，有人却像丝棉蘸着了胭脂，即刻渗开得一塌糊涂。”“她觉得她这牺牲是一个美丽的，苍凉的手势……”这些比喻真是俏皮、冷静，张爱玲的奇喻在机智的方面有些近似钱钟书，但内藏的“美丽而苍凉”的意味、情状和个性却更加突出。这种暗示化的奇喻加描写浑然一体，有时候真达到了如夏志清先生所形容的程度：“诗和小说里最紧张最伟大的一刹那”。张爱玲就象一位出色的指挥家，把美的效果引向极至，谢幕了，观众还走不出被导入优美的旋律中那种感觉，令人痴迷，而陶醉其中。这真是大手笔，里面布满了智慧和陷井，而落入的人却是不忍舍去。《金锁记》中曹七巧自己爱情幻灭、心态扭曲，遂不惜将仇恨转嫁于儿女及其情爱、婚事上，力必坏之而后快。儿子长白成了她烟榻畔的牺牲品、驯服工具，女儿长安在婚事历劫万难可望成功之际，却不料她的母亲摆下“鸿门宴”，邀其男友来，以“轻描淡写”的口吻提到长安吸鸦片烟自小成瘾云云，令长安的男友童世舫听得由“吃了一惊”到“不由得变了色”。这一段的描写如：“长白突然手按着桌子站了起来。世舫回过头去，只见门口背着光立着一个小身材的老太太，脸看不清楚，穿一件青灰团龙宫织缎袍，双手捧着大红热水袋，身旁夹峙着两个高大的女仆。门外日色昏黄。楼梯上铺着湖绿花格子漆布地衣，一级一级上去，通入没有光的所在。”“突然按着桌子站了起来”，一句写尽家长制上长白们的懦弱以及七巧们的淫威。而一场用心不可思议的奸诈歹毒破坏后，写到女儿长安出场：“长安悄悄的走下楼来，玄色花绣鞋与白丝袜停留在日色昏黄的楼梯上，停了一会，又上去了，一级一级，走进没有光的所在。”这不仅仅在语气上一气呵成，有无懈可击的结构美，而且在悲剧的诗化上边，用心良苦，给人以余音袅袅的震荡与不尽的低徊。在中国现代小说的百花园中，把小说用喻写得华美而又悲哀，富丽而又苍凉，唯张爱玲了。三、 语言色彩鲜明、景色奇特张爱玲小说的语言色彩绚烂鲜明，景色奇特，如《倾城之恋》中讲流苏到旅馆去，写“整个的房间像暗黄的画框，镶着窗子里一幅大画，那澎湃的海涛，直溅到窗帘上，把帘子的边缘都染蓝了。”是写色彩极好的。在《金锁记》里，她写道；“天就快亮了。那扁扁的下弦月，低一点，低一点，像赤金的脸盆，沉了下去。天是森冷的蟹壳青，天底下黑��的只有些矮楼房，因此一望望得很远。地平线上的晓色，一层绿，一层黄，一层红，如同切开的西瓜——是太阳要上来了。”这段色彩的描写，更衬出了女主人公的阴郁、悲凉的心境。“外面是暖的，心里头是彻头彻尾的凉了。”“窗外还是那使人汗毛凛凛的反常的明月——漆黑的天上一个灼灼的小而白的太阳。屋里看得分明那玫瑰紫绣花椅披桌布，大红平金五凤齐飞的围屏，水红软缎对联，绣着盘花篆字……月光里，她的脚没有一点血色——青、绿、紫、冷去的尸身的颜色。”这种参差对照的色彩，有如一个西洋旅客的眼光观赏着这个古老的中国。这种以图案画的手法来表现的语言色彩，极富有创造性和结构美。抽象、冷艳、华丽。而图案的手法愈抽象，也愈能放恣地发挥她的才气，并且表现她对于美的颜色寄以宗教般的虔诚，更加凸显了她的个性化语言。张爱玲真是用颜色来表现象征的高手。她把感觉写绘成感情。她走进一切的生命里去，一切有情无情在她的作品里也“各正性命”，得到一个完全的安静。所以，她的文章是温暖的，她的色彩有庄严的华丽，也有悲哀，但不是惨痛的凄厉，所谓“众生有情”，对人间是有着广大的爱悦的。张爱玲的大俗大雅，大俗即大雅，大雅即大俗，她的色彩都是有生命的音符，已到了一个境界了。她对大红大绿演化出的一种张扬的美，有似中国式的西洋画，特别有引人的力量。读她的小说，滋味醇厚，像花雕的醇而香。所以她懂得葱绿配桃红，是一种参差的对照，她就是可以把色彩描绘得极漂亮的人。张爱玲的性格中聚集了一大堆矛盾，她是一个善于将艺术生活化，生活艺术化的享乐主义者，又是一个对人生充满悲剧感的人。新派小说家写人物的衣着色彩往往粗针大线，只求达意，一半因为不感兴趣，一半也因为不精通。张爱玲在这上面却是决不肯将就马虎，她得的是《红楼梦》的真传，力求细致准确，而她的服装和色彩搭配知识给了她本钱。她告诉苏青：对于她，一件考究的衣服就是一件考究的衣服；于她自己，是得用；于众人，是表示她的身份地位；对于她立意要吸引的人，是吸引。衣服和色彩对于她是小规模的创造，是尽情的游戏，是生活的艺术，是艺术的生活，于众人，那是她个性、气质、心境的流露，是她希望制造的效果。所以她用奇装异服为自己创造了一个贴身的环境，用大红大绿为生命搭配了力的延续。张爱玲在《“张看”——张爱玲自谈集》里写道：“对于色彩，音符，字眼，我极为敏感。当我弹奏钢琴时，我想象那八个音符有不同的个性，穿戴了鲜艳的衣帽携手舞蹈。我学写文章，爱用色彩浓厚，音韵铿锵的字眼，如‘珠灰’、‘黄昏’、‘婉如’，因此常犯了堆砌的毛病，却乐此不疲。直到现在，我仍然看《聊斋志异》与俗气的巴黎时装报告，便是为了这种有吸引力的字眼。”确实，张爱玲对生命充满了欢悦，是一种不同凡响的漂亮，她的小说语言也是如此。与张爱玲同时代的女作家苏青中肯地对她作了评价：“我读张爱玲的作品，觉得自有一种魅力，非急切地吞读下去不可。读下去像听凄幽的音乐，即使是片断也会感动起来。她的比喻是聪明而巧妙的，有的虽不懂，也觉得它是可爱的。它的鲜明色彩，又如一幅图画，对于颜色的渲染，就连最好的图画也赶不上，也许人间本无此颜色，而张女士真可以说是一个‘仙才’了，我最钦佩她，并不是瞎捧。”张爱玲的小说，给人以色彩斑澜的印象、生动不已的感触。她的语言是有情有味的文字组合，并且有一种现代的文明意识，带着三四十年代上海和香港的文化烙印以及人情世情，在絮絮道来的字里行间渗透着，举重若轻，有时，又似乎不经意地点出，皆成妙语。她满篇俏丽、机智、漂亮的语言，可以看出她身上民族的、民间的文化素质颇深。张爱玲自身及其文学语言的价值，正是表现了中华民族在一定历史时期的复杂的、苍凉的内涵。她用奇喻、奇景、奇彩、奇情构成这一切，好比她最爱用的词汇，“一个美丽而又苍凉的手势”，它给人一种回味，一种启发。张爱玲留给了我们融汇古今语言文化的良多历史旧影，我们无疑会从中获得一些深远的启迪。[参考文献][1] 张爱玲文集（第四卷）．安徽文艺出版社，1992．7．445．[2] 张爱玲．自己的文章．张爱玲文集（第四卷）．安徽文艺出版社，1992．7．173．[3] 向弓．贵族才女张爱玲．四川文艺出版社，1995．5．127．[4] 胡兰成．评张爱玲．向弓．贵族才女张爱玲．四川文艺出版社出版，1995．5．138．[5] 傅雷．论张爱玲的小说．张爱玲文集（第四卷）．安徽文艺出版社，1992．7．408．[6] 张叹凤．张爱玲的奇喻和“伟大的瞬间”．张爱玲文集（第四卷）．安徽文艺出版社，1992．7．283．
熊秋菊. 一曲美丽而苍凉的哀歌——论《半生缘》的审美风格[J]. 沧桑, 2006,(02) . 秦军,王旭. 论张爱玲小说中的悲剧人生[J]. 黑河学刊, 2006,(01) . 陈坤. 母爱的缺失——张爱玲小说世界的“审母”情结[J]. 北华大学学报(社会科学版), 2008,(04) . 胡晓虹. 谈《半生缘》的自然主义色彩[J]. 福建商业高等专科学校学报, 2006,(04) . 徐娜. 浅析《金锁记》中女性的命运[J]. 安徽文学(下半月), 2008,(05) . 尹正纯. 张爱玲小说中男性人物形象分析[J]. 保山师专学报, 2008,(06) . 张英. 浅析张爱玲读者接受心理特点[J]. 辽宁工业大学学报(社会科学版), 2008,(02) . 闫云霄,马芳. 电影《半生缘》改编的遗憾[J]. 徐州教育学院学报, 2006,(04) . 高园园. 谈《半生缘》的舞台表现手法[J]. 戏剧-中央戏剧学院学报, 2005,(03) .
历史意义~有些难啊张爱玲小说人物分析或某部作品的赏析较简单
《倾城之恋》国内外研究现状： 一、2003年，杨泽编写出版了《阅读张爱玲》一书，引起了文坛的广泛重视。本书集结了台湾。大陆及海外学者(康来新，池上贞子，周芬伶，罗久蓉，王德威，张小虹，平路，胡锦媛，梅家玲，蔡源煌...等）对张爱玲的讨论。而这篇论文所引用的历史材料及理论构架，尤其可以见得张爱玲的启发之深，影响之远。本书是“张学”研究最重要的里程碑。 二、作家钱亚玲在一书关于《倾城之恋》的另一种解读中，叙述道无论是思想内涵抑或艺术表现形式，作于1943年10月的《金锁记》被公认为是张爱玲中篇小说之精髓。1944年出版的《传奇》小说集中，作者选《金锁记》作为开篇，足见张爱玲本人对这部中篇小说的偏爱。为此人门较易忽略于集中位居第二的《倾城之恋》。对于《倾城之恋》的评论，不论是力度还是文字的长度都远不及《金锁记》。对于《倾城之恋》这部经典文学之作，期探究价值更为明显。 《倾城之恋》具有外向的唯美主义色彩，结局是范柳原于白流苏共同走进婚姻殿堂，表面上看似圆满的结局背后却隐匿着沧桑，透露着卡破红尘的彻骨悲凉。白流苏的“圆梦”让读者觉得是一传奇故事。正如作家张爱玲的人生一样。 综上所述，当前，关于《倾城之恋》中白流苏形象分析研究比较零散、狭隘。
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她的母亲虽出身名门，却是深受五四新文化运动的熏陶与影响的新式女子，但她仍没能逃脱包办婚姻的命运。她的父亲则是一个封建遗少的形象，时代的变迁，家庭的没落，并未将他拉进现代社会的洪流，相反的，却让他自甘堕落：纳妾、抽鸦片，永远只活在腐朽的封建遗少的世界里。“张爱玲从母亲身上看到的，更多的是处于新旧时代夹缝的中国女性的无助与悲哀。”正是因为她看透了生活在封建社会，男权文化重压下的女性的悲剧命运，才铸就了她笔下一个个鲜活的女性形象。张爱玲笔下的女性是可怜的、自私的、可悲的，她以冷峻、肃杀的笔调为我们展示了一个又一个女性的悲剧。对于她笔下的女性，她不仅仅是给予了悲悯和同情，更多的也有揭露和批判。《倾城之恋》、《金锁记》是张爱玲的代表性作品，这两部作品看似无任何关联，不同的人演绎着不同的故事。但深层次剖析，我们发现，在这不同的故事里，相同的是都为我们展现了女性的悲剧。《倾城之恋》中的女主人公白流苏是一个出身旧式家庭的小姐，她受过西式教育，在受到丈夫的虐待后，甚至同败家子丈夫离了婚，也可以称得上是新式女子。但她离婚回到娘家后，并未感到丝毫家庭的温暖和安慰，兄嫂搜刮完她的财产，便迫不及待想赶她回婆家。讥讽、谩骂的话语刺激着流苏，娘家再无她的立足之地。“这屋子可住不得了！……住不得了！”（《倾城之恋》）但像她这样的女人想要独立生存，谈何容易。于是徐太太的一句：“找事，都是假的，还是找个人是真的。”（《倾城之恋》）使得流苏又回到了原来的老路上即找个男人嫁了，这是她唯一的生存之路。机缘巧合下，她结识了范柳原，这个男人是她的新希望，是她逃脱家庭的唯一出路，说到底她最看重的还是他的财富和地位，所以她便不顾一切地想要抓住这个男人，使自己得到经济上的安全。她想要占据主动的地位，想要成为她的妻子，而不是像他对待欢场上的女子那样对待她。但是，她失败了，范柳原是她无法掌控的男人，她不懂他，她只意识到“他要她，却不愿意取她。”在两性对决中，她败下阵来，，但她却不能放手，只剩下做范柳原情妇这一条出路。不知是幸与不幸，香港爆发了战争，意外的战争使得这对男女回归到最平凡的普通人，两人一刹那的谅解成全了白流苏的梦想，最终与范柳原结了婚。在这看似圆满的结局里，背后却是无尽的苍凉与绝望。流苏的圆满是以整座城市的毁灭作为代价而换来的。“香港的陷落成全了她。……也许就因为成全她，一个大都市倾覆了。”（《倾城之恋》）但“香港之战的洗礼并不曾将她感化成为革命女性，香港之战影响范柳原，使他转向平时的生活，终于结婚了，但结婚并不使他变为圣人，完全放弃往日的生活习惯与作风。”②他们的结局仍旧庸俗，而流苏的婚姻生活，也是可以预见的。《金锁记》中的曹七巧是男权社会下，彻底的悲剧女性形象，在男尊女卑制度的迫害下，曹七巧的灵魂极度扭曲，张爱玲以犀利的笔锋展现了她的疯狂、丑恶和变态。曹七巧原是乡下麻油店老板的女儿，虽出身寒微，却也天真美丽，向往纯真的爱情，也有了喜欢的人。但父权社会里，她的兄长为了金钱，将她卖给高门大户的的姜家二少爷做了偏房，从此，她便把心仪的肉店伙计锁在了心底。嫁给一个从小得了软骨病的残废少爷，就注定了她要压抑着情欲生活，在这畸形的夫妻关系中，她从未享受过人的权利和快乐。在丈夫那里得不到情欲的满足，她便转向了她的小叔子——三少爷季泽。她渴望正常的情欲生活，然而她的爱却始终得不到回应。姜家老太太把她“扶正”后，她将所有的情欲都转化为对金钱的渴望，她固执地认为，金钱就是她的一切。分家后，这种对金钱的依赖愈演愈烈。这是她用一生的幸福换来的，对金钱有着强烈的占有欲，沦为金钱的奴隶。然而她的爱与欲永久地被压抑着，造成了她灵魂的扭曲，她开始变得疯狂、恶毒。她为守住她的财产，不惜破坏儿女的婚姻和爱情。她逼死了两房儿媳，更断送了女儿的幸福。“她既是父权社会的受害者，又是父权社会的合谋者，还是人性丑恶的表现者。” “三十年来她带着黄金的枷。她用那沉重的枷角劈杀了几个人，没死的也送了半条命。”（《金锁记》）白流苏和曹七巧一个是大家闺秀，一个是淳朴的乡下妹子；一个受西式教育，可称得上新式女性，一个是曾向往纯真爱情的美丽姑娘。两个形象看似不同，但她们骨子里都烙刻着很深的女奴意识，都是男权社会下的牺牲品，男人的附属品。她们始终受奴役、受压迫，经济上的无法独立直接导致了人格的无独立。这就是她们悲剧的根源。男权社会下，她们的悲剧性主要表现在：一、亲情的沦丧白流苏的兄嫂搜刮完她的钱财，便迫不及待赶她出门。“四奶奶站在三爷背后，笑了一声道：‘自己骨肉，照说不该提钱的话，提起钱来，这话可长了！我早跟我们老四说过——我说：老四，你去劝劝三爷，你们做金子，做股票，不能用六奶奶的钱哪，没的沾上了晦气！她一嫁到婆家，丈夫就变成了败家子。回到娘家来，眼见得娘家就要败光了——天生的扫把星！’三爷到：‘四奶奶这话有理。我们那时候，如果没让她入股子，决不至于弄得一败涂地！’”（《倾城之恋》）可见，白流苏的钱花尽时，她的兄嫂已不待见她。他们之间，手足之情早已淡化，联系他们的只有金钱。曹七巧的兄长为了金钱，将她嫁给了姜家残废的二公子，丝毫不考虑自己妹妹是否会幸福。亲手将妹子推入火坑后，还要借着关心、探望的名义去姜家搜敛钱财。“曹大年道：‘妹妹你听我一句话。别说你现在心里不舒坦，有个娘家人走动着，多少好些，就是你有了出头之日了，姜家是个大家族，长辈动不动就拿大帽子压人，平辈小辈一个个如狼似虎的，哪一个是好惹的？替你打算，也得要个帮手。将来你用得着你哥哥你侄儿的时候多着呢。’七巧啐了一口道：‘我靠你帮忙，我也倒了霉了！我早把你看得透里透——斗得过他们，你到我跟前来邀功要钱，斗不过他们，你往那边一倒。本来见了官的就魂都没有了，头一缩，死不迟。’”（《金锁记》）他们之间，已不再是单纯的兄妹关系，还有金钱、利益。二、 爱情的破灭范柳原对白流苏，或许是有一点出于真心喜欢的，但他知道白流苏并不真正爱他，她看重的是他的金钱和地位，而且她并不真正懂他。所以“他要她，却不愿意娶她。”如果不是那场战争，白流苏最终的结局也只不过是范柳原的情妇。不正常的夫妻生活，使曹七巧正常的人性本能始终处于被压抑状态。因此她爱上了健康、风流的小叔子——姜季泽。她与他纠缠十几年，她知道是不可能得到他的真心的。可当她听到姜季泽那类似示爱的告白时，她的心颤抖了。“七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦……”（《金锁记》）是的，她爱他，正是因为爱他，当知道他是为了钱而诓他时，她更加愤怒。可赶他走后，她又开始后悔。“今天完全是她的错，他不是个好人，她又不是不知道，她要他，就得装糊涂，就得容忍他的坏。”（《金锁记》）她的戳穿使她的“爱情”破灭了。三、 生存的困境在这个社会里，女人毫无社会地位，更没有独立的人格。她们或许仅仅想要过安稳的日子，却很难实现。为了生存，她们只能依靠男人。白流苏认为：“一个女人，再好些，得不着异性的爱，也就得不着同性的尊重。”（《倾城之恋》）而曹七巧，即使嫁了个残废的少爷，有不甘，有苦闷，却也仍然坚持呆在姜家，她要依靠他给她的名分、地位争夺家产。“女人……女人一辈子讲的是男人，念的是男人，怨的是男人，永远永远。”这足以说明，男人，是她们唯一的活路。她们离不开，更不愿离开。七巧很看重她的家当，但她却依然抓着她的儿子长白，因为他是她生命中唯一的男人，她不能放开他，更不容许别的女人抢走他。四、自私的本性白流苏为了自己的私欲，为了得到一个男人，她一手摧残了她与七妹间的姐妹之情，为了她的生存之路，她不顾姐妹情谊投身于范柳原。“宝络心里一定在骂她，同时也对她刮目相看，肃然起敬。”（《倾城之恋》）流苏把男人看得比姐妹重。而曹七巧为了自己贪婪的本性，更是可以不顾母子之情，拆散儿子、儿媳，破坏女儿的爱情，只为了守住她的财产和她的“男人”。分财产后，曹七巧化身为恶毒的巫女、阴暗的母亲。“在她获得了家长的权利之后，她的变态心理便不可遏制的与她的‘报复’结合起来，‘她需要别人为她的牺牲也付出点什么，不管这别人是否是她的亲骨肉，只要能够补偿她的变态心理’”长白之于她，不单是儿子，还是她生命中唯一的“男人”。可当儿子结婚后，便不只属于她一个人，她需要和另一个女人来分享她的儿子，她不允许这样。她拼尽全力挑拨他们的夫妻生活，说尽儿媳的坏话，致使儿媳在痛苦的煎熬中死去。对于女儿长安，她处心积虑地破坏她的爱情，还给她吃鸦片，生怕外人走她的家当。五、女奴意识和原罪意识她们的悲剧命运一半来自于外界——遭受着男权主义的欺辱和压迫，而另一半原因则在于她们自身，她们骨子里烙刻着很深的女奴意识和原罪意识，这是受几千年来封建男权制度的影响。这种意识使她们自己陷入困境，无法走出来。她们自身就认为无论任何方面，都比男人低一等，所以想生存，只能依靠男人。曹七巧最终结局是众叛亲离，她知道她身边所有的人都怨恨她；而白流苏与范柳原最终结了婚，但范柳原终不会变为圣人，不能放弃往日的生活与作风，谁又知道白流苏会不会成为第二个曹七巧。“三十年前的月亮早已沉了下去，三十年前的人也死了，然而三十年前的故事还没完——完不了。
我没主意（别打我）...不过你可以听听倾成之恋和石南小札 或许有灵感
我毕业的时候用的是张爱玲《金锁记》中金锁的人物形象分析 你可以用张爱玲小说中女性形象的分析，形象分析这方面的都比较好写，资料也比较多。就像三楼说的，你的题目很大，作为一般本科生来说很难驾驭，像我的话，本来就是要写张爱玲小说中女性形象的分析，比你的题目还小，可是老师还是说比较难把握，书也看不完哎，所以就单挑了一本金锁记。而且本科生的论文重的是方法，研究生中把握，我的学姐告诉我一般的研究生毕业论文不会用这种非常多人研究的作家哎，很难出新，貌似这样。 如果从纵向展开，你的书看完了么？如果对书本没有一定的了解，你如果去归纳出特点，当然，很多特点一些专家肯定都说过了，但是自己的见解个人认为比较重要，论文马上也要开始写了，各个时期的书这么多。。。
开题 报告 是指开题者对科研课题的一种文字说明材料。这是一种新的应用写 作文 体，这种文字体裁是随着现代科学研究活动计划性的增强和科研选题程序化管理的需要应运而生的。本文是我为大家整理的 毕业 生开题报告研究 方法 范文 ，仅供参考。 毕业生开题报告研究方法 范文篇一： 一、选题依据(拟开展研究项目的研究目的、意义) (1)研究目的 期待可能性理论产生于二十世纪初的德国，在大陆法系国家的刑法理论中研究探讨的比较多，不过由于我国对期待可能性理论的研究起步相对较晚，在许多问题上还没有形成一个较为统一的意见，直到今天，对期待可能性理论的价值以及理论本身，都没有居绝对优势地位的学说。虽然对于期待可能性刑法理论上尚争论不休，但其合理意义早已存在于刑事司法实践中，这是不争的事实。因此本文着重对期待可能性理论进行研究，先简要介绍期待可能性理论的概念界定，理论基础和形成发展等基础法律问题，再分析期待可能性理论的地位和适用问题并提出自己的见解，最后在对期待可能性理论进行深入研究的基础上，提出我国刑法对期待可能性理论借鉴的一些浅见，希望对立法和理论研究能有所启发。 (2)研究意义 期待可能性理论的积极意义在于考虑行为人本身的实际情况，不强人所难，能达到事实上的合理性和实质正义，不给被告人附加多余义务。因此，通过对期待可能性理论的研究，可以给刑事责任的认定提供人性的标尺，使刑事责任认定更加合乎情理、充满人性，引入期待可能性理论对我国的刑法理论和刑事立法都具有一定的借鉴价值，并且在刑事司法方面也可以发挥其独特的作用，对现实许多疑难、争议案件可作出令人信服的阐释，更容易实现我们司法公正与合理的目标。 二、文献综述内容(在充分收集研究主题相关资料的基础上，分析国内外研究现状，提出问题，找到研究主题的切入点，附主要参考文献) 1、期待可能性的概述 (1)刘昌强、崔志鑫在《穿越的路径》中主张从狭义上理解期待可能性，认为期待可能性是指仅从行为时的外部情况考虑,期待行为人不为犯罪行为而为其他适法行为的可能性。 (2)崔兰、崔志强在《论刑法中的期待可能性》中主张从广义上理解期待可能性，认为期待可能性是指根据行为人行为时的各种因素,能够期待行为人选择合法行为,如果不能期待行为人实施其他适法的行为,就不能对行为人的行为要求承担一定的责任。 2、期待可能性理论的地位 (1)龙立豪，马六生在《论期特可能性理论在我国刑法中的适用》中主张故意、过失构成要素说，他们认为应当把期待可能性置于故意、过失中来理解，期待可能性是故意和过失的构成要素，包含在故意与过失之中，有期待可能性，就存在罪过心理，无期待可能性，就无罪过心理。 (2)陈兴良在《刑法学》期待可能性一章中主张与责任能力、故意或过失并列的第三责任要素说，他认为期待可能性作为客观的责任要素，与责任能力以及作为主观要素的故意、过失构成责任的三大要素，只有三者同时具备，行为人才具有有责性。 (3)姜晓贞在《论期待可能性理论及其与我国刑法的关系》中主张阻却责任事由说，认为期待可能性不是与责任能力、故意或过失并列的第三责任要素，也不是故意、过失构成要素，而应当将不存在期待可能性的情形，理解为一种责任阻却事由。 (4)马克昌在《德日刑法理论中的期待可能性》中主张可罚的阻却、减少责任说，他认为没有期待可能性的场合,如同没有责任能力的场合一样,并不是成为没有责任,只是成为没有可罚的责任。 3、期待可能性的判断标准 (1)陈兴良在《期待可能性问题研究》中主张行为人标准说，他认为以行为人自身的具体情况为标准，根据此人在此时此景之下是否能够实施适法行为来确定。 (2)舒洪水在《期待可能性理论的哲学基础与本土化思考》中主张国家标准说，认为应当以期待行为人实施适法行为一方的国家或国法秩序为标准，考虑其具体要求。 (3)卢蕊在《期待可能性判断浅析》一文中主张平均人标准说，她认为应当把平均人放到行为人的处境看是否能够期待他们实施适法行为，根据平均人是否会实施与行为者同样的行为来确定。 (4)付立庆在《人权标准说—认定期待可能性有无的一种新标准》中主张人权标准说，将期待可能性有无之认定应以被期待者之人权之充分关注为旨趣。 4、我国刑法对期待可能性理论的借鉴 (1)杨兴培在《期待可能性的实践批评》中对于期待可能性的引入持否定态度，他认为在法治社会里,对各种违法犯罪行为的评价与认定,应当坚持“规范在前、价值在后”的基本原则,而不是颠倒，期待可能性作为一种人文价值,虽然有一定的合理性,但是应当让位于刑法规范。 (2)高晓飞在《期待可能性理论中国化的困境与思路》主张引入期待可能性，他认为引入期待可能性有利于促进我国刑法基本理念变革，有利于合理解释我国刑法中的一些重要理论问题，使刑事责任认定更加合乎情理、充满人性。 我认为目前学术界对于期待可能性理论的研究存在很多问题，尤其是对于期待可能性的地位和判断标准两个问题，学者们的争论就一直没有中断过，因此造成了期待可能性理论在适用上的一系列问题，使得刑事责任的确定缺乏人性的标尺，使得现实许多疑难、争议案件难以作出令人信服的阐释。鉴于期待可能性存在的理论价值，我认为应当对期待可能性的概念、地位和判断标准作进一步研究，确定一个统一的标准，进而提出我国刑法对期待可能性理论借鉴的一些浅见，希望对立法和理论研究能有所启发。 毕业生开题报告研究方法 范文篇二： 1.本课题的目的及研究意义 研究目的： 张爱玲与电影有过长期亲密的接触，在小说写作中创造性地化用了电影化技巧，使她的文字组合带有丰富的视像性和表现力。文本以恐怖电影的表现手法为切入口，对张爱玲中短篇小说出现的恐怖电影式镜头进行解析。试图更近距离地感受张爱玲艺术感觉的细微独特之处，并且在此基础上揭示张爱玲小说所蕴涵的悲剧感和死亡意识。 研究意义： 本文通过对张爱玲中短篇小说出现的恐怖电影式镜头进行解析，试图在体会张爱玲语言的“现代性”的基础上，尝试性地提出1种独特的审美方式，从不同的视角解读张爱玲小说的表现手法。 2.本课题的国内外的研究现状 国内研究现状： 国内对张爱玲小说的电影化表现手法的研究主要从小说的电影画面感、电影造型、电影化技巧等角度切入，考察了张爱玲作品对电影艺术手法的借鉴技巧： (1)研究张爱玲小说的电影画面感：《犹在镜中——论张爱玲小说的电影感》(何蓓)等; (2)研究张爱玲小说的电影造型:《论张爱玲小说的电影化造型 》(何文茜)等; (3)研究张爱玲小说的电影化技巧：《张爱玲小说的电影化技巧》(何文茜);《张爱玲小说的电影化倾向》(申载春);《论张爱玲小说的电影手法》(张江元);《张爱玲小说对电影手法的借鉴》(屈雅红)等; (4)研究张爱玲小说的死亡意识：李祥伟《论张爱玲小说中的死亡意识》等 国外研究现状： 海外研究对张爱玲的研究可以分为两个阶段“第1阶段1957-1984年夏志清，唐文标等人对她作品的介绍与评述”“第2阶段1985年至今，辐射面波及北美等地的华文文学的影响研究分析和评价”。1995年9月后，她在美国辞世后，海外学者多运用西方现代文艺理论来剖析。 3.本课题的研究内容和方法 研究内容： 张爱玲的小说映照了1个阴阳不分、鬼气森森的世界，恐怖镜头繁复缤纷，在她的作品里以人拟鬼，她笔下的人物均飘荡在凄冷荒凉的宿命轨道上。本文尝试根据恐怖电影的表现手法，从场景造型、人物造型、以及道具造型等角度入手，对张爱玲小说中出现的恐怖镜头进行研究、阐释。更近距离地感受张爱玲艺术感觉的细微独特之处，并且在此基础上揭示张爱玲小说所蕴涵的悲剧感和死亡意识。 研究方法： 本文采用比较研究的方法，根据恐怖电影的表现手法，在学术界既有研究资料的基础上，从张爱玲小说、相关的研究书籍及其评论等出发，分析整理资料，从场景造型、人物造型、以及道具造型等角度入手，对张爱玲小说当中出现的恐怖镜头进行研究、阐释。 毕 业 论 文(设 计)开 题 报 告 4.本课题的实行方案、进度及预期效果 方案、进度： 2006年11月—2007年2月初：收集资料。重读作品，确定论文题目，查阅相关资料。 2007年2月—2007年3月中旬：在老师的指导下，拟定写作提纲和开题报告。 2007年3月—2007年4月：论文修改。听取老师意见，撰写论文初稿，并交指导老师评审。 2007年4月——：定稿。 预期效果： 本文结合恐怖电影的表现手法，通过分析、比较、归纳等方法对张爱玲小说中出现的恐怖镜头进行阐释，尝试更近距离地感受张爱玲艺术感觉的细微独特之处，并且在此基础上揭示张爱玲小说所蕴涵的悲剧感和死亡意识。 5.已查阅参考文献： 书籍： 1、张爱玲，《张爱玲全集》【M】。新疆：新疆人民出版社，2006年6月第1版。 2、金宏达，《华丽影沉》【C】。北京： 文化 艺术出版社，2003年1月第1版。 3、张新颖，《20世纪上半期中国文学的现代意识》【M】。北京：3联书店，2001年12月第1版。 4、宋家宏，《走进荒凉——张爱玲的精神家园》【M】。广州：花城出版社，2000年10月第1版。 5、李稚田，《第3类时空》【M】。北京：中国纺织出版社，2000年1月第1版。 6、吴战垒，《电影欣赏》【M】。浙江：浙江大学出版社，1987年6月第1版。 7、陈卫平，《影视艺术鉴赏与评论》【M】。北京：高等 教育 出版社，1994年6月第1版。 8、聂欣如，《类型电影》【M】。上海：上海人民美术出版社，2001年9月第1版。 学术论文: 1、何文茜《张爱玲小说的电影化技巧》，石家庄师范专科学校学报， 2003年第5卷第4期第51页。 2、 李祥伟《“丑”趣———论张爱玲小说中的死亡意象》，学术论坛， 2005年第6期第140页。 3、 李祥伟《论张爱玲小说中的死亡意识》，广州广播电视大学报，2004年第4期第38页。 4、张江元《论张爱玲小说的电影手法》，涪陵师范学院学报， 第26卷第4期，第54页。 5、屈雅红《张爱玲小说对电影手法的借鉴》，南京理工大学学报(社会科学版)， 第16卷第6期，第33页。 6、何文茜《论张爱玲小说的电影化造型 》，石家庄师范专科学校学报， 2004年02期，第39页。 7、何蓓《犹在镜中 —论张爱玲小说的电影感》，内蒙古民族大学学报(社会科学版)， 2004年第30卷第4期第40页。 8、申载春《张爱玲小说的电影化倾向》，乐山师范学院学报， 2004年第19卷第5期第12页。 9、吴晓，封玉屏《电影与张爱玲的 散文 写作》浙江社会科学报， 2004年第1期第204页。 毕业生开题报告研究方法 范文篇三： [1]毕业论文开题报告 开题报告是指开题者对科研课题的一种文字说明材料。这是一种新的应用写作文体，这种文字体裁是随着现代科学研究活动计划性的增强和科研选题程序化管理的需要应运而生的。开题报告一般为表格式，它把要报告的每一项内容转换成相应的栏目，这样做，既便于开题报告按目填写，避免遗漏;又便于评审者一目了然，把握要点。 开题报告包括综述、关键技术、可行性分析和时间安排等四个方面 。 开题报告作为毕业论文答辩委员会对学生答辩资格审查的依据材料之一。 由于开题报告是用文字体现的论文总构想,因而篇幅不必过大,但要把计划研究的课题、如何研究、理论适用等主要问题。 开题报告的总述部分应首先提出选题,并简明扼要地说明该选题的目的、目前相关课题研究情况、理论适用、研究方法。 开题报告是由选题者把自己所选的课题的概况(即"开题报告内容")，向有关专家、学者、科技人员进行陈述。然后由他们对科研课题进行评议。亦可采用"德尔菲法"评分;再由科研管理部门综合评议的意见，确定是否批准这一选题。开题报告的内容大致如下：课题名称、承担单位、课题负责人、起止年限、报名提纲。报名提纲包括： (1)课题的目的、意义、国内外研究概况和有关文献资料的主要观点与结论; (2)研究对象、研究内容、各项有关指标、主要研究方法(包括是否已进行试验性研究); (3)大致的进度安排; (4)准备工作的情况和目前已具备的条件(包括人员、仪器、设备等); (5)尚需增添的主要设备和仪器(用途、名称、规格、型号、数量、价格等); (6)经费概算; (7)预期研究结果; (8)承担单位和主要协作单位、及人员分工等。 同行评议，着重是从选题的依据、意义和技术可行性上做出判断。即从科学技术本身为决策提供必要的依据。 [2]如何撰写毕业论文开题报告 开题报告的基本内容及其顺序：论文的目的与意义;国内外研究概况;论文拟研究解决的主要问题;论文拟撰写的主要内容(提纲);论文计划进度; 其它 。 其中的核心内容是“论文拟研究解决的主要问题”。在撰写时可以先写这一部分，以此为基础撰写其他部分。具体要求如下： 1.论文拟研究解决的问题 明确提出论文所要解决的具体学术问题，也就是论文拟定的创新点。 明确指 出国 内外文献就这一问题已经提出的观点、结论、解决方法、阶段性成果、„„。 评述上述文献研究成果的不足。 提出你的论文准备论证的观点或解决方法，简述初步理由。 你的观点或方法正是需要通过论文研究撰写所要论证的核心内容，提出和论证它是论文的目的和任务，因而并不是定论，研究中可能推翻，也可能得不出结果。开题报告的目的就是要请专家帮助判断你所提出的问题是否值得研究，你准备论证的观点方法是否能够研究出来。 一般提出3或4个问题，可以是一个大问题下的几个子问题，也可以是几个并行的相关问题。 2.国内外研究现状 只简单评述与论文拟研究解决的问题密切相关的前沿文献，其他相关文献评述则在文献综述中评述。基于“论文拟研究解决的问题”提出，允许有部分内容重复。 3.论文研究的目的与意义 简介论文所研究问题的基本概念和背景。 简单明了地指出论文所要研究解决的具体问题。 简单阐述如果解决上述问题在学术上的推进或作用。 基于“论文拟研究解决的问题”提出，允许有所重复。 4.论文研究主要内容 初步提出整个论文的写作大纲或内容结构。由此更能理解“论文拟研究解决的问题”不同于论文主要内容，而是论文的目的与核心。 [3]毕业论文开题报告的格式(通用) 由于开题报告是用文字体现的论文总构想，因而篇幅不必过大，但要把计划研究的课题、如何研究、理论适用等主要问题说清楚，应包含两个部分：总述、提纲。 1 总述 开题报告的总述部分应首先提出选题，并简明扼要地说明该选题的目的、目前相关课题研究情况、理论适用、研究方法、必要的数据等等。 2 提纲 开题报告包含的论文提纲可以是粗线条的，是一个研究构想的基本框架。可采用整句式或整段式提纲形式。在开题阶段，提纲的目的是让人清楚论文的基本框架，没有必要像论文目录那样详细。 3 参考文献 开题报告中应包括相关参考文献的目录 4 要求
论文关键词：张爱玲；小说；人性意识；悲剧 论文摘要：张爱玲的小说在对人性的探索中，饱含着深深的悲凉情感，它通过人物形象的悲剧性，演绎人生，诠释人生；用“审丑”的眼光，审视人性的虚伪；通过对“无爱”婚姻的描写，揭示了人性的丑恶。张爱玲小说中揭示出的20世纪40年代中国都市社会中被黄金光圈严重扭曲的、虚伪的人性．给人们以独特的心理感悟。 张爱玲，中国现代文学史上一位带有传奇色彩的女作家。20世纪40年代初，她以小说集《传奇》和 散文 集《流言》名震文坛，成为了红极一时的女才子，1952年，她悄然移居境外，似一颗彗星划了一条美丽的轨道，给人们留下了无尽的论说与回味。海外华人学者夏志清在其《中国现代小说史》中，第一次高度评价张爱玲：“应该是今日中国最优秀、最杰出的作家”“别的作家……在文字上，在意象的运用上，在人生的观察的透彻和深刻方面，实在都不能同张爱玲相比”。的确如此，当我们今天“借助古老的记忆”重新解读她的作品时，我们的灵魂仍被深深地震撼着，仍受到强烈的撞击，我们无法不惊叹于她的才华、她那颗“冷酷”的心、她留下的那些深远的启迪。本文试从张爱玲的经历、创作题材和她介人人生的切人点等方面谈谈她的小说的人性意识。 一、传奇生涯对张爱玲人性意识形成的重大影响 张爱玲出身于上海的一个封建化和西洋化畸形交织的家庭，她有着显赫的身世，祖父张佩伦是清末“清流派”的重要人物，是李鸿章的幕僚，祖母是李鸿章的女儿。但这一显赫的身份并未给她带来任何好处。父亲是个典型的遗少，染有弄风捧月的旧习气，性格上则是暴戾乖张；母亲是一个受西方 文化 熏陶很深且清丽孤寂的新派女性。旧习气与西洋文化格格不入，这种水火不容导致最后的不和，直至离婚。这种生活使张爱玲过早地钡略到了生存的阴暗与没落的一面：“像拜火神教的波斯人，我把世界强行分作两半，光明与黑暗、善与恶、神与魔。”父亲的世界——腐朽、黑暗、冷漠而寂寥，而母亲的世界——洋派、光明、温暖而富足，母亲成了身处幽暗的她拼将全力抓住的一缕阳光。在母亲那里，她得到了文明的教养和气质的熏陶，但有着许多清规戒律的洋房也培育了张爱玲的内倾性格。在张爱玲的生活经历当中，有两件对她的写作乃至一生都有着重大影响的事件值得一提： 中学 毕业 那年，在一次“糟糕的讲演”中，后母动手打了张爱玲，她给予防卫，便遭到父亲的毒打，并且被囚禁达半年之久，她不仅丧失了自由，连生病也不能请医生，只能躺在床上想着那蓝色的月光，体昧着颜色的杀机、时间的苍凉和生命的暗淡．幻想着逃脱计划．像基督山伯爵、三剑客一样．最后，张爱玲在一个隆冬的夜晚，从那充满腐败气味的家庭逃走，从此再也没回去过。种种不幸，使得张爱玲变得敏感、沉静、庄重而忧郁，过早地接触社会，认识人生，使她产生出对人生的否定情绪和形成了浓郁的悲观气质。 此外，在香港读大三的时候，香港战争爆发，枪声、炮火给她的刺激是空前的，战争的恐怖已深深地渗入她的骨子里，战争给了她幻灭、虚无和绝望，她亲眼看到炸弹如何把“文明”炸成碎片，将人剥得只剩下本能，所以她坚信：“人性去掉一切的浮文，剩下的仿佛只有饮食男女这两项”，“人类的文明努力要跳出单纯的兽性生活的圈子，几千年来的努力竟是枉费精神么?”基于这样的认识，张爱玲笔下的人物就具有了某种行为逻辑的一致性，太多坚定地把自身的生存作为第一需要和至高目标。如《十八春》中的曼璐，为了拴住祝鸿才的心，达到“跟定了他”的目的，她竞不惜牺牲自己亲妹妹的幸福，帮着祝鸿才设计占有了曼桢。《沉香屑·第一炉香》中的梁太太要挽住“时代的巨轮”，关起门来做“小型慈禧太后”，丑恶到荼毒亲生侄女，为满足自己的情欲，以侄女为诱饵来吸引年青人，人性变得何等得冰冷，何等得可怖。 正是由于张爱玲那传奇式的家庭和求学经历，使她对时代的观察、人性的剖析完全站在另一种人性的高度。 二、用人物形象的悲剧，演绎人生，诠释人性 张爱玲说：“写斗争，写壮烈，虽给人’兴奋’，给人‘力’，但投有美，‘缺乏人性’，也不能给人启示，写出来也不能成为好作品”；“我喜欢悲壮，更喜欢苍凉”，“悲壮是一种完成，而苍凉则是一种启示”(《自己的 文章 》)。在她的小说中，她总是以人物形象的悲剧性，来演绎人生，诠释人性。她认为人性是盲目的，人生因而也是盲目而残酷的。所以在她的小说中，这一切表现为现实的肮脏、复杂、不可理喻。生活即痛苦，人生就是永恒的悲剧，这就是对人性所能达到的最高的、也是最真的认识。她站在悲哀的基石上冷冷地掀掉华美的生命袍子，露出人性深处的阴暗、自私、虚伪、孤独、冷漠。 被傅雷称之为“我们文坛最完美的收获之一”的张爱玲的代表作《金锁记》，是一出最为彻底的展示了在古老文化、物欲、情欲压抑下的人性的扭曲、畸形、变态的悲剧。主人公曹七巧是一个把自己锁在黄金里的性格变异的女人。她由一个小麻油店业主女儿的身份做成门第颇高的姜家的二奶奶，是因为她丈夫是做官人家的女儿都不会要的“骨痨”身子。因此她正常的情欲难以得到满足，从而受到深深的压抑，但压抑并不能使情欲熄灭，相反，越是压抑得厉害，越是要通过反常的方式寻求出路。情欲的得不到满足导致她对金钱的疯狂追求。起初，她用黄金之梦来抵挡情欲之火，结果当情欲变相地借金钱之欲显形时，她丧失了人性。她的一生都为“金钱”而奋斗，沉重的黄金枷压得她心理畸形她容不得任何人染指她的财产，就在她爱上了风流少爷——小叔子姜季泽，当她的小叔子将祖上遗留的那份家产挥霍得所剩无几，跑到她家向她倾诉起“爱情”来的时候，起初她也感到一种“细细的喜悦”，然而转念一想：“他难道是哄她?他想她的钱——她卖掉她的一生换来的几个钱?”便立即警觉起来，暴怒起来，她把扇子向他掷去，打翻了酸梅汁，泼了他一身。她残酷地扼杀了自己的情欲和希望。她要报复，报复她为黄金付出的代价，不顾一切，不择对象，以至于无法容忍儿女的生命乐趣。儿子长白是个太少爷，他完全受着母亲七巧的控制。她给他娶了“不甚中意”的芝寿，扶正了绢姑娘，却不让他与妻妾同房，整夜陪她“抽大烟”，在她的折磨下，长白的妻妾相继离开了人世，“长白不敢再娶，只在妓院里走走”。她对女儿长安也是一样，给女儿裹脚，使女儿不能正常读书，安排女儿的婚姻，活生生地埋葬了女儿一生的幸福。 对于张爱玲，认识人生就是认识人生的悲剧，而且这种认识，既不能给人带来安慰，也无助于现实处境的改变，相反，它将人放置于空虚、幻灭的重压之下。因此，张爱玲的小说是“没有多少亮色的无望的彻头彻尾的悲剧”。 三、用“审丑”的眼光，审视人性的虚伪 雨果说：“正是从滑稽丑怪的典型和崇高的典型这两者圆满的结台中，才产生出近代的天才。张爱玲在她的作品中不但以审美的方式观照世态，同时也以“审丑”的跟光介人人生，还原人性的真实本性。她从人的“虚伪性”来揭露“人性恶”，人的“靠不住”，暴露出人的灵魂阴暗与丑陋的一角。在她的“霉绿斑斓的铜香炉”中，烧着一炉炉“性心理、性变态、情结、人格分裂”的沉香，牵动着读者心头上的一丝丝痛楚。 《花凋》中的郑先生是个遗少，“是酒精缸里泡着的尸骸”他“有钱的时候在外面生孩子，没钱的时候在家里生孩子”，养了一太群孩子；“全家不断吃零食，坐汽车看电影”，可是当女儿川嫦生病时却“不愿把钱扔在水里”，让其“一寸一寸地死去”，死去后，花钱在其坟头添个太理石的天使，碑上撰制着新式的行述：“川嫦是一个稀有的美丽的女孩子……无限的爱，无限的依依，无限的惋惜……安息吧，在爱你的人的心底下，知道你的人没有一个不爱你的。”作者通过对一个没落时代家庭的叙述，揭露了一个虚假、做作的旧家庭，展示了在“家”的温情脉脉的面纱下，人情、亲情的虚伪、自私、做作。 《沉香屑第二炉香》和《金锁记》两书中的人物蜜秋儿太太和曹七巧经历相同，都是守寡之人，性格不同，但都为了自己失去的完美婚姻，破坏自己女儿的婚姻，有意霸占着自己的女儿，让她们过着与自己一样的生活。作品用深沉的态度，审视着“伟大母爱”隐藏下人性的虚伪。 四、写“无爱”的婚姻。揭示人性的丑恶 恋爱和婚姻是张爱玲的中心题材。她在《自己的文章》里说：“一般所说：‘时代的纪念碑’的那样的作品．我是写不出来的，也不打算写……我甚至只是写些男女间的小事情，我的作品里没有战争，也没有革命。我以为人在恋爱的时候，是比在战争或革命的时候更素朴，也更放恣的。”张爱玲用“男女问题”作为主线，叙述了一个个牵牵绊绊的情爱 故事 ，但无法找到一个健康的、正常的爱，小说中男女的世界灰暗、肮脏，弥漫着窒息的腐烂的气味。 《倾城之恋》中白流苏和范柳原是毫无爱可言的，她之所以看中“被女人捧坏，从此把女人看成他脚底下的泥”的范柳原，主要是范柳原的财富和地位吸引了她，用白流苏自己的心里话说，“她跟他的目的究竟是经济上的安全”。而范柳原更谈不上爱白流苏这个破落户中离过婚的少妇，他是一个讲究“精神恋爱”的男人，“他要地，可是他不愿意娶她”。在他们之间出现了“美丽的对话，真真假假的捉迷藏，都在心的浮面飘滑，吸引，挑逗，无伤大体的攻守战，遮饰着虚伪丑恶”。他们本无真心，只是进行一场恋爱的智斗。说到底，他们只是在互相利用互相玩弄。如果不是香港的战乱极其偶然地成全了自流苏，那么她最好的结局不过是成为范柳原长期而稳定的情妇。 在张爱玲的小说中，男女之间都无真情．人人戴着面具在爱情的舞台进行着玩世不恭的精神游戏。如果说在《倾城之恋》中张爱玲写自流苏和范柳原还仅仅是一种“无爱的婚姻”，却用“美丽的对话，真真假假的捉迷藏，遮饰着虚伪丑恶”，那么，《心经》中的许 小寒 变态的恋父情结，那已是一种违背正常伦理的丑恶的道德的沦丧了。 《心经》里许小寒与她父亲峰仪之间存在着畸形的父女恋，她明明知道自己的真爱是违背伦理道德的，但她因为恋着自己的父亲而一遍一遍扼杀掉健康的爱情。请听她对父亲的一番发自内心的“表白”：“我是一生一世不打算离开你的。有一天我老了，人家都要说，她为什么不结婚?她根本没有过结婚的机会!没有人爱过她!谁都这样想——也许你也会这样想。我不能不防到这一天，所以我要休记得这一切。”可当她得知父亲因为“有钱，有地位”而与“人尽可夫”的绫卿同居后，出于报复宣布与龚海立订婚，并宣称“我需要一点健康、正常的爱。”她母亲提醒她并不爱他时，她又坦言：“有了爱的婚姻往往是痛苦的。”而她哆嗦着感到她自己已经“管不得自己了”。 婚姻在张爱玲笔下是无爱的，“有爱的婚姻是痛苦的”，爱成就不了婚姻，但婚姻又受不了爱的诱惑。婚姻是枷锁，妄想用它来锁住别人，锁住爱情，都是不可能办到，结果只能毁了自己。张爱玲就是这样通过写“无爱”的婚姻．揭示人性的丑恶的。 总之，在张爱玲看来，“生命是一袭华美的袍，爬满了虱子”。这是一种具有兼容性的人生态度。张爱玲正是用这种人生态度审视着加年代中国都市社会中的男男女女，给我们讲述“30年前还没完”的“传奇”故事的，她的作品揭示出的40年代中国都市社会中被黄金光圈严重扭曲的人性之虚伪、自私和丑恶，饱含深深的悲剧感，给人们以独特的心理感悟。