经济英论文范文论文

经济英论文范文论文

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经济法的产生与发展体现了现代市场经济运行模式的客观趋势和法律要求，昭示着法律文明的进步。下文是我为大家搜集整理的经济法的论文范文的内容，欢迎大家阅读参考!

论信用卡被盗冒用的民事法律责任

一、国外相关规定与我国信用卡冒用民事责任的立法及实践

(一)国外相关立法

1.美国的相关规定

在西方一些发达的资本主义国家，注重保护持卡人也就是消费者的利益已经成为银行卡方面的国际规则。在美国，有关信用卡冒用风险责任承担的规定主要体现在《消费者信用保护法》、《诚实信贷法》这两部法案中。《消费者信用保护法》规定：发卡人应该采取措施识别信用卡的使用人是经过授权的，信用卡的发卡人对信用卡是否经授权使用负举证责任;随后的《诚实信贷法》进一步规定消费者或持卡人对未经授权的信用卡消费最多承担五十美元的责任(包括信用卡被偷、被盗、被伪造)。总的看来，这两部法案的相关规定将冒用风险主要转移给发卡机构来承担，而严格限制了持卡人或消费者承担风险的情形，体现了对弱势一方利益的保护。

(1)“未经授权划拨的责任归属”的规定。

“未经授权划拨”(把所有英文符号改成中文)的定义是：美国《诚实信贷法》第一百三十三条将偷窃或捡拾信用卡后使用的行为称作“未经授权划拨”.所谓未经授权的划拨是指由信用卡持卡人(消费者)以外的未获发动实际授权的人所发动的，从该消费者账户划出资金而该消费者并未从该划拨受益的电子资金划拨。

美国法律规定，消费者对用丢失的或被窃的信用卡发动的交易，包括消费者自己被迫进行的划拨，是未经授权的划拨，适用对未经授权划拨的责任限制。

未经授权划拨的责任限制：《电子资金划拨法》与E条例及其官方人员注释规定，只要持卡人以合理的方式向机构发出了通知，其责任将受到限制。并将持卡人对未经授权的划拨的承担的责任分为三个等级：五十美元，五百美元和无限责任。

未经授权划拨责任限制原则的起源：该法所确立的持卡人责任限制之原则，起源于1976年第一国民城市银行诉莫拉克案。在此案中，法院根据联邦法、州法律和判例，判决被告对这五百美元未经授权的支出只承担五十美元的责任。

未经划拨责任原则的适用：美国的《电子资金划拨法》和E条例还规定：“无论持卡人存在多么明显的疏忽都不影响对其适用责任限制”.在 Russenvs First American Bank-Michigan一案中，法院就持这一观点。该案中，消费者疏忽地将他的ATM卡个人密码写在与卡放在一起的纸上，并将卡与密码交给他女儿，后来他女儿丢失了两者，并因此造成了未经授权划拨的损失。美国法院判决认为：这种疏忽对消费者是否应对卡与密码的发现者启动的而未经授权的划拨承担责任，是无关紧要的，消费者不承担因此疏忽造成的损失。

尽管这种规定容易引发持卡人的道德风险，持卡人可能会谎称某项交易未经其授权而从中牟取不当利益。但是美国的法律作出这种规定的基础是相信绝大多数的持卡人是诚实的，当然这种信任有着庞大的征信体制作为基础。法律同时认为发卡银行在发行信用卡之前就应该意识到信用卡的风险，并且有义务在发卡之前对申请人的信用情况进行调查，信用卡应该发给讲信用的人。况且，刑法上关于信用卡欺诈的罪名也能有效的克服这种道德风险的发生。

(2)“举证责任”的规定

美国国会通过的《消费者信用保护法》规定，信用卡的发卡人对信用卡是否经授权使用负举证责任。《诚实信贷法》则规定发卡机构若要求持卡人承担至多五十美元的责任，还存在进一步的证明义务，即必须证明未经授权使用信用卡的行为必须符合法律规定的其它要件，具体有：持卡人已经接受了信用卡;发卡人就潜在责任向持卡人发出过说明通知;发卡人向持卡人提供了在信用卡丢失或者被盗时向发卡人发通知方法的说明;未经授权使用发生在持卡人己经将丢失、被窃或其它事件通知信用卡发行者以前;信用卡发行者已经提供一种方法，用这种方法可以识别一张信用卡的使用者是未经授权的。

这种举证责任的倒置使得处于弱势的持卡人避免了因为举证不能而承担冒用风险的情形，而对于拥有强大技术支持和先进设备的发卡机构来说，这也没有加重其负担反倒有助于其积极采取措施维护持卡人用卡的安全。

(3)“消费者承担全部责任”的规定

美国的发卡机构一般与持卡人约定，在下述情况下，持卡人即使在挂失后仍应承担风险责任：第三人冒用为持卡人允许或故意将信用卡交其使用者;持卡人故意将使用自动化设备预借现金办法或进行其它交易之交易密码或其他辨识持卡人同一性之方式告知第三人者;持卡人与第三人或特约商店伪造虚构不实交易行为或共谋欺诈者等。上述例外条款的规定，不可谓不周全，而且具有相当的合理性和可操作性，强调了持卡人在保管和使用信用卡时的审慎义务。

2.其他国家和地区的相关规定

(1)英国的有关规定。英国同行业公会制定的，要求银行会员共同遵守的《银行营运规则》规定，除非发卡银行证明持卡人存在欺诈或者没有合理谨慎使用各种银行卡，则信用卡丢失或者被盗后，对于持卡人挂失之前的损失，持卡人承担责任最多为五十英磅。

(2)韩国的有关规定。韩国《与信专门金融业法》第二条第三款规定：发卡机构应当自接到持卡人挂失请时起给持卡人带来的所有损失负责。

(3)澳大利亚的有关规定。澳大利亚《电子资金划拨指导法》对未经授权划拨消费者的责任也作了规定：在账户持有人不存在欺诈和重大过失的情况下，对未授权划拨只承担一百五十元或账户中的余额或账户机构被通知接入方法发生滥用、遗失或被窃，或是作为接入方法组成部分的密码的安全性受到破坏时己发生的实际损失。

(二)我国信用卡被盗冒用的现行立法

我国现行法律体系中调整信用卡的法律、法规和司法解释有：民商法部门中的《民法通则》、《最高人民法院关于贯彻执行<中华人民共和国民法通则>若干问题的意见(试行)》、《合同法》、《担保法》中的少数条款;经济法部门中的《中国人民银行法》、《商业银行法》、《消费者权益保护法》等法律中的一些相关规定。而专业调整信用卡法律关系及实践操作的只有部门规章，主要包括：1999年03月01日起施行的由中国人民银行(“央行”)发布的《银行卡业务管理办法》、2005年10月26日由央行发布实施的《电子支付指引(第一号)》、以及央行于2001年07月09日发布实施的《网上银行业务管理暂行办法》银监会于2006年01月26日公布并于03月01日正式实施的《电子银行业务管理办法》，其中都仅有少数条文对于信用卡的冒用责任做出了规定。

目前我国没有专门的法律，也没有行政法规，只有人民银行的部门规章—《银行卡业务管理办法》对信用卡冒用的法律责任作出了规定。该法第五十二条第五款规定：“发卡银行应当向持卡人提供银行卡挂失服务，应当设立二十四小时挂失服务电话，提供电话和书面两种方式，书面挂失为正式挂失方式。并在章程或有关协议中明确发卡银行和与持卡人之间的挂失责任”,按照这条规定，当持卡人丢失信用卡后，发卡银行的“义务”是向持卡人提供挂失服务。但是，就在这个关于发卡银行的“义务”的条款中，中国人民银行授予了发卡银行可以在章程或者协议中，自行制定信用卡冒用责任条款的权利。因此，目前关于信用卡冒用及挂失的法律责任，主要来源于我国各商业银行的规定及实践。

(三)我国商业银行的规定及实践

工商银行于2009年6月1日起施行的新版《电子银行章程》规定，信用卡正式挂失前的损失由客户自理。其在银行业首次提出，因客户未尽到风险防范义务而导致的损失，银行将不承担责任。

中国银行规定，信用卡必须通过电话挂失方能即时生效。中国银行的中银信用卡、中银都市卡、中银VISA奥运信用卡实行挂失零风险措施。信用卡遭遇丢失或被盗后，只需致电二十四小时客户服务热线，办妥挂失后即无需承担挂失后的风险。

广发银行去年率先推出了国内首创的挂失前四十八小时失卡保障计划，这项挂失前四十八小时失卡保障功能可以有效地降低未能及时发现信用卡遗失而造成的损失，更全面地保护了信用卡持卡人的利益和用卡安全，但是这项保障措施不包括ATM机、网上支付等须使用密码的交易。

招商银行于2006年4月推出“失卡万全保障”功能，比广发行仅晚了一个月，即挂失前四十八小时内发生的盗用损失，将由银行承担。其中，普通卡每人每年最高赔偿额为一万元，金卡为一万五千元，白金卡按照客户的信用额度为全包。

《交通银行太平洋个人贷记卡领用合约》规定，持卡人遗忘密码或遗失太平洋卡的，特殊情况下，银行不承担任何责任，损失由持卡人承担，如密码重置前使用密码进行的各项交易等。此外，由银行承担挂失之后的冒用风险责任。

《中国建设银行龙卡信用卡领用协议》规定，遇信用卡遗失或被窃，持卡人应立即办理挂失，挂失生效后，发生的非持卡人有意所为而造成的债务和损失不再由持卡人承担。总结以上各个银行关于信用卡挂失的规定与实践，可以看出，我国各个银行关于信用卡冒用责任的规定包括以下两种情况：挂失之后，信用卡被冒用的风险由银行承担，除非出现免责的情形;挂失之前，绝大多数银行规定信用卡被冒用的责任由持卡人承担，目前只有极少数银行，如广发行和招商银行承担了挂失后四十八小时内，信用卡被冒用的部分甚至全部责任。在司法实践中发生了持卡人与发卡银行关于银行卡丢失或被盗的责任纠纷，法院也基本上支持银行方面的主张，判决消费者承担挂失前所发生的全部损失。

二、我国现行立法中存在的不足

(二)我国现行立法规定

本文认为我国关于信用卡法律责任的现行立法存在严重不足，主要表现在以下几方面：

(一)界定冒用风险的标准过于简单

我国法律对信用卡挂失的风险责任承担的有关规定，以是否办理挂失作为衡量持卡人是否承担责任的决定因素，将信用卡遗失风险的分担义务由法律义务变为合同义务，对持卡人限额没有任何规定，扩大了银行要求持卡人承担责任的可能性。风险责任前提的简单化使得立法无法对复杂的风险发生情况做出有意义的划分，无法根据信用卡遗失情况及持卡人、发卡行过错程度的不同，对各方当事人的责任进行细分。

(二)对持卡人规定的责任过重

发卡行根据持卡人的申请核发信用卡后，持卡人就拥有了对信用卡的绝对控制权，应当履行妥善保管信用卡的义务。在由于持卡人的过错造成失卡并产生冒用损失的情况下，持卡人应当在一定范围内承担相应的责任。但是这并不等于说，信用卡一旦丢失就必然会发生损失，失卡并不是损失的充分条件，因为信用卡消费不同于现金消费，它在时间、空间上的不连续性要求信用卡交易中持卡人、发卡行、特约商户三方主体的紧密配合。在持卡人失卡的情况下，只要发卡行和特约商户能够完全履行自己相应的义务，不法分子通常很难达到冒用的目的。因此，信用卡挂失前的冒用风险应当根据持卡人、发卡行和特约商户在形成冒用风险中的过错类型和程度在三者之间进行合理分配，而不是把这种冒用风险全部强加于持卡人来独自承担。然而，从目前我国各发卡行信用卡章程和领用信用卡协议中的规定看，大部分发卡行仍规定信用卡挂失前的损失由持卡人自己承担，这种做法是非常不合理的。

(三)对银行规定的责任过轻

从《银行卡管理办法》的体系上看，信用卡冒用的相关责任被规定在第五十二条发卡银行的义务当中，而如前所述，该条规定其实是在授予发卡银行极大的权利，将权利规定在义务中，这显然是种立法上的矛盾，从而也导致也各大银行纷纷在各自的章程或者协议中，扩大持卡人的责任范围，减轻银行在其中的责任。

从法理上看，将两个在经济实力上极为悬殊的主体其中弱小一方的责任交给强大一方来规定，结果肯定是不公平和不公正的，必然对持卡人的权益造成很大的损害。虽然发卡银行和持卡人之间的关系是平等的合同关系，通常由合同法来调整。但发卡银行与消费者(即持卡人)的关系实质上是不平等的，这种不平等不仅表现在两者之间经济实力的巨大差距上，而且还表现在以银行为主的金融机构拥有法律赋予的特权即行业垄断权。这显然违反了民法上的公平原则，使得持卡人承担过多的风险，持卡人可能要承担不是因为其过失所导致的损失，这一点亦违反了过失责任原则。

另外，从信用卡被冒用的表现形式和原因来分析，不难发现信用卡被冒用的原因主要在于两方面。首先是技术层面，发卡机构、特约商户的防伪防盗设备和技术相比现今高科技高智能的犯罪仍然存在不少漏洞;再者是人为层面，主要表现在发卡机构和特约商户的工作人员业务素质不高，程序操作不规范，持卡人没有谨慎的保管信用卡。而《银行卡业务管理办法》第五十二条第五款明显把冒用的情形简单化，甚至将银行自身由于技术问题产生的冒用风险完全转嫁给无任何过错的持卡人，是十分不合理的。

三、完善我国信用卡冒用民事责任的立法建议

由于中国目前支持信用卡挂失风险运作的基础—信用机制尚未健全。因此中国要想在信用卡领域取得成功，既不能照搬欧美的模式，也不能照抄台湾的经验，而是要根据中国的民族传统习惯，借鉴国际上好的立法技术，制定出相应的法律、法规，形成自己的模式，才能使信用卡消费者的权益得到很好的保护。

(一)尽早出台《信用卡条例》

2005年04月24日，中国人民银行、发改委、公安部、财政部、信息产业部、商务部、税务总局、银监会、外汇局共同发布的《关于促进银行卡产业发展的若干意见》中提出起草《银行卡条例》的构想。虽然这意味着在将来的立法规划中，银行信用卡业务还是将和借记卡等其他银行卡业务作为一个整体来进行立法调整，但这毕竟是信用卡专立法中的一大进步。《银行卡条例》构想的提出，把规制信用卡业务的主要法律依据从中国人民银行制定的部门规章—《银行卡业务管理办法》上升到了国务院制定并公布的行政规范，使之在法律效力上高于其他有关信用卡的规章和政策，在调整信用卡业务的专门法律法规体系中初步形成一个核心，立法层次的提升也可以在一定程度上保证该行政法规在内容上超越金融机构狭隘的部门利益，对信用卡当事人的合法权益给予公平的法律保护。同时也应完善信用卡配套法律法规，颁布信用卡格式合同范本，加强对信用卡消费者权益的保护。

(二)明确挂失后冒用的损失由银行承担

挂失后信用卡仍出现被冒用，主要原因是在挂失人挂失与发卡银行向各特约商家发放止付名单之间往往存在一个时间差。而时间差的存在则是技术手段不够先进、存在缺陷所致。银行发行信用卡、开办信用卡业务，应当考虑到可能发生的风险，理应采取相应的管理措施，提供相应的健全的技术支持，将风险降低以至消除，这是银行的义务。同时，解决挂失后冒用风险的可能性在于银行技术与业务水平的提高，惟有银行才能有效防止风险发生。而作为信用卡持卡人，对此是无能为力的。因此，挂失后冒用的损失应当由银行来承担。

(三)明确挂失前二十四小时冒用的损失承担

在信用卡脱离持卡人控制和挂失止付之间，往往存在一个时间差，而冒用人往往利用这个时间差，侵犯持卡人的财产所有权。因此，对这个时间段的冒用责任做出具体的规定就显得尤为重要。而且笔者认为，二十四小时是一个比较适合的时间段，如果规定的时间过长，比如广东发展银行的四十八小时甚至更长，会容易导致持卡人怠于挂失，可能导致损失的进一步扩大。规定二十四小时内的责任归属，一方面可以督促持卡人及时履行挂失的义务，另一方面也能够很好地保护持卡人的利益。笔者认为在这二十四小时中，持卡人应当承担限额的责任，特约商户承担与其过错相应的责任，其余的责任由银行承担。

1.持卡人承担责任的条件与责任限额

持卡人对于信用卡件具有妥善保管的义务，当由于持卡人自身疏忽导致信用卡落入他人之手而任意取现或透支时，对此后果持卡人具有不可推卸的责任。因此从原则上讲，持卡人应对挂失前的损失承担一定的责任。对于合法持卡人失卡后、挂失前的责任承担问题，由其承担部分的责任是合情合理的，因为其未能履行保管义务，且若挂失前的责任由发卡行或特约商户全数承担的话，无疑会诱发消费者的道德风险，增加金融消费领域中的不稳定因素。

2.明确举证责任由银行承担

笔者认为对信用卡冒用责任的承担最公平的解决方式是：采纳过失责任原则，实行举证责任倒置，由金融机构承担举证责任;持卡人仅对其重大过失承担责任限额内的责任，其他损失的责任由金融机构承担，金融机构可就此向保险机构投保转移风险，且成本比持卡人低很多。

由此造成银行的损失可以向保险机构转移。这是指发卡机构通过向保险公司投保，在发生风险损失时，由保险公司补偿，从而避免或减少实际损失的一种形式。保险作为一种风险管理策略，在金融风险管理中已有很久的历史，早在上个世纪三十年代经济大萧条过后，美国就开始了存款保险制度。现在信用卡风险管理中运用也越来越多，是分散风险、补偿损失的一种重要手段。发卡机构可以把开展信用卡业务的一些难以预料的意外损失，通过少量的保险费的支出而获得及时、满意的补偿，从而降低或减少风险，这对发卡行来说是非常经济的。

另外，在电子资金划拨中记录银行与客户之间交易的凭借是交易数据，与传统银行业务交易记录的纸质单据相比其具有两个特点：其一，交易数据都储存在银行的服务器中，交易过程的记录完全由银行制作和掌握，银行在交易中处于绝对优势地位，客户手中不掌握任何交易数据的备份;其二，电子数据易于篡改，被投机者利用的可能性极大。这种交易行为的特殊性，使得“谁主张谁举证”这一民事诉讼举证原则不能适用于银行与客户之间产生的电子银行业务纠纷。为了避免这种由于发卡银行掌握所有原始证据材料，而持卡人不掌握，却还要求持卡人进行举证的不合理做法，我国立法应当在损失分担规则中明确银行的举证责任义务。

(四)明确银行应当承担的责任

立法应当明确银行的责任：对信用卡承担实质审查义务，否则承担相应的过错责任。对身份证件承担形式审查义务，否则承担相应的过错责任。

发卡机构在信用卡被冒用时，无论在何种情况下都须承担该责任，甚至主要责任。这一点对发卡机构来说的并不是不公正的。从发卡行与持卡人的信用卡合约来看，发卡机构不仅是发行信用卡的机构，而且在发卡后更有保障持卡人安全用卡的义务。从技术层面来看，发卡机构拥有先进的设备和专业的技术人才，能够较好防御的信用卡被冒用的风险。反过来看，将冒用风险主要转移给发卡机构，也有利于其加强安全技术，加快设备的更新，不断提高服务水平。再从规避风险的便捷性看，经济实力雄厚发卡机构可以通过引入保险机制，将冒用风险转移给保险公司，以有效减低银行和客户双方的损失。

1.银行应对信用卡承担实质审查义务，否则承担相应的过错责任。银行对于信用卡真实性的审查应是一种实质审查，而不是形式审查，银行对自己签发的信用卡应尽到绝对的审查义务。如果允许银行对信用卡的审查仅尽形式审查义务，让银行以已尽形式审查义务而免除其在真实信用卡下付款付息的义务，对存款人来说殊为不公。因此，从银行与存款人利益平衡的角度有必要让银行承担起对银行卡的实质审查义务。

《中国工商银行异地通存通兑业务管理办法》规定，“柜员审查所受理卡是否为已开通异地通存通兑业务行的牡丹灵通卡，卡片是否打测、剪角、损坏、涂改，是否有样卡字样”.从此表述看，工商银行规定其仅对牡丹灵通卡进行形式审查。银行的这种观点得到法院判决的支持，北京市海淀区人民法院认为，“柜台人员只能凭肉眼和工作经验对卡片和身份证件的材质、样式、颜色等进行一般的形式上的审查，对于其他只能由精密仪器才能鉴别出来的细微差别，银行则无法承担鉴别责任”.该种观点也成为银行方面一贯主张的观点。

但是，从信用卡合同关系当事人的权利与义务出发，我们有必要对此种认定的合理性表示怀疑。信用卡由银行签发，证明信用卡合同关系的存在，其真实性为合同法一般原则所要求。对信用卡真实性的鉴别是确定信用卡合同关系真实性的前提之一，也为下一步银行鉴别持卡人身份奠定了基础。假的信用卡并不能代表真实的信用卡合同关系。银行对信用卡真实性的鉴别是其履行付款义务的第一个前提条件，也是最基本的一个前提条件。以假信用卡对外付款的行为不应该消灭银行依据真实的信用卡合同关系所应负的付款付息义务。在这个意义上，笔者认为，银行对于信用卡真实性的审查应是一种实质审查，而不是形式审查，银行对自己签发的信用卡应尽到绝对的审查义务。

2.银行应对身份证件承担形式审查义务，否则承担相应的过错责任。要求银行对身份证件承担实质的审查责任是没有法律依据的，也是不现实的，其原因在于：向金融机构提供真实有效的证件，是法律对开立账户当事人提出的要求，《个人存款账户实名制规定》第六条对此有明确规定;另外，从银行实际操作的可行性角度来看，金融机构对当事人提供证件的真实性、有效性也仅能作形式上的审查而无可能进行实质性审查，因为金融机构本身就不是证件真实性与否的鉴定机关，也无权作出鉴定结论。

身份的确认是一个重要的环节，银行履行付款及付息义务以此为前提。一些学者认为，银行对身份证件应承担实质审查之责。他们认为，“在银行与持卡人之间，银行作为商法领域的商人，有专业上相对强大的鉴定识别能力、业务风险防范与承担能力，而持卡人在这些方面则要相对弱些。更何况在被冒领过程中，持卡人处于完全被动的地位，银行作为参与者，应当有更多的积极作为义务”,“银行不能以自己不能辩明身份证的真伪而将错误支付的后果转嫁到持卡人身上。银行只有针对出现的问题不断改进工作方法，加强工作人员的责任心，确保对持卡人款项的正确支付，保证持卡人的合法权益得以实现。只有这样才能维护银行信誉，促进自身发展。”

但是笔者认为，银行既不是身份证的发证机关，也不是具有专业鉴定职能的鉴定部门，客观上并不具备判断身份证件真伪的专门技能和人员。银行若对挂失当事人的身份证等进行实质性审查，验明正身，也于法无据，挂失人与发证机关均无配合协助的法定义务，同时也缺乏必备的设施、专业的技能和有效的途径，而最终无法实现。

>>>下页带来更多的经济法的论文范文

部分论文取消、条件放宽了。搜“高级职称论文郑密路网、郑密路18号论文网、郑州论文大学郑密路网、郑州职称论文大学郑密路网”，是辅导全国且唯一必须用地址命名的机构。原因是太出名了。18年来引起全国各地几百人网上假冒这些名称且假冒层出不穷、变化多端、时隐时现。全国只有郑州有郑密路。目前发现网上假冒的手机电话号码地址都不在郑州。 我看到：通知：部分论文取消、条件放宽。查阅各省最新职称政策可搜：高级职称论文郑州郑密路全国办。 搜：高级经济师论文郑州郑密路全国办、（任何）论文郑州郑密路全国办、高级经济师论文选题郑州郑密路全国办、高级经济师论文范文郑州郑密路全国办、高级经济师论文辅导郑州郑密路全国办、高级经济师报考条件郑州郑密路全国办、高级经济师评审条件郑州郑密路全国办、高级经济师考试科目郑州郑密路全国办、高级职称（高级经济师、农经师、会计师、审计师、统计师、政工师、工程师、人力资源管理师、教师）论文（论文选题、论文范文、论文辅导、报考条件、评审条件、考试科目）郑州郑密路全国办、中国职称大学郑州郑密路全国办等。即 搜：高级经济师论文郑州郑密路全国办、高级会计师（农经师、审计师、统计师、政工师、工程师、教师、人力资源管理师等）论文郑州郑密路全国办。 搜：高级经济师评审条件郑州郑密路全国办、高级会计师（农经师、审计师、统计师、政工师、工程师、教师、人力资源管理师等）评审条件郑州郑密路全国办。 搜：高级经济师报考条件郑州郑密路全国办、高级会计师（农经师、审计师、统计师、政工师、工程师、教师、人力资源管理师等）报考条件郑州郑密路全国办。 搜：高级经济师考试科目郑州郑密路全国办、高级会计师（农经师、审计师、统计师、政工师、工程师、教师、人力资源管理师等）考试科目郑州郑密路全国办。 搜：高级经济师论文范文郑州郑密路全国办、高级会计师（农经师、审计师、统计师、政工师、工程师、教师、人力资源管理师等）论文范文郑州郑密路全国办。 搜：高级经济师论文选题郑州郑密路全国办、高级会计师（农经师、审计师、统计师、政工师、工程师、教师、人力资源管理师等）论文选题郑州郑密路全国办。 搜：高级经济师论文辅导郑州郑密路全国办、高级会计师（农经师、审计师、统计师、政工师、工程师、教师、人力资源管理师等）论文辅导郑州郑密路全国办。 ......在百度第11-19页，360第15-27页，搜狗第17-27页。 详搜：中国职称大学郑州郑密路全国办、郑州论文大学郑密路全国办、郑州职称论文大学郑密路全国办、郑州高级职称论文大学郑密路全国办、河南高级经济师学院郑州郑密路全国办、河南高级会计师（农经师、审计师、统计师、政工师、工程师、教师、人力资源管理师等）学院郑州郑密路全国办。价格：普刊1000-5000元，核心3-5万。未指定刊物名称。要求第一作者，多省文件规定：在公开发行的省级以上学术刊物发表本专业论文三篇以上。北京一篇5000字，其他省3篇3000字。论文查重率10-30%，评审合格之前永远有效。期刊必须有CN刊号，在国家新闻出版总署网站能查到。是正刊，不能是增刊、专刊、特刊。论文被维普、万方知网任何一个网站收录。必须是第一作者。北京一直答辩，河南2020年后不答辩，山东一直不答辩。

全英文经济论文范文

在全球化时代,随着国际交流日益增多,中国对高质量英语人才的要求也达到了前所未有的高度。英语教学在中国高等 教育 体系中占据着举足轻重的地位,也肩负着社会培养高质量人才的重任。下文是我为大家搜集整理的关于 毕业 英语论文 范文 大全的内容，欢迎大家阅读参考!毕业英语论文范文大全篇1 浅谈老水手的心理历程——《苦舟子咏》 读后感 [摘要]：《苦舟子咏》是英国19世纪湖畔派诗人柯勒律治的一首长诗。全诗是一个充满了奇幻之美的的航海 故事 。全诗探索人生的罪与罚问题，诗人把热爱宇宙的万物泛神论思想和____思想结合起来，宣传仁爱和基督____罪思想。诗中的水手的心理活动刻画得细致入微，水手杀掉信天翁表示他拒绝社会给他的礼物，他除掉了深爱自己并代表超自然的事物，也就除掉了对这个世界的感情，最后水手内心发生转变，以新的态度对待自然，为此他才得以解脱出来。 [关键词]：老水手;道德;内疚;痛苦;赎罪 Abstract: “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” is one of Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s masterpieces. It is a long poem, telling a story in the form of ballads .The poem can be approached as a dream voyage to another realm, as a story of sin and expatiation, or as the quiet essential representation of the alienated isolated modern individual. 一、作者简介 塞缪尔·泰勒·柯尔律治(Samuel Taylor Coleridge)1772年10月21日生于英格兰西南部德文郡一个乡镇牧师的家庭。9岁丧父，被送往伦敦基督慈幼学校上学，熟读希腊、罗马文学。19岁入剑桥大学，与骚塞相识。当时两人都同情法国革命，但又都害怕革命暴力，于是设想去美洲建立乌托邦社会。计划失败后柯尔律治移居英格兰部西部湖区，致力于写诗，并与华兹华斯结成密友。他憎恶资本主义城市文明和冷酷的金钱关系，于是远离城市，隐居于昆布兰湖区，寄情山水或缅怀中世纪的宗法社会。他们创作出歌颂大自然的或美化宗法制农村生活方式的诗篇，以抵制丑恶的资本主义现实。因此被称为“湖畔派诗人”。1798年，两人合作出版著名的《抒情歌谣集》。同年他与华兹华斯兄妹到德国 留学 ，被康德的哲学和耶拿派的诗歌理论和创作所吸引。回国后继续居住于湖区，与华兹华斯保持往来。柯尔律治年青时代即患有风湿痛等多种疾病。为求镇痛他长期服食鸦片竟至上瘾，故健康大受损害。晚年他贫病交加，1834年7月25日逝世于海格特。柯尔律治的作品以真的细节描绘超自然的神秘事物，令人甘愿暂时不去考虑普通情理而信以为真，并在领略到一种怪异的美的同时获得教益或良知的觉醒。柯尔律治的创作实践和理论建设，不仅影响过他的同时代人，也影响了包括和他政治态度相左的拜伦、雪莱和济慈，而且，对于时至今日的诗歌艺术探索者，仍具有重要的借鉴价值。他在英国文学史上有重要地位，是浪漫主义思潮的重要代表。 二、《苦舟子咏》简介 《苦舟子咏》是柯尔律治唯一一部完整的长诗。这部长625行的叙事谣曲是一个神秘恐怖的浪漫故事：一名老水手对一个赴结婚宴的客人讲述了他自己的可怕的故事。客人想走开，赶快去赴宴，却为老水手眼中的特殊表情所吸引住，不得不站在那里把这个故事听完了。老水手和同伴们坐了一艘船出海去。一路上很平安。然后遇到了一阵暴风，暴风过后，这位水手却无端地射杀一只了航海者认为好运象征的信天翁。因此，厄运又降临了。船驶进静海中，那里没有风也没有浪;太阳如火如荼地照耀着。海水绿绿地满载着腐物。船停在那里不动，老水手被视为这次厄运的造因者。水手们都渴得要死去，仿佛有一只船要驶进救他们却又消失不见了。那是一只幻船，水手们一个个都死在甲板上，每个死者的眼光都注定在这位杀死信天翁的水手身上。全船的人，只有他没有死。后来，他对于自所做的恶罪觉得悔恨。于是天使们可怜他的悲苦，使死尸们站了起来，仍去做水手们的职务。他们开上了帆。虽然没有风，船却渐渐地移动。于是，这船一直驶到了老水手的故乡。一个领航者离了海岸，出来迎接。但在他到这船之前，它却突然地沉下了，留下了这位老水手在海波中与死神挣扎着。他被领航者所救。后来，他一想起那时受的言之不尽的痛苦，便不能忍。他的心在体内烧着，一直到了把这可怕的故事说了出来，方才觉得舒服。 三、分析老水手的心理历程 “自由、平等、博爱”是资产阶级道德重要规范。“自由、平等、博爱”的 口号 是资产阶级革命时期提出来的。它既是资产阶级的政治主张，又是资产阶级道德的重要内容。这一口号的提出不仅在政治上曾经起过推动历史进步的作用，而且在人类道德发展史上也是一个巨大的进步，因为它否定了人身依附关系，肯定了人身自由;否定了等级特权，肯定了人的平等;否定了把人不当人的非人道主义的博爱思想。一句话，肯定了人的尊严、价值以及个人对幸福的追求。所以，它对个性的张扬和自我意识的发展，对人们挣脱禁欲主义、蒙昧主义、等级主义的枷锁都起到了巨大的革命作用。 西方____的万物泛神论主张神无处不在，万物都是神的表象。这种主张认为：上帝就等于万事万物;任何个别事物就是上帝;世上的事物实际上都是虚无的。 在这两种思想的支配下，作者把信天翁认为是基督____徒。老水手无端地射死了信天翁，表示他拒绝社会给他的礼物，他除掉了深爱自己并代表超自然的事物，也就除掉了对这个世界的感情。老水手违反上天的指意，违反自然规律，射死了无辜的信天翁，必然要受到惩罚。于是，灾难来了：风停了，船无法前进，阳光酷热，水手们口干舌燥。这时候，有人指责老水手——“你怎敢放肆，将神鸟射死!是它引来了南风。”此时，老水手开始意识到自己行为的错误。于是，他开始不断地感到内疚。心理学认为，在道德情感系统中，羞耻感是其中的一个元素。毕达哥拉斯要求人们对自己言行进行反省以后，就应该在内心里对卑劣的行为感到羞耻、悲哀和恐惧;对善良行为感到欣喜。沙莆慈伯利认为，道德上的善恶主要取决于感情系统中的羞耻感。他说：“凡出自不公正的情感所作的，就是不义恶行和过失;如果情感公正、健全、良好，并且情感的内容有益于社会，而且还是以有益于社会方式施行，或有所感动，这就必定在任何行动中构成我们所说的公平和正直。”不义、恶行和过失将引起人们的羞耻感。羞耻感是个人的自我道德意识的一种表现，表示一个人对自己的行为、动机和道德品质的谴责时的内心体验。良心是羞耻感的的主要作用机制，常表现出焦虑、羞愧和内疚等情绪。道德焦虑是一种复合情绪。其中，痛苦和畏惧是主要构成“因子”。但它仅以避免外在处罚为目的，是低级形式的羞耻感，可又是羞耻感发生的基础。那么，羞耻感的真正作用是什么?是内疚，只有内疚才是高度的主体意识的产物，它激活潜在的思维和力量，专注与对过失的懊悔和追悔的行为，促进个体的心理成熟。如果个体内疚匮乏，那他将对道德不屑一顾，达不到“有羞知格”的认识。同时，羞耻感要以自尊为前提，一个没有自尊的人是不会知耻的，更不会自责。自尊体现了对自我社会话的切近，没有自尊的防卫，就不可能有自责的意识和行为的发生。老水手对自己的不道德行为知耻，惭愧和悔恨。老水手真是由于良心发现才深感自己行为的错误，于是惶惶终日，不断自责自己。 事态进一步发展，在他忏悔和祈祷下挂在脖子下的鸟掉下来了，但是同行的水手都因为缺水而一个个地死去，只有老水手一个人活着。这似乎是上帝对他的又一个惩罚。他一方面觉得自己的罪行深重，导致了其他水手的死亡——痛苦;另一方面在茫茫大海中，一条船上就他孤零零的一个人——恐惧。于是他的内心又经历了一场痛苦与恐惧的考验。良心是每个人自身内部的道德评析，是自己对自己行为道德价值的认识、认知、判断、态度、感情、体验、意向、意志、动机等一切心理反应活动。老水手不断对自己惊醒良心谴责。良心的基本因素是感情，感情是对需要的体验，是心理的动力因素。它一方面产生良心的认知因素，推动自己去判断自己行为的道德价值;另一方面则产生良心意志因素，推动自己做出改过迁善的选择。在行为过后，良心对行为的后果有影响和评价作用。对于履行了道德义务并产生了好后果的影响和行为，它便于进行自我谴责，使人感到内疚、惭愧和悔恨。这种自我谴责，往往能形成一种力量，促使人们改正自己的行为。 后来，老水手虔诚地祈求海蛇破开魔法，他才获救得以回家。人非圣贤，孰能无过?人生在生活中不免发生道德过失。道德反省就是通过对道德过失的追悔，从而激励人们采用新的道德行为去补救已经酿成的道德不幸，并且通过对道德过失的觉醒为将要开始的道德行为提供罗盘。道德反省的实质在于主体对自己已作的道德选择进行批判性的分析，是在主体已经体验到自己的道德行为存在着过失的情况下，从而进行的对自己内心的深刻 反思 。通过反思，要为今后的行为提供新的路线和方案，明白来者可追，逝者可补。在今后的行动过程中，要用千倍的补偿替代原有的损失;通过反思，主体对自我发展和自我需要与社会道德的系统会领悟得更加深刻。 故事的最后，老水手回到了家。于是出现了开篇的那一幕：他极力拉住去赴婚宴的人，让他们听他讲这个离奇的故事——他想寻找听众，承认自己的错误，说出自己的故事，解除内心的痛苦——赎罪。尽管老水手已经虔诚忏悔，但还是有种负罪感难以释怀，于是他渴望被人理解，宣泄出来以排除内心的痛苦。生活也是这样，当我们遇到困难、痛苦的时候，不要封闭自己，找一个忠实的听众，把自己的苦恼说给他听。这是一种释放压力的好 方法 。 总之，柯尔律治的这首诗歌以神秘、怪诞著称，其中的心理描写可谓是典范!诗歌探讨了罪与罚、善与恶，生与死等哲学问题，宣传了一切生物皆上帝听造的教义。但诗歌的真正价值并不在故事本身或它所包含的哲理上，而在以造型艺术的精确性和音乐的流动感为读者创造了一幅幅神奇的海洋画面：时而风平浪静，沉寂安宁;时而风暴骤起，一片喧嚣。在写作此诗时，柯尔律治并不熟悉大海，但他能凭借想象，使真实的情形与幻想的景象互相交织，把平凡的细节与诗意的象征融为一体，充分显示了瑰丽奇特的想象能力。在诗艺上，长诗将英国民歌的自由与古典文人诗的谨严冶于一炉，炼就出适合表达浪漫主义情绪的活泼自然的诗体，而长诗的音韵与节奏之美，也表现了诗人能让文字进行歌唱的本领。 [参考文献]： 《英美文学选读》 天津大学出版社出版 《英国文学简史》 河南人民出版社出版 《道德心理学》 中南大学出版社出版 毕业英语论文范文大全篇2 浅谈东西方数字九的 文化 对比分析与翻译 一、前言 "数是人类思维发展到一定阶段，为适应社会生产活动的需要，在符号的帮 助下产生的。"(苏金智，19 91)"数字是语言学中的一个特殊的领域。在科 学的数字世界里，它的功能是计算，秩序严谨，职司分明，是 实数;而在人类 心灵的数字世界中，它的功能是表义，许多数字经过“神化”后成为“玄数”、 “虚数”、“ 天数"。它们有着极其丰富的外延和内涵。"(王秉钦，1998) 由于受东西方文化传统、宗教信仰、语言崇拜、地理环境等方面的影响，数 字的神化存在着东西方的差异 ，但也存在着共性，有着共同的规律。在"数的 灵物崇拜"上各民族都有普通性。东方人有自己心目中的"天 数"，而西方人 也有自己心目中的"神数"。神秘数字的演化规律一般经过"神化—泛化—虚 化"的过程。( 王秉钦，1998) 东西方已有不少有关数字科学的专著和论文， 如毕达哥拉斯(phythagoras) 学派的T·丹齐克的《数 科学语言》(商务印书馆，1998)，英国人伦拉德·法 拉的《七的探源》;国内也有不少学者就数字写过著作 和论文，并开展过学术探 讨。如，王秉钦教授在其《语言与翻译新论》的中篇第六章就以"数的语义范围 比较 与翻译"为专题;苏金智曾写过《数的灵物崇拜》(载〈语言、社会、文化》 440页， 语文出版社，1991，1) 等。在1998 年南昌大学主办的"中国英汉语 比较研究会第二届年会暨第三次学术研讨会"上，英汉文化对比专 业委员会会 员曾就中南工业大学外语学院吴玲英老师的《中西文学中"以三为法”的文化模 式》展开了激烈的 讨论。本人认为东方人，尤其是中国人，自己心目中的天数 是"九"而不是"三"，也并非完全是因为"九" 是"三"的倍数。 二、东西方数字"九"的文化对比分析 在我国，人们之所以把"九"看成是自己心目中的"天数"和最富有神奇色 彩的数字， 是因为"九" 这个数字的象征意义(symbolicmeaning)，在我国可 以说历时最久，涉及面也最广。 "九"作为数不同于一 般数字，在中国古代被 认为是一种神秘的数字，它起初是龙形(或蛇形)图腾化之文字，继而演化出"神 圣" 之意，于是中国古代历代帝王为了表示自己神圣的权力为天赐神赋，便竭 力把自己同“九”联系在一起。如天 分九层，极言其高，天证/诞日为正月初 九，天子祭天一年九次。更有趣的是连皇宫建筑都与"九"有关。例 如，北京 城有九门，天安门城楼面阔九问，门上饰有九路钉(即每扇门的门钉纵横各九排)。 汉语词汇中也常 用"九"来形容帝王将相的称谓，如"九五之尊"(imperial throne);称官位仅次于皇帝的王爷为"九千岁 "等。 根据阴阳五行与数的关系，万物之根均为数，宇宙也是数。数始于1而终于 10，五行也是数，按传统的五行 理论来划分，则1、2为木：1为阳木，2为阴 木。以3、4为火：3为阳火，4为阴火。以5、6为土：5为阳土，6为 阴土。 以7、8为金：7为阳金，8为阴金。以9、10为水：9 为阳水，10为阴水。这 就是将"象"、"数"与五行 结合起来推演变化，用以显示事物发展变化的内 在联系。由此看来，"九"是最大的阳数，象征着天。 传说 古 代中国人把天分 为九层，九层天是天的最高处，汉语中有关词汇有"九重霄"(指极高的天空， "九霄云外" ，"九天揽月"，"九天九地"等。另外，天坛，这个明清两代 祭天的场所，其建筑无处不体现着“九”的象 征意义。 民间传说中还有"九头 鸟"(nine-headed bird: a fabulous bird whose appearance was f ormerlyregarded as a bad omcn)的故事。 中国人以"九"为大数，刘师培在《古书疑义举例补》一书中写道："凡数 指其极者，皆得称之为'九' ;"《素问》中说："天地之数，始于一，终于 九。"因此，汉语中有"九九归一"或"九九归原"之说。因 从"九"为数之 极而引出人生之限，故"明九"或"暗九"均为人生之"坎"，避讳有“九”之 岁。例如：“ 老太太因明年八十一岁，是个暗九。"(《红楼梦》)。日本人一般 认为"九"是"苦命和痛苦"的象征，因 为"九"与"苦"同音，因此忌讳 "九"。然而，《外语与外语教学》曾报道过国内一位学者曾为考证这一点 ，采 用"全选法"将日本某地电话号码其中的几千个姓和名分别进行统计，结果发现 将"九"作为姓的只占极 少数(约占)，而将"九"作为名的却不少(约 占35%)。看来，日本人忌讳"九"也并非绝对。 此外，《词源》中说："九：虚指多数。""九"作虚数解时，是数的一种 语义模糊现象。《现代汉语词 典》中，"九"的意思有三个：(1)数目，八加一 后所得;(2)从 冬至 起每九天是一个"九"，从一"九" 数起，二"九"、三 "九"，一直数到九"九"为止。冬练三九，夏练三伏;(3)表示多数或多次： 九泉，三 弯九转等。因此， 汉语中有不少和"九"有关的 成语 。如："九牛一 毛"、"九死一生"、"九牛二虎之力" 、"九流宾客"等等。 在我国，数字"九"涉及面在所有数字中最广。含有数字"九"的词汇也十 分丰富。如，"九州"是指传 说中的我国上古行政区划，后用作"中国"的代 称。因此，有的全国性的电视节目就取名为“九州方圆”;“ 九族"(the nine degrees of kindred: either thenine generations from one's great-great-gr andfather down toone's great-great-grandson;or four generations of one'spatemal relations, three generations of one's matemalrelations, and two generations of noe's wife's relatio ns)，古代有一种残酷的刑法叫"诛灭九族";古代传说 "龙生九子，各有所好"。因此，《红楼梦》第九回 中用"一龙生九种，种种各 别"来比喻贾氏家族族大人多，龙蛇混杂，好坏不一，各种各样的人都有。还有 " 九龙杯"等。此外，在文娱、体育等词汇中，数字"九"也比比皆是。如， 许多歌名都以"九"开头："九妹 "、"九九艳阳天"、"九百九十九朵玫瑰" 等;乐器中也有"九音锣";在体育活动中，"九柱戏"(nine pins)，兵器中 有"九节鞭"[但这与西方文化中的"九尾鞭”(cat-o '-nine- tails: an instrurnent of punishment so calledfrom the nine pieces of leather or cord which compose it)意义不大一样]。 地名中也有一些以"九"开头的，如"九 寨沟"、"九华山"、"九江"和"九龙"等。此外，中国人常把" 九"看成 为吉祥数字之一。在申请电话号码时，人们宁愿多出 钱去买一个尾数为"8"或 "9"的吉祥号码。比 如，湖南有线电视台的"欢乐热线"号码为"16899919"。 在西方，数字"九"也是人们心目中的"神数"之一。对西方人来说， "九"的象征意义是"神性"、 "神圣之至"。 英语权威字典Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary and Webster's ThirdIntema tional Dictionary 中 对"九"所解释的意义比《现代汉语词典》所解释的意义还多，分别有： 1)one more than eight, three threes, the square of three;2) nine units of objects (a tota l of nine) ; 3) a: thenumerable quantity symbolized by the arabic numeral 9; b: thefigure 9 ; 4) nine o'clock——compared Bell table, timeillustration; 5) the ninth size in a set series: as a; aplaying team of nine members, baseball team; b:the firstor last 9 hol es of an 18-hole golf course…。 其中收入与"九"有关词语和成语多达近二十条。常用的有： a nine-day's wonder (an object or event that creates ashort-lived sensation) ____Those political expositions…that make a nine day'snine wonder till something fresh c omes alone——Mary Deasy. nine times out of ten(very often) be dressed up to the nines(elaborately dressed, as for aformal occasion) ____She dressed herself up to the nines and went to theparty. in the nineholes:in the difficult situation nine-men's morris: morris played with nine counters A cat has nine lives: A cat can move so fast and jump sowell that he seems to escape being killed many times. 从以上的解释还可以发现一个规律：数字"九"及其倍数在西方也被广泛运 用于文娱和体育活动中。如， 保龄球(bowling )中的瓶状木柱数(ninepins) 为"九"; 高尔夫球 球场有一十八个洞：跳子棋的棋板上各 方均为九个孔; 古 时英国还有一种九个男人一起跳的舞蹈(morrisdance)等。由此看来，数字"九" 也倍 受西方人的青睐。 总之，在东西方文化中，数字"九"含有以下主要共性： 1)东西方大多数人把数字"九"看成神秘的数字， 其象征意义均有"神 圣"之意。 2)在东西方文化中，数字"九"均可虚指多数。 3)数字"九"被广泛运用于文体项目中。 数字“九”在东西方文化中的个性恐怕主要在于：对中国人来说，其神奇色 彩要比西方人更浓;其象征意 义的历史在东方文化中比西方文化中更悠久;其 涉及面在东方文化中比西方文化中更广泛。 三、数字"九"的翻译问题 罗马西塞罗说过："翻译不是字当句对，而是保留语言的总风格和力 量。""按分量而不是按数量译词" 。此处所说的数字是指经过神化、泛化、 虚化了的"虚数"，"实数"的翻译不在此例。根据这一理论，结合 东西方文 化的共性与个性，可采用如下的翻译方法，并遵循以下的翻译原则。 可采取的翻译方法主要有： (一)保留原数字 . We thought our cat would be killed when he fell fromthe roof of the house. He was not, he used up one of his ninelives. 我们以为我们的猫从屋顶掉下来会死了，它并没死，只失掉九条命中的一条。 这样翻译过来，人们很容易接受，因为人们已熟悉"猫有九命"这个成语， 并能够促进东西方文化的融合 。 (二)转换成各民族喜爱的数字 out of ten——十之八九 nine days' wonder———可翻译为"昙花一现"， 这样翻译可以加深对奈 达的"对等"和纽马克的"转 换"翻译理论的理解。 (三)增舍数字 比如，"九死一生"可翻译成"a narrow escape from death;survival after many hazards";又如 ，"九九归一，还是他说的话对。"可翻译成"All things considered,what he says is right."其译文均 舍弃了数字，转译其 形象意义。 应遵循的原则主要有： (一)民族性原则 比如，汉语中的"费了九牛二虎之力"，《汉英词典》(外研社，1996)的译 文有三个："strain onese lf to the limit; use everyounce of one's strength; make herculean efforts"。笔者认为第二种译文 "use every ounce of one's strength "更符合"民族性原则”，成功地将东方文化中该成语的比喻意义转 化成了西方文化语言中的形象意义。 (二)习语性原则 比如："匡超人此时恍若亲见瑶宫仙子，月下嫦娥，那魂灵都飘到九霄云外 去了。"(《儒林外史》)， 其译文为"Kuang felt that he was gazing at a goddess and his spirit had flown to heaven."这种译 文因遵循了"习语性原则"， 充分地体现了人类交际行为的一个最根本原则——语言——符号的经济原则。 (三)形象性原则 数字用于模糊意义时，一般都失去了其数量意义而具有形象意义。翻译时， 必须越出其理性意义而捕捉其 与 其它 的词结合后所产生的形象意义。 比如："飞流直下三千尽，疑是银河落九天(李白)。"此句诗中的"九天" 的形象意义为"极高的天空 "，因此，可翻译成"Down itcascades a sheer three thousand feet—As if the Silver River [. the Milky. Way]were falling from heaven!"猜你喜欢： 1. 毕业英语论文范文 2. 英美文学毕业论文优秀范文 3. 商务英语专业毕业论文范文 4. 大学英语毕业论文范文 5. 英语专业论文范文 6. 本科英语专业论文范文

有很多的同学在写英语作文的时候，也会写一些经典的议论文，我整理了相关范文，希望会对大家有所帮助！

英语作文范文带中文翻译

Many years ago, the movie about the youth became very popular, every year, we can see many hot movies about the protagonist’s passed youth. People like to recall their passed youth, which makes such movies sell good. But I find the common things about these movies, all the protagonists’ youth are about fighting, love and other negative things. I understand the directors’ intention, they want to tell people youth is not perfect and having pities. Of course movie is exaggerating, the real youth is about studying, at least, most people have worked so hard to get into their ideal colleges. What the movies describe make up some people’s youth, for which they don’t have the chance to experience. We should not be misled by these movies, for the teenagers, their job is to study, so that they can have a bright future.

【翻译】很多年以前，关于青春的电影很受欢迎，此后每年，我们都可以看到很多热门电影是关于主人公逝去的青春。人们喜欢回忆他们逝去的青春，这才是让这类电影好卖的原因。但是我发现了这些电影的共同点，那就是所有的主人公的青春都是关于大家，恋爱和其他消极的东西。我明白导演们的意图，他们想要告诉人们青春是不完美的，存在遗憾。当然电影是夸张化的，真正的青春是关于学习，至少，大部分人是如此努力的学习，为了进入理想的大学。电影所刻画的弥补了一些人的青春，对于他们没有机会去体验这些东西。我们不应该被电影误导，对于青少年来说，他们的工作是学习，这样他们才能有一个美好的未来。

高中英语作文范文80词

I like English. I think I can share my English learning method with you. First of all, develop interest on English. My way to make it is to watch movies from abroad. At first, I will watch the movie with subtitle. Then I will remove the subtitle, only English left. Gradually, show great interest in English. Secondly, recite vocabularies. Vocabulary is the necessary foundation to start learn English. This time you have to force yourself to remember words. Thirdly, understand basic grammar thoroughly. It is hard for me to understand the meaning of a sentence if I don’t know the basic grammar. Last but not least is to speak more. The basic purpose to learn a language is to communicate. So talk in English as much as you can. And don’t worry about losing face, because everyone makes mistakes. Those are my methods.

我喜欢英语。我觉得我可以和你分享一下我的英语学习方法。首先，培养对英语的兴趣。我的方法是看国外电影。一开始，我会留着字幕一起看。之后我就会不看字幕，只留英文。渐渐地，我对英语表现出极大的兴趣。其次，背诵词汇。词汇是学习英语的必要根基。这一点你只能强迫自己去背了。第三，完全理解基本语法。如果我不懂基本语法，我会很难理解一整个句子的意思。最后但并非最不重要的是要多说。学习语言的基本目的就是进行沟通。因此，尽可能多的用英语交谈。不要担心丢脸，因为每个人都会犯错误的。这些就是我的方法。

英语作文100词左右带翻译——珍惜时间

Chinese Spring Festival celebrating the end of winter and the warmth of spring. It began in the last day of the lunar year, end in the 15th day of lunar New Year, also is the Lantern Festival. During the Spring Festival, people use red lantern and Spring Festival couplets decorate a house, put on all kinds of colored clothes, often

An English proverb says that time is money. I consider it (this) wrong. Why? Because we all know that we can earn money be work but can not in any way get back time (in anyway). For this reason, we may (can) say that time is more valuable than money.

Many people do not know the value of time. It (this) is indeed a great pity. We must bear (keep) in mind that wasting time is equal to wasting your life.

【翻译】英国有句谚语说，时间就是金钱。我认为这是不对的。为什么？因为我们大家都知道我们能够用工作赚钱，但无论如何却无法把时间争取回来。基于此种理由，我们可以说时间比钱钱更宝贵。

许多人不知爱惜时光。这确实是可惜的。我们必须记住浪费时间等于浪费生命。

经济类论文范文英语

Macroeconomics is a sub-field of economics that examines the behavior of the economy as a whole, once all of the individual economic decisions of companies and industries have been summed. Economy-wide phenomena considered by macroeconomics include Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and how it is affected by changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, and price levels. In contrast, microeconomics is the study of the economic behaviour and decision-making of individual consumers, firms, and industries. Macroeconomics can be used to analyze how to influence government policy goals such as economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments. Macroeconomics is sometimes used to refer to a general approach to economic reasoning, which includes long term strategies and rational expectations in aggregate behavior. Until the 1930s most economic analysis did not separate out individual economics behavior from aggregate behavior. With the Great Depression of the 1930s, suffered throughout the developed world at the time, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of macroeconomics began to expand. Particularly influential were the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, who formulated theories to try to explain the Great Depression. Before that time, comprehensive national accounts, as we know them today, did not exist . One of the challenges of economics has been a struggle to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models. Starting in the 1950s, macroeconomists developed micro-based models of macroeconomic behavior (such as the consumption function). Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first comprehensive national macroeconomic model, which he first built for the Netherlands and later applied to the United States and the United Kingdom after World War II. The first global macroeconomic model, Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates LINK project, was initiated by Lawrence Klein and was mentioned in his citation for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1980. Theorists such as Robert Lucas Jr suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional Keynesian (after British economist John Maynard Keynes) macroeconomic models were questionable as they were not derived from assumptions about individual behavior, although it was not clear whether the failures were in microeconomic assumptions or in macroeconomic models. However, New Keynesian macroeconomics has generally presented microeconomic models to shore up their macroeconomic theorizing, and some Keynesians have contested the idea that microeconomic foundations are essential, if the model is analytically useful. An analogy might be that the fact that quantum phisics is not fully consistent with relativity theory doesn´t mean that realtivity is false. Many important microeconomic assumptions have never been proved, and some have proved wrong. The various schools of thought are not always in direct competition with one another - even though they sometimes reach differing conclusions. Macroeconomics is an ever evolving area of research. The goal of economic research is not to be "right," but rather to be accurate. It is likely that none of the current schools of economic thought perfectly capture the workings of the economy. They do, however, each contribute a small piece of the overall puzzle. As one learns more about each school of thought, it is possible to combine aspects of each in order to reach an informed synthesis. The traditional distinction is between two different approaches to economics: Keynesian economics, focusing on demand; and supply-side (or neo-classical) economics, focusing on supply. Neither view is typically endorsed to the complete exclusion of the other, but most schools do tend clearly to emphasize one or the other as a theoretical foundation. • Keynesian economics focuses on aggregate demand to explain levels of unemployment and the business cycle. That is, business cycle fluctuations should be reduced through fiscal policy (the government spends more or less depending on the situation) and monetary policy. Early Keynesian macroeconomics was "activist," calling for regular use of policy to stabilize the capitalist economy, while some Keynesians called for the use of incomes policies. • Supply-side economics delineates quite clearly the roles of monetary policy and fiscal policy. The focus for monetary policy should be purely on the price of money as determined by the supply of money and the demand for money. It advocates a monetary policy that directly targets the value of money and does not target interest rates at all. Typically the value of money is measured by reference to gold or some other reference. The focus of fiscal policy is to raise revenue for worthy government investments with a clear recognition of the impact that taxation has on domestic trade. It places heavy emphasis on Say's law, which states that recessions do not occur because of failure in demand or lack of money. • Monetarism, led by Milton Friedman, which holds that inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon. It rejects fiscal policy because it leads to "crowding out" of the private sector. Further, it does not wish to combat inflation or deflation by means of active demand management as in Keynesian economics, but by means of monetary policy rules, such as keeping the rate of growth of the money supply constant over time. • New Keynesian economics, which developed partly in response to new classical economics, strives to provide microeconomic foundations to Keynesian economics by showing how imperfect markets can justify demand management. • Austrian economics is a laissez-faire school of macroeconomics. It focuses on the business cycle that arises from government or central-bank interference that leads to deviations from the natural rate of interest. • Post-Keynesian economics represents a dissent from mainstream Keynesian economics, emphasizing the role of uncertainty and the historical process in macroeconomics. • New classical economics. The original theoretical impetus was the charge that Keynesian economics lacks microeconomic foundations -- . its assertions are not founded in basic economic theory. This school emerged during the 1970s. This school asserts that it does not make sense to claim that the economy at any time might be "out-of-equilibrium". Fluctuations in aggregate variables follow from the individuals in the society continuously re-optimizing as new information on the state of the world is revealed. Later yielded an explicit school which argued that macro-economics does not have micro-economic foundations, but is instead the tool of studying economic systems at equilibrium. 宏观经济学是一种分场经济学的行为,研究是在整个经济中,一旦所有的个人的经济决策,为公司和产业被。宏观经济学认为经济现象包括国内生产总值(GDP)以及它是如何变化影响失业的国民收入的)经济成长率、价格水平。相反,微观经济学研究的就是经济行为和决策的个体消费者,公司和行业。宏观经济学可以用来分析如何影响政府的政策的目标,比如经济增长,价格稳定,充分就业和获取可持续国际收支差额。宏观经济学有时用来指一个经济理论的主要途径,包括长期战略的期望和理性综合行为。直到30年代为止,大部分的经济分析没有独立的个人经济综合行为举止。与1930年代的经济大萧条,遭受了在所有发达国家,发展国民收入的概念和产品的统计数据,但是研究领域的宏观经济学开始扩展。具有特殊影响力的想法是,约翰•梅纳德凯恩斯理论,努力向他们解释制定了经济大萧条。在那时候,综合国民经济核算,如同我们知道他们今天,是不存在的。经济学的一个挑战是一场斗争调和宏观经济政策和微观经济政策,模型。开始于20世纪50年代,macroeconomists发达micro-based模型的宏观经济行为(如消费函数)。1月Tinbergen荷兰经济学家第一个全面发展国家宏观经济模型,该模型他第一次建成为荷兰和后应用于美国和英国二战之后。第一个全球宏观经济模型,沃顿计量预测伙伴联系工程项目,发生在劳伦斯发起克莱恩和被提及他的嘉奖经济学诺贝尔经济学奖1980年。理论家如罗伯特·卢卡斯认为(是在上世纪70年代),认为至少有一些传统的凯恩斯(英国经济学家约翰梅纳德凯恩斯)宏观经济模型都是可疑的,因为他们不是来源于假设的个人行为,虽然现在还不清楚这些失败在微观经济的假定,或是对宏观经济模型。然而,最新凯恩斯主义的宏观微观模型提出了大致以支持他们的宏观经济理论有争议,一些凯恩斯主义者的想法,微观经济基础是必要的,如果模型是分析有用的。打个比方可能是,这样的事实,即量子phisics并不完全符合相对论´,并不代表没有realtivity是假的。许多重要的微观经济假设从来没有被证明,而有些人的证明是错误的。各种各样的思想学派并不总是在彼此的直接竞争,尽管他们有时会达到不同的结论。宏观经济学是一种前所未有的领域的研究。研究经济学的目标不是"正确",而是是精确的。很有可能是学校目前尚无一个经济思想完全捕捉运作方式的经济。不过,他们的贡献每一小块整体难题。当你学会更多关于每个思想学派,它能把方面的每一个为了达到一个通知的合成。传统的区别是留给经济学两种不同的方法,重点凯恩斯经济学和供方需求;(或古典)经济学、关注供应。也都是典型的观点完全排除其他,但大多数学校都往往清晰地强调一个或另一个是的理论基础。•凯恩斯经济学交融在总需求,以解释失业率和商业周期。商业周期波动,应减少通过财政政策(政府花费或多或少根据实际情况)和货币政策。早期凯恩斯主义的宏观经济学是“活动家,定期使用《召唤的政策稳定资本主义经济,虽然有些凯恩斯主义要求使用收入政策。•供给的经济学的作用很明显地在当前货币政策与财政政策。关注于货币政策应该是完全对价格的钱所确定的货币供应的需求的特点,为了金钱。它提倡货币政策,直接目标钱的价值,不目标利率。典型的钱的价值在于用参考金或其他参考。财政政策的重点是提高政府农业投资价值的收入为一个明确的认识税收的影响在国内贸易。它设置了过度强调了说的法律,它表明不会发生经济衰退需求下降、因为没有缺钱。•货币主义的带领下,由弗里德曼,认为始终通货膨胀是一种货币现象。财政政策拒绝,因为会导致“挤退”的私人生活。此外,它不希望对抗通货膨胀或通货紧缩采用主动需求管理在凯恩斯经济学,通过货币政策规则,即坚持的增长速度恒定的钱。凯恩斯•新经济发达的部分原因是为了适应新古典经济学、致力于提供凯恩斯现代经济学的微观经济基础显示出了市场的不完善就能名正言顺的需求管理等。•奥地利经济学是个自由放任主义的学校的宏观经济。它侧重于商业周期,而政府或中央银行的干扰导致偏离自然失业率的兴趣。•Post-Keynesian经济学所代表了凯恩斯经济学主流的作用,强调历史过程中不确定性和宏观经济。•新古典经济学。原理论动力的费用是凯恩斯经济学缺乏有效的微观经济基础——亦即其断言不成立于基本经济理论。这所学校出现在20世纪70年代。这所学校断言它是没有道理的主张经济会随时out-of-equilibrium”。波动的总变量遵从的在这个社会的个人不断re-optimizing新信息的状态的世界就会显现出来。后来取得了一个显式学校一样,认为宏观经济学没有微观经济基础,反而学习经济系统的工具在平衡。

Health careA new prescription for the poor为贫穷者新开的处方America is developing a two-tier health system, one for those with private insurance, the other for the less well-off美国正在发展一个双重的健康系统，一重是为那些有个人保险的人群，而另一重则是为那些不那么富裕的人群Oct 8th 2011 | NEW YORK | from the print edition“IT’S time for Dancing with the Stars!”, a woman announces enthusiastically. At this New York health centre, wedged between housing projects to the east and Chinatown to the west, “dancing with the stars” means dancing with a physical therapist. An old man stands up with a nurse and begins a determined samba.“是时候和明星一起跳舞了！”一位女士满怀热情地宣告。在这个坐落于房屋工程的西面，唐人街东面的纽约健康中心，“和明星起舞”的意思是和一位物理治疗师跳舞。一位老者和一个护士站起来，开始跳事先确定好的桑巴舞。Comprehensive Care Management (CCM), which runs this centre, tries to keep old people active. To do so, explains Joseph Healy, the chief operating officer, is in the company’s best interest. The government pays CCM a capped rate for the care of its members. If someone gets sick, his health costs rise and the company’s margin shrinks. Mr Healy argues that the system is the best way to provide good care at a low cost. Increasingly others seem to agree.经营这个中心的综合护理管理部门（CCM）努力保持老人们的活力。约瑟夫-海莉，首席运营官解释说，这样做符合公司的最佳利益。政府给这个部门一个封顶的津贴来让他们照顾这些人。如果有人生病了，他的健康成本就会上升，公司的利润就会萎缩。海莉先生确定说这个系统能够在一个低成本上提供最佳的护理。其他人也逐渐同意这个观点。Medicaid, America’s health programme for the poor, is in the process of being transformed. Over the next three years, New York will move its entire Medicaid population into “managed care”, paying companies a set rate to tend to the poor, rather than paying a fee for each service. New York is not alone. States from California to Mississippi are expanding managed care. It is the culmination of a steady shift in the way most poor Americans receive their health-care treatment.公共医疗补助，即美国的穷人健康计划，正在被改造的过程中。在接下来的 三年内，纽约将把整个接受穷人健康计划的人群纳入“管理关怀”之中，付给公司们一个事先定好的费用来照顾那些穷人，而不是按照项目来付费。纽约不是唯一这样做的州。加州，密西西比州正在拓展管理关怀计划。这代表一种正在进行中的稳步转变，即大部分贫穷美国人接受健康关怀方式的转变。Medicaid is America’s single biggest health programme. This year roughly one in five Americans will be covered by Medicaid for a month or more. It gobbles more federal and local money than any state programme, other than education. Costs will rise even more when Barack Obama’s health-care reform expands the programme by easing eligibility rules in 2014. Congress’s “supercommittee” is already considering cuts. However, there are more immediate pressures behind the present drive for change.公共医疗补助是美国最大的单一健康计划。今年，五个美国人中的一个就会被纳入该计划一个月或更长时间。除了教育之外，它比其他任何州的财政计划耗去更多联邦和地方的经费。当2014年奥巴马的健康保险改革放宽适用人群而使整个计划更加庞大的时候，成本将会进一步上升。众议院的“超级委员会”已经在考虑削减经费。然而，选择这种变化，将会有更多即刻的压力存在。Enrolment in Medicaid jumped during the downturn, from in December 2007 to in June 2010. Mr Obama’s stimulus bill helped to pay for some of this, but that money has dried up. Faced with gaping deficits, some desperate governors slashed payments to hospitals and doctors, or refused to pay for trips to the dentist or oculist. But much the most important result has been structural: the expansion of managed care.公共医疗补助计划的参与人数在经济滑坡期间从2007年12月的 4270万人跳到了2010年6月的5030万人。奥巴马先生的经济刺激经费能够帮助付掉其中的一部分，但是钱已经被用光。面对资金短缺，一些绝望的州长砍掉了给医院和医生的补助，或是拒绝支付牙医和眼科医生的旅行费用。但是，更多地，最重要的结果是结构上的：管理关怀的拓展。States have dabbled in managed care for decades. The trend accelerated in the 1990s, with the share of Medicaid patients under this form of care reaching 72% by 2009. Now, however, there is a strong push for the remainder. States that did not have managed care, such as Louisiana, are introducing it. Other states are extending it to people previously deemed off limits: California and New York, for example, are moving the elderly and disabled into that system of care. Texas is targeting more than 400,000 Medicaid beneficiaries in the Rio Grande Valley. Local politicians had resisted the move, nervous that care might deteriorate. But the yawning deficit meant that they were overruled.各个州涉足管理关怀已经有几十年的历史了。这个趋势在90年代得到加速发展，在2009年前使用这种护理方式的公共医疗补助病人占到了72%。现在，对于剩下的人，这也是很强的推动力。像路易斯安那州这样没有管理关怀的州正在引进管理关怀。其他州也把这个拓展到原先被认为不适用的人群：举例说像加州和纽约州，正在把老人和残障人士纳入这个系统中，德州的目标是在格兰德河谷超过400000公共医疗补助收益人群。地方政治家反对这个举动，他们担心这个护理系统将会变质。但是巨大的赤字意味着他们的观点注定要被批驳。The result is a country with two distinct tiers of health care. Most Americans with private insurance are still horrified by thoughts of health-management organisations and prefer to pay fees for each medical service. For the poor, managed care is becoming the norm.结果就是一个国家有两套截然不同的健康保险系统。大多数有个人保险的美国人仍旧害怕那些健康管理组织的想法而宁愿为单独的医疗服务付费。对于穷人来说，管理关怀已经成为一种常规。Advocates of managed care have high expectations. First, they hope that it will make costs more predictable. Second, they believe that the change will improve patients’ health. In managed care, a patient has a network of doctors and specialists. If the programme works properly, doctors can monitor all aspects of care, in contrast to the fragmented fee-for-service system. The contracts that states have with firms can set standards for quality. Texas, for instance, will cut 5% from a company’s payment if it does not meet what is required.管理关怀的鼓吹者有着很高的期待。首先，他们希望这能让成本变得可以预测，其次，他们相信，这个改变可以改善病人的健康。在管理关怀中，一个病人有一个由医生和专家组成的网络。如果这个计划运行良好，医生可以监测关怀的各个方面，相对于分离的的按服务付钱的系统来说。州政府和公司的合同可以为质量定下标准。德州，举例说，将会在付款中扣除5%如果公司没有达到要求的标准。The next step is to integrate care for those eligible for both Medicaid and Medicare, the federal programme for the old. These “duals” account for almost 40% of Medicaid’s costs and just 15% of its population. “If managed care can really deliver better care than fee-for-service”, says Diane Rowland, chair of the commission that advises Congress on Medicaid, “this is the population that could prove it.”下一步是整合那些同时符合公共医疗补助和长者医疗补助计划（联邦老人医疗补助）的人群。这些“双符合”人群占据了将近40%的公共医疗补助成本和仅仅15%的人口数量。“如果管理关怀能真正比按项目付费带来更好的服务”，戴安-罗兰德，委员会（指导国会在公共医疗补助政策上进行决策）主任说：“这是一群能证明管理关怀可行的人。”But some, such as Norma Vescovo, are sceptical. As the head of the non-profit Independent Living Centre of Southern California (ILCSC), Ms Vescovo serves Medicaid patients with severe health problems. Over the years she has often sued California on policies that she thinks will hurt her vulnerable clients. On October 3rd her case moved to the Supreme Court.但是一些人，例如像诺玛-凡斯科夫就对此表示怀疑。作为非盈利的南加州独立生活中心主任，凡斯科夫女士服务于那些有严重健康问题的接受公共医疗补助的病人。在这些年间，她经常控告加州政府在一些政策上会伤害她的一些脆弱的客户。在10月3日，她的案子被移到了上诉法院。The outcome of Douglas v Independent Living Centre will have profound implications for the future of Medicaid. Ms Vescovo’s suit concerns cuts to hospitals and doctors. But the case will also guide the course of managed care. If ILCSC and its co-plaintiffs win, private groups will continue to be able to challenge states on policies they think violate federal Medicaid law. Ms Vescovo, who argues that California’s payment cuts would eviscerate her clients’ access to services, worries that under managed care the disabled might not be able to see the specialists they need.道格拉斯 v 独立生活中心的结果将会对公共医疗补助有深远的意义。凡斯科夫女士的诉讼影响到医院和医生的津贴削减。但是这个案子将会引领管理关怀的进程。如果中心和其他原告胜诉，私人团体将会继续在那些他们认为违反联邦法律的政策上挑战州政府。凡斯科夫女士认为说加州的支付削减计划会让她的客户失去得到服务的机会，她还担心，在管理关怀之下，那些残障人士可能不能见到那些他们需要的专家。The question is how to supervise the experiments with managed care that are being carried out in various states. To date, Medicaid beneficiaries have been able to challenge the states in court. However, if the Supreme Court rules against ILCSC, that avenue will be closed. The Centres for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) technically can intervene if states do not provide proper access to care. In reality, CMS has few tools to do so.问题是怎么监管在不同州试运行的管理关怀。到目前为止，公共医疗补助受益者已经能够在法庭中挑战政府。然而，如果上诉法庭结果不利于中心，那么这条路将会被关闭。如果州政府没有提供合适的关怀的话，公共医疗补助和长者医疗关怀中心理论上是能对此进行干涉，但事实上，他们没有太多办法。“I’m a big fan of managed care”, says Sara Rosenbaum, a professor at George Washington University, “but this transformation may happen with almost no federal oversight.” Medicaid beneficiaries are vulnerable, in worse health than Americans as a whole. Companies may struggle to cut costs and provide good care as well. If states do not draft their contracts properly, or fail to be vigilant in monitoring patients’ health, their experiment in managed care could be a disaster. On the other hand, if states are careful they could provide an answer to the question that has vexed America for years: how to provide good, cheap health care.“我是管理关怀的拥护者”，萨拉-罗森博姆，一位乔治华盛顿大学教授说，“但是这种转变可能在没有联邦监管的情况下发生。”公共医疗补助的受益者和你脆弱，健康程度整体上比一般美国人要差。公司可能在削减成本的同时挣扎着同样提供良好的服务。如果州政府们不好好起草他们的合同，或没有警觉地监控病人的健康的话，他们在管理关怀上的实验可能会是一场灾难。另一方面，如果州政府们认真的话，他们能为那个困扰美国人多年的问题提供答案，即怎么提供优质的便宜的健康关怀。

Half-way from rags to richesApr 24th 2008From The Economist print editionVietnam has made a remarkable recovery from war and penury, says Peter Collins (interviewed here). But can it change enough to join the rich world?EyevineCorrection to this articleKNEES and knuckles scraping the ground, the visitors struggle to keep up with the tour guide who is briskly leading the way through the labyrinth of claustrophobic burrows dug into the hard earth. The legendary Cu Chi tunnels, from which the Viet Cong launched waves of surprise attacks on the Americans during the Vietnam war, are now a popular tourist attraction (pictured above). Visitors from all over the world arrive daily at the site near the city that used to be called Saigon, renamed Ho Chi Minh City after the Communists took the south in the wreckage of an abandoned M41 tank another friendly guide demonstrates a dozen types of improvised booby-traps with sharp spikes that were set in and around the tunnels to maim pursuing American soldiers. The Vietnamese not only welcome the tourist dollars Cu Chi brings in, but are also rather proud of it. They feel it demonstrates their ingenuity, adaptability, perseverance and, above all, their determination to resist much stronger foreign invaders, as the country has done many times down the centuries. These days Vietnam also has plenty of other things to be proud of. In the 1980s Ho Chi Minh's successors as party leaders damaged the war-ravaged economy even more by attempting to introduce real communism, collectivising land ownership and repressing private business. This caused the country to slide to the brink of famine. The collapse soon afterwards of its cold-war sponsor, the Soviet Union, added to the country's deep isolation and cut off the flow of roubles that had kept its economy going. Neighbouring countries were inundated with desperate Vietnamese “boat people”. Since then the country has been transformed by almost two decades of rapid but equitable growth, in which Vietnam has flung open its doors to the outside world and liberalised its economy. Over the past decade annual growth has averaged . Young, prosperous and confident Vietnamese throng downtown Ho Chi Minh City's smart Dong Khoi street with its designer shops. The quality of life is high for a country that until recently was so poor, and its larger cities have retained some of their colonial charm, though choking traffic and constant construction work are beginning to take their toll. An agricultural miracle has turned a country of 85m once barely able to feed itself into one of the world's main providers of farm produce. Vietnam has also become a big exporter of clothes, shoes and furniture, soon to be joined by microchips when Intel opens its $1 billion factory outside Ho Chi Minh City. Imports of machinery are soaring. Exports plus imports equal 160% of GDP, making the economy one of the world's most open. All this has kept government revenues buoyant despite cuts in import tariffs. The recent introduction of company taxes is also helping to fill the government's coffers. Spending on public services has surged, yet public debt, at an acceptable 43% of GDP, has remained fairly stable. Having made peace with its former foes, Vietnam hosted Presidents Bush, Putin and Hu at the Asia-Pacific summit in 2006 and joined the World Trade Organisation in 2007. This year it has one of the rotating seats on the UN Security Council. Vietnam's Communists conceded economic defeat 22 years ago, in the depths of a crisis, and brought in market-based reforms called doi moi (renewal), similar to those Deng Xiaoping had introduced in China a few years earlier. As in China, it took time for the effects to show up, but over the past few years economic liberalisation has been fostering rapid, poverty-reducing World Bank's representative in Vietnam, Ajay Chhibber, calls Vietnam a “poster child” of the benefits of market-oriented reforms. Not only does it comply with the catechism of the “Washington Consensus”—free enterprise, free trade, sensible state finances and so on—but it also ticks all the boxes for the Millennium Development Goals, the UN's anti-poverty blueprint. The proportion of households with electricity has doubled since the early 1990s, to 94%. Almost all children now attend primary school and benefit from at least basic no longer really needs the multilateral organisations' aid. Multilateral and bilateral donors together have promised the country $ billion in loans and grants this year, but with so much foreign investment pouring in, Vietnam's currency reserves increased by almost double that figure last year. At least the aid donors have learned from the mid-1990s, when excessive praise discouraged Vietnam from continuing to reform, prompting an exodus of investors. Now the tone in private meetings with officials is much franker, says a diplomat who attends them. Vietnam has become the darling of foreign investors and multinationals. Firms that draw up a “China-plus-one” strategy for new factories in case things go awry in China itself often make Vietnam the plus-one. Wage costs remain well below those in southern China and productivity is growing faster, albeit from a lower base. When the UN Conference on Trade and Development asked multinationals where they planned to invest this year and next, Vietnam, at number six, was the only South-East Asian country in the top ten. The government's programme of selling stakes in publicly owned firms and exposing them to market discipline has recently gathered pace. At the same time the switch from a command economy to free competition has allowed the Vietnamese people's entrepreneurialism to flourish. Almost every household now seems to be running a micro-business on the side, and a slew of ambitious larger firms is coming to the stockmarket. Much of the praise now being showered anew on the country is deserved. The government is well on course for its target of turning Vietnam into a middle-income country by 2010. Its longer-term aim, of becoming a modern industrial nation by 2020, does not seem unrealistic. But from now on the going may get tougher. As Mr Chhibber notes, few countries escape the “middle-income trap” as they become richer. They tend to lose their reformist zeal and see their growth fizzle. A study in 2006 by the Vietnamese Academy of Social Sciences concluded that further reductions in poverty will require higher growth rates than in the past because the remaining poor are well below the poverty line, whereas many of those who recently crossed it did not have far to stench of corruptionThe Communist Party leadership openly admits that the Vietnamese public is fed up with the endemic corruption at all levels of public life, from lowly traffic policemen and clerks to the most senior people in ministries. In 2006, just before the party's five-yearly congress, the transport minister resigned and several officials were arrested over a scandal in which millions of dollars of foreign aid were gambled on the outcome of football matches. The leadership insists it is doing its best to clean up, but a lot remains to be as bad as the corruption is the glacial speed of legislative and bureaucratic processes. Proposed laws have to pass through all sorts of hoops before taking effect, with endless rounds of consultations to build consensus. The dividing line between the Communist Party, the government and the courts is not always clear. The justice system is rudimentary. Lawyers have no formal access to past case files, so they find it hard to use precedent in legal government is part-way through a huge project to slim the bureaucracy and streamline official procedures. It recently cut the number of ministries from 28 to 22. Yet for the moment the bureaucratic logjam is stopping the country building the roads, power stations and other public works it needs to maintain its growth rate. Nguyen Tan Dung, the prime minister, says that if growth is to continue at its current rate, the country's electricity-generating capacity needs to double by 2010. That seems a tall order, to put it mildly. Soaring car-ownership is leaving the country's underdeveloped roads increasingly gridlocked. In an admirably liberal attempt to limit price distortions as oil surged above $100 a barrel, the government slashed fuel subsidies in February. But one effect will be to stoke inflation, already worryingly high at in March. Bank lending surged by 38% last year as firms and individuals borrowed to speculate on shares and government is finding it much harder to manage an economy made up of myriad private companies, banks and investors than to issue instructions to a limited number of state institutions, especially as the public sector is currently suffering a drain of talent to private firms that are able to offer much higher pay. What could go wrongAll this leaves Vietnam's continued economic development exposed to a number of risks: • Rising inflation—which is hurting low earners in particular—and a growing shortage of affordable housing could create a new urban underclass among unskilled workers who have left the land for the cities. Combined with rising resentment at official corruption and the increasing visibility of Vietnam's new rich, this could cause social friction and bring strikes and protests, chipping away at the political stability that has underpinned Vietnam's strong growth and investment.• Trade liberalisation and increased domestic competition will benefit some firms and farmers but hurt others—especially inefficient state enterprises. These could join forces and press the government to halt or even reverse the reforms.• The slumping stockmarket or perhaps a property crash could cause a big firm or bank to fail. Given the country's weak and untested bankruptcy laws and financial regulators, the authorities may find it hard to deal with that kind of calamity.• Natural disasters, from bird flu to floods, could cause chaos.• The economy could come up against the limits of its creaking infrastructure and the shortage of people with higher skills. Jammed roads, power blackouts and the inability to fill managerial and professional jobs could all bring Vietnam's growth rate crashing has set itself such demanding standards that even if some combination of these factors did no more than push annual growth below 5%, it would be seen as a serious setback. The foreign minister, Pham Gia Khiem, notes that Vietnam's current growth of around 8-9% is lower than that in Asia's richest economies at the same stage in their development. Despite the risks ahead, Vietnam has already provided the world with an admirable model for overcoming war, division, penury and isolation and growing strongly but equitably to reach middle-income status. This model could be followed by many impoverished African states or, closer to home, perhaps by North Korea. If it can be combined with gradual political liberalisation, it might even offer something for China to think about.

othing in literature can long s

经济论文英语

China's sustained economic growth and weak world economic growth and the continuous devaluation of dollar, particularly the . government in the domestic unemployment rate and rising international trade deficit of the circumstances, the United States some people will be unemployed manufacturing workers in the United States and the reasons for the Sino-US trade deficit Summed up as the RMB exchange rateFirst, the renminbi exchange rate is not the main cause of Sino-US trade deficit1, the EC analysis of Sino-US trade balanceChina and the United States for such a big difference between two main aspects of reasons: (1), the United States statistics will be part of China through Hong Kong re-exports of double counting in China's exports to the United States (2), the . trade data Collection process has many , Sino-US trade deficit is what causes(1), the . Government's high-tech products export control policy, Sino-US trade imbalance is an important reason.(2), . investment in China's balance of trade of multinational companies is another important reason. China to the United States despite the existence of high trade surplus, but a large part of the trade surplus from the . multinational companies in China, according to Chinese statistics show that: China's import and export amount of 56 percent is from foreign-funded enterprises to achieve, China is . multinational companies to reduce production costs and increase profits one of the main channel.(3), the . trade statistics report and the multinational corporations will not return to the United States of the investment income account3, Liaokai . foreign trade deficit . imports from the large number of foreign companies in setting up their own production lines, in other words, the . subsidiary of multinational companies import goods from overseas, the reality of the trade are many companies and the companies, not countries trade with the countries of the economist Julius once the . balance of trade statistics, if coupled with its overseas subsidiaries in the local double-counting, then in 1986 the . trade balance from a deficit of 144 billion . dollars into 57 billion A surplus of . dollars. According to the . Department of Commerce statistics, in 1995 the . subsidiary of multinational companies in sales over 210 million . dollars, with exports of goods and services the same year 794 billion . dollars, almost 3 trillion . dollars, and foreign exports to the . and foreign companies in the . , A subsidiary of the internal sales total of trillion . dollars, the United States today is not the world's largest trade deficit country, but the world on a few large trade surplus with one of the . exports to foreign multinational companies in the United States and abroad for sale on the market, both in 2002 and amounted to 3 trillion . dollars. Over the same period, imports of . and foreign multinational companies in the . market sales, and for both of trillion . dollars, resulting in the United States on the world's total trade surplus of 600 billion . dollars, and this is when the analysis of the . foreign trade deficit Should comprehensively grasp the essence of the , the . trade deficit, the real reason for the(1) in the 1970s, the two oil crises led to two world oil prices rose sharply, from Japan and developing countries with strong economic competitiveness and the strength of the dollar, which makes . goods, services, trade Deficit in 1987 reached a peak of 152 billion . dollars.(2) deterioration of the low . savings rate, the United States must from the international financial market, raising funds for construction, that is, factoring funds to invest heavily in the building.(3) . multinational companies in the United States in the import trade played by the "one of us" role, that is part of the trade deficit is actually "returning goods."China and the United States is a complementary economy, maintain the existing exchange rate system is a win-win situation

Half-way from rags to richesApr 24th 2008From The Economist print editionVietnam has made a remarkable recovery from war and penury, says Peter Collins (interviewed here). But can it change enough to join the rich world?EyevineCorrection to this articleKNEES and knuckles scraping the ground, the visitors struggle to keep up with the tour guide who is briskly leading the way through the labyrinth of claustrophobic burrows dug into the hard earth. The legendary Cu Chi tunnels, from which the Viet Cong launched waves of surprise attacks on the Americans during the Vietnam war, are now a popular tourist attraction (pictured above). Visitors from all over the world arrive daily at the site near the city that used to be called Saigon, renamed Ho Chi Minh City after the Communists took the south in the wreckage of an abandoned M41 tank another friendly guide demonstrates a dozen types of improvised booby-traps with sharp spikes that were set in and around the tunnels to maim pursuing American soldiers. The Vietnamese not only welcome the tourist dollars Cu Chi brings in, but are also rather proud of it. They feel it demonstrates their ingenuity, adaptability, perseverance and, above all, their determination to resist much stronger foreign invaders, as the country has done many times down the centuries. These days Vietnam also has plenty of other things to be proud of. In the 1980s Ho Chi Minh's successors as party leaders damaged the war-ravaged economy even more by attempting to introduce real communism, collectivising land ownership and repressing private business. This caused the country to slide to the brink of famine. The collapse soon afterwards of its cold-war sponsor, the Soviet Union, added to the country's deep isolation and cut off the flow of roubles that had kept its economy going. Neighbouring countries were inundated with desperate Vietnamese “boat people”. Since then the country has been transformed by almost two decades of rapid but equitable growth, in which Vietnam has flung open its doors to the outside world and liberalised its economy. Over the past decade annual growth has averaged . Young, prosperous and confident Vietnamese throng downtown Ho Chi Minh City's smart Dong Khoi street with its designer shops. The quality of life is high for a country that until recently was so poor, and its larger cities have retained some of their colonial charm, though choking traffic and constant construction work are beginning to take their toll. An agricultural miracle has turned a country of 85m once barely able to feed itself into one of the world's main providers of farm produce. Vietnam has also become a big exporter of clothes, shoes and furniture, soon to be joined by microchips when Intel opens its $1 billion factory outside Ho Chi Minh City. Imports of machinery are soaring. Exports plus imports equal 160% of GDP, making the economy one of the world's most open. All this has kept government revenues buoyant despite cuts in import tariffs. The recent introduction of company taxes is also helping to fill the government's coffers. Spending on public services has surged, yet public debt, at an acceptable 43% of GDP, has remained fairly stable. Having made peace with its former foes, Vietnam hosted Presidents Bush, Putin and Hu at the Asia-Pacific summit in 2006 and joined the World Trade Organisation in 2007. This year it has one of the rotating seats on the UN Security Council. Vietnam's Communists conceded economic defeat 22 years ago, in the depths of a crisis, and brought in market-based reforms called doi moi (renewal), similar to those Deng Xiaoping had introduced in China a few years earlier. As in China, it took time for the effects to show up, but over the past few years economic liberalisation has been fostering rapid, poverty-reducing World Bank's representative in Vietnam, Ajay Chhibber, calls Vietnam a “poster child” of the benefits of market-oriented reforms. Not only does it comply with the catechism of the “Washington Consensus”—free enterprise, free trade, sensible state finances and so on—but it also ticks all the boxes for the Millennium Development Goals, the UN's anti-poverty blueprint. The proportion of households with electricity has doubled since the early 1990s, to 94%. Almost all children now attend primary school and benefit from at least basic no longer really needs the multilateral organisations' aid. Multilateral and bilateral donors together have promised the country $ billion in loans and grants this year, but with so much foreign investment pouring in, Vietnam's currency reserves increased by almost double that figure last year. At least the aid donors have learned from the mid-1990s, when excessive praise discouraged Vietnam from continuing to reform, prompting an exodus of investors. Now the tone in private meetings with officials is much franker, says a diplomat who attends them. Vietnam has become the darling of foreign investors and multinationals. Firms that draw up a “China-plus-one” strategy for new factories in case things go awry in China itself often make Vietnam the plus-one. Wage costs remain well below those in southern China and productivity is growing faster, albeit from a lower base. When the UN Conference on Trade and Development asked multinationals where they planned to invest this year and next, Vietnam, at number six, was the only South-East Asian country in the top ten. The government's programme of selling stakes in publicly owned firms and exposing them to market discipline has recently gathered pace. At the same time the switch from a command economy to free competition has allowed the Vietnamese people's entrepreneurialism to flourish. Almost every household now seems to be running a micro-business on the side, and a slew of ambitious larger firms is coming to the stockmarket. Much of the praise now being showered anew on the country is deserved. The government is well on course for its target of turning Vietnam into a middle-income country by 2010. Its longer-term aim, of becoming a modern industrial nation by 2020, does not seem unrealistic. But from now on the going may get tougher. As Mr Chhibber notes, few countries escape the “middle-income trap” as they become richer. They tend to lose their reformist zeal and see their growth fizzle. A study in 2006 by the Vietnamese Academy of Social Sciences concluded that further reductions in poverty will require higher growth rates than in the past because the remaining poor are well below the poverty line, whereas many of those who recently crossed it did not have far to stench of corruptionThe Communist Party leadership openly admits that the Vietnamese public is fed up with the endemic corruption at all levels of public life, from lowly traffic policemen and clerks to the most senior people in ministries. In 2006, just before the party's five-yearly congress, the transport minister resigned and several officials were arrested over a scandal in which millions of dollars of foreign aid were gambled on the outcome of football matches. The leadership insists it is doing its best to clean up, but a lot remains to be as bad as the corruption is the glacial speed of legislative and bureaucratic processes. Proposed laws have to pass through all sorts of hoops before taking effect, with endless rounds of consultations to build consensus. The dividing line between the Communist Party, the government and the courts is not always clear. The justice system is rudimentary. Lawyers have no formal access to past case files, so they find it hard to use precedent in legal government is part-way through a huge project to slim the bureaucracy and streamline official procedures. It recently cut the number of ministries from 28 to 22. Yet for the moment the bureaucratic logjam is stopping the country building the roads, power stations and other public works it needs to maintain its growth rate. Nguyen Tan Dung, the prime minister, says that if growth is to continue at its current rate, the country's electricity-generating capacity needs to double by 2010. That seems a tall order, to put it mildly. Soaring car-ownership is leaving the country's underdeveloped roads increasingly gridlocked. In an admirably liberal attempt to limit price distortions as oil surged above $100 a barrel, the government slashed fuel subsidies in February. But one effect will be to stoke inflation, already worryingly high at in March. Bank lending surged by 38% last year as firms and individuals borrowed to speculate on shares and government is finding it much harder to manage an economy made up of myriad private companies, banks and investors than to issue instructions to a limited number of state institutions, especially as the public sector is currently suffering a drain of talent to private firms that are able to offer much higher pay. What could go wrongAll this leaves Vietnam's continued economic development exposed to a number of risks: • Rising inflation—which is hurting low earners in particular—and a growing shortage of affordable housing could create a new urban underclass among unskilled workers who have left the land for the cities. Combined with rising resentment at official corruption and the increasing visibility of Vietnam's new rich, this could cause social friction and bring strikes and protests, chipping away at the political stability that has underpinned Vietnam's strong growth and investment.• Trade liberalisation and increased domestic competition will benefit some firms and farmers but hurt others—especially inefficient state enterprises. These could join forces and press the government to halt or even reverse the reforms.• The slumping stockmarket or perhaps a property crash could cause a big firm or bank to fail. Given the country's weak and untested bankruptcy laws and financial regulators, the authorities may find it hard to deal with that kind of calamity.• Natural disasters, from bird flu to floods, could cause chaos.• The economy could come up against the limits of its creaking infrastructure and the shortage of people with higher skills. Jammed roads, power blackouts and the inability to fill managerial and professional jobs could all bring Vietnam's growth rate crashing has set itself such demanding standards that even if some combination of these factors did no more than push annual growth below 5%, it would be seen as a serious setback. The foreign minister, Pham Gia Khiem, notes that Vietnam's current growth of around 8-9% is lower than that in Asia's richest economies at the same stage in their development. Despite the risks ahead, Vietnam has already provided the world with an admirable model for overcoming war, division, penury and isolation and growing strongly but equitably to reach middle-income status. This model could be followed by many impoverished African states or, closer to home, perhaps by North Korea. If it can be combined with gradual political liberalisation, it might even offer something for China to think about.

翻译如下：China's sustained economic growth and weak world economic growth and the continuous devaluation of dollar, particularly the . government in the domestic unemployment rate and rising international trade deficit of the circumstances, the United States some people will be unemployed manufacturing workers in the United States and the reasons for the Sino-US trade deficit Summed up as the RMB exchange , the renminbi exchange rate is not the main cause of a Sino-US trade deficit, the EC analysis of Sino-US trade balance statistics difference between the two countries so large there are two main aspects of reasons: (1), the United States statistics will be part of China's re-exports through Hong Kong Double-counting of trade in China's exports to the United States (2), the . trade data collection process has many , Sino-US trade deficit is what causes (1), the . Government's high-tech products export control policy, Sino-US trade imbalance is an important reason. (2), . investment in China's balance of trade of multinational companies is another important reason. China to the United States despite the existence of high trade surplus, but a large part of the trade surplus from the . multinational companies in China, according to Chinese statistics show that: China's import and export amount of 56 percent is from foreign-funded enterprises to achieve, China is . multinational companies to reduce production costs and increase profits one of the main channel.(3), the . trade statistics report and the multinational corporations will not return to the United States of the investment income , Liaokai . foreign trade deficit veil of the United States imports a large number of companies from abroad set up their own production lines, in other words, the . subsidiary of multinational companies import goods from overseas, the reality of the trade are many companies and the companies, not countries with national The document economist Julius once the . balance of trade statistics, if coupled with its overseas subsidiaries in the local double-counting, then in 1986 the . trade balance from a deficit of 144 billion . dollars into 57 billion A surplus of . dollars. According to the . Department of Commerce statistics, in 1995 the . subsidiary of multinational companies in sales over 210 million . dollars, with exports of goods and services the same year 794 billion . dollars, almost 3 trillion . dollars, and foreign exports to the . and foreign companies in the . , A subsidiary of the internal sales total of trillion . dollars, the United States today is not the world's largest trade deficit country, but the world on a few large trade surplus with one of the . exports to foreign multinational companies in the United States and abroad for sale on the market, both in 2002 and amounted to 3 trillion . dollars. Over the same period, imports of . and foreign multinational companies in the . market sales, and for both of trillion . dollars, resulting in the United States on the world's total trade surplus of 600 billion . dollars, and this is when the analysis of the . foreign trade deficit Should comprehensively grasp the essence of the , the . trade deficit, the real reason (1) in the 1970s, the two oil crises led to two world oil prices rose sharply, from Japan and developing countries with strong economic competitiveness and the strength of the dollar exchange rate, these Are making . goods, services trade deficit in 1987 reached a peak of 152 billion . dollars.(2) deterioration of the low . savings rate, the United States must from the international financial market, raising funds for construction, that is, factoring funds to invest heavily in the building. (3) . multinational companies in the United States in the import trade played by the "one of us" role, that is part of the trade deficit is actually "returning goods." China and the United States is a complementary economy, maintain the existing exchange rate system is a win-win situation.

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经济学英语毕业论文范文

随着全球经济一体化趋势日益加快，国际商务活动日益频繁。这些商务活动的许多领域，如技术引进、对外贸易、招商引资等，所使用的英语统称为 商务英语 。下面是我带来的关于商务英语 毕业 论文摘要的内容，欢迎阅读参考!商务英语毕业论文摘要(一) 商务英语特点浅析 [摘 要]商务英语是外贸人员同世界各地开展进出口贸易时用于洽谈交易、联系业务的一种应用语言。由于英汉两种截然不同语言的差异及其特定的社会功能和题材内容决定了商务英语自身与众不同的写作特点。本文拟从跨 文化 交际学的角度对商务英语的特点作一番探析，从而事倍功半地达到成功交际的目的。 [关键词]商务英语 跨文化交际 合作原则 礼貌原则 关联原则 商务英语毕业论文摘要(二) 商务英语翻译浅析 [摘要]商务英语翻译在国际贸易中起着越来越重要的作用。本文从商务英语的内涵、特点、翻译策略等方面，对商务英语的翻译进行了浅要的分析。 [关键词]商务英语翻译策略 商务英语毕业论文摘要(三) 浅谈英语商务 谈判技巧 [摘要] 随着经济全球化的发展。中国的国际贸易也越来越发达。要想和外国人做好每一笔生意，你必须了解世界各国的文化。国际贸易中跨国的商务谈判在所难免，所以你也必须懂得把全界各国商人的谈判风格研究从文化的角度来探讨国际商务谈判，分析国际商务谈判过程、世界各国商人的谈判风格，增强中国商人在国际贸易中的竞争力。 [关键词] 语言技巧谈判风格谈判技巧 以下是我带来的关于商务英语的论文，希望能帮到您! 浅谈商务英语教学 摘 要：随着中国在世界经济中的日益活跃，大学中的商务英语需求也随之增多，这是因为商务英语专业培养的是有着扎实的英语基础同时具备外贸专业知识的复合型人才;同时，教师如何讲好这门课也日益受到关注。所以，本文就以商务英语教学为话题进行浅谈，企在与同行有所交流并最终相互促进与提高，使学生和教师双赢。 关键词：大学;商务英语;教学 随着中国在国际经济活动中的日益活跃以及自身发展的迫切需要，商务英语专业也日益成为了大学热门专业之一。商务英语专业培养的是有着扎实的英语基础同时又具备外贸专业知识的复合型人才，因此，对于商务英语的教学既要考虑到英语知识的授予，又要注重英语能力的提高。如同一般英语一样，阅读也是商务英语语言运用中的一项重要活动，通过阅读既可以让学生掌握相关阅读技巧，从而提高阅读速度和语言能力;同时又可以培养学生接触商务知识和熟悉商务运作流程的实用能力。所以，本文就以商务英语中教学方面进行浅谈，企在与同行有所交流和相互促进与提高。 一般来说，商务英语教学应该涵盖语言学习和商务知识两方面内容，是集语言理论、商务理论及商务实践于一体的综合性教学。所以，教师的教学要结合所用教材，灵活运用 教学 方法 ，并且在教学活动中要注意活跃课堂气氛，让学生在轻松愉悦的氛围里进行知识的学习，最重要的是提高学生实际应用语言并进行交流的能力。对于该课程的教学，笔者根据多年的相关教学 经验 ， 总结 出了如下的教学建议： 第一，基本词汇是商务英语的基础，以此为基础，扩充词汇的学习，这是进行相关商务 英语阅读 的基础。可以通过将生词与已知词汇进行相关联系来实现对生词的记忆和掌握，当然，将生词放在阅读 文章 中进行学习也是一个很好的方法，或者将二者联系起来回更好。下面举例说明。 confirm一词在普通英语中作动词时的意思是“确认，证实”，如： ● His guilty expression confirmed my suspicions. (他内疚的表情证实了我的猜疑。) 而在商务英语中，confirm应该译为“保兑信用证”，即指一家银行所开的由另一家银行保证兑付的一种银行信用证。如下句： ● Payment will be made by 100% confirmed， irrevocable Letter of Credit available by sight draft。(付款方式为100% 即期，保兑，不可撤消信用证。) 那么，教师再阅读短文中就可以先将需要讲解的词汇标出，让学生说出在一般英语中的其意义;然后，在进行商务英语中所表示出的意义的讲解;最后，让学生思考并练习这些“商务意义”，注意一定要在句中，然后是整篇文章中进行理解和熟悉。 第二，具备一定商务英语词汇后就要以篇章为单位来进行训练，目的是进一步巩固所学新意(商务英语中该词汇的意义)。此阶段，最好选取一些有实用价值的英语阅读材料，在真实的商务场景中进行语言知识和商务知识的双方面习得。如：阅读文章中摘出的两句话： ● You may get a 5% discount if your order is on a regular basis. ● If a seller extends credit to a time draft， they have made a trade acceptance. The seller can request that the bank finance the transaction by buying the draft. The bank is said to discount the draft. 通过加深巩固练习，学生可以跟深刻地理解discount一词。 下一步，以对话或是篇章进行知识的延伸。如下面关于产品介绍的对话： ● A： These are our new models. B： What are their strong points? A： There's a lot to be said for them. In the first place， they are more durable than any similar ones on the market. B： Why does it take longer to wear out than the others? A： The yarn is carefully selected for quality and woven very tightly in this fabric. B： Can you leave these samples with us? A： How long do you want to keep them? B： About three days. ● A： That's all right 此时，引导学生进行整体把握，即：“为什么在这种语境会这么说?”为下一步中西方差异做铺垫。并且可以考虑在这个阶段的学习后增加一些课堂对话练习的活动，激发学生使用的欲望，增添真实的语境。 第三，在商务英语的教学中一定要注重商务礼节的介绍，并且还要特别之处中西方商务礼节或习惯方面的差异，以免在今后的实际运用中造成跨文化差异而带来的不必要的困扰。如：在中国，对于对方的赞美或是夸奖，为了表现出礼貌，通常受赞美或是夸奖的一方一定会说“哪里哪里”等拒绝性的答复;但是，西方人一般会去高兴地接受，往往是Thank you. / Thank you very much. 等，因为他们认为拒绝是极为不礼貌的。又如，在商务谈判时，中国人喜欢委婉而谦和地表达自己的观点;而西方人一般会开门见山，直奔主题。因此，在平时的教学中必须指出诸如此类的文化差异，一方面解答而来学生对于一些商务英语文章背景的不理解问题，另一方面也提高了学生的学习兴趣和求知的欲望，充满了好奇感和探究感。 总之，在课堂教学中一定要同时兼顾英语的基础知识而后专业知识的储备，以及英语技能和相关商务知识的积累这两方面的内容。但是，这些不是孤立的，而是相互关联和相互渗透的，可以说，一环扣一环，环环相关，某一个方面出现问题，就会影响 其它 方面的学习和提高。因此，我们在日常的教学中应该多角度、多方面进行指导，同时，也要求我们教师也要多学习、多更新自己的知识，这样才能满足学生的需求和自身的提高。 参考文献 [1] 蔡芸。培养复合型人才的有效方式--商务英语专业课程评价[J]。外语与外语教学，2001(4)。 [2] 陈建平。案例教学法与商务英语教学[J]。宁波大学学报( 教育 科学版)， 2004(5)。 [3] 刘江凤。论本科院校商务英语专业学生职业技能的培养[J]。考试周刊，2011(5)。 [4] 莫再树，张小勇，张云。基于语言经济学的商务英语教育研究[A].。湖南大学学报(社会科学版)，2006(4)。 [5] 叶兴国。新形势下的商务英语教学与研究[C]。上海：上海外语教育出版社。2008年10月。 猜你喜欢： 1. 商务英语专业毕业论文范文 2. 商务英语毕业论文范本 3. 关于商务英语毕业论文范文 4. 商务英语专业论文范文 5. 商务英语相关毕业论文范文

经济论文的写作，是对经济学专业的学生所学的知识结论性 总结 。下面是我带来的关于经济学论文的内容，欢迎阅读参考!经济学论文篇1：《“经济学基础”教学环境的革新》 经济学基础在当前经济管理类型专业中属于非常核心的课程，在其相关专业中占据重要的位置，发挥关键重要作用，尤其现在国家市场经济体制处在不断完善和发展中，对于经管类人才需求量非常大，我们必须加大经济管理人才的培养，提高经济学基础的教学水平。[1]同时经济基础课程教学目的重在实践，但是其内容体系过于庞杂、知识偏重理论，但是日常的课堂教学缺乏对学生实践能力的培养。然而当前教学环境发展较为滞后难以满足新时代对经济学基础教学要求，一定程度上制约了新型教学模式以及 教学 方法 的实施，阻碍了教学质量和水平的提升，不利于实用性经管人才的培养。 1“经济学基础”教学环境发展现状 “经济学基础”教学课程的安排偏重理论 现阶段，多数学校的“经济学基础”的课程安排偏重理论性知识，而经济学基础的课程本身内容体系庞杂，相关观念和理论抽象复杂、晦涩难懂，纯理论性讲解无法使学生对知识有更加清晰的理解，甚至适得其反，教学效果非常不理想，这也极大地削弱学生的学习积极性，降低了学生学习的兴趣。[2]长久以来，院校使用的考评系统更多关注的是教师的理论水准，没有重视对教师实践能力的考查评估。这些年，各院校致力于知识理论的研究，院校教师也将更多的精力放在理论研究以及论文的发表方面，忽略了对经济学基础中应用性教学的研究，而此类学科对实践性和理论性都具有较高的要求，这使得教学效果并不明显，难以达到预期目标。同时，现在大多数教学只是单纯掌握了理论性知识，基本没有从事任何经济学实践活动，也没有开展过任何经济业务。如此一来，教师在课堂上只能进行理论知识的灌输，无法给学生提供有效的经济学案例，课程内容空洞无趣、枯燥无味，不仅不能使学生很好地了解课程的内容知识，甚至极大消磨了学生的耐心，极大地打击了学生的学习积极性，较之实践性教学，教学效果不理想。 教学案例的使用水平偏低 众所周知，经济学基础知识理论性太强，单纯照本宣科学生难以理解知识内涵，加之该学科对实践性还有很高的要求，所以在课程中增加教学案例分量既是学科本身的要求，也是众多经济学专业的学生的学习需求。[3]但是，当前教学过程中存在的问题是，教学案例分析课程安排较少，案例内容质量不高，脱离实际生活，案例分析不到位、不合理，使得最终案例教学没有取得很好的效果。出现以上情况的原因是涉及方方面面。其一，一般情况下，案例教学具有一定的人数限制，理想的授课人数大约为30人，但是各大院校实行扩招，学生规模持续壮大，然而与学生对应的教学资源并没有都得到很好的满足，班级人数不断增加，加大了授课压力，普通教学班人数扩大到60人左右，甚至部分学校由于人数过多组织合班授课，班级人数超过百人，这直接导致教学质量的下降，很大程度上影响了案例教学效果。其二，教师普遍缺乏较强的案例教学能力。较之传统的教学，案例教学在教学能力等方面对授课老师提出了更高的要求。同时，学校没有开展案例教学的相关培训，教师也普遍缺乏案例教学的学习，在开展案例教学的过程中，授课老师往往不得要领，使得案例法的教学成效大打折扣，没有很好地发挥该教学方法的积极作用。其三，学校经济学授课教师大都没有参与过专业相关的工作实践，经济学管理真实的工作情况根本不了解，在案例讨论环节无法对学生实施科学的指导，使得教学最终流于形式，难以发挥真正的作用。[4] 缺乏完善的教学实践基地 当前阶段，多数院校的经济学专业基本不存在实践课程，多使用传统的教学模式。这门课程在经济管理专业中非常重要，而且这类专业对实践具有很高的要求，在课堂上开展简单的实践活动还远远不能满足需要。众所周知，市场经济不断发展，现代企业制度已经广泛实行，经济现代化趋势明显，具有现代经济意识和经管能力的人才极度匮乏。[5]同时越来越多的学生也要求各个院校建立经济教学实践基地，实践基地必须对经济管理环境进行尽可能的模拟，以提高学生对经济学相关问题的体验和学习。 2“经济学基础”教学环境的革新 措施 增强教学的实践性 现阶段，国内大多数院校的经济学专业的授课教师都具有相对高的学历，其专业的理论知识储备比较丰富，然而受制于种种条件，授课老师的专业实践能力极为匮乏，甚至完全不了实际的企业经济运行状况以及管理工作的实施程序。这也是长时间以来造成经济学课程枯燥、空洞非常关键因素。[5]针对这种情况，学校必须制定相关措施，有效提升教师实践教学能力。不仅需要关注教学质量的提升，更要加强教师实践水平的提升。对于该专业的教师增强工作审核，要求授课老师适当压缩课程教学时间。首先，要求教师从事专业对应的实务工作，增强对相应职业具体工作的了解，定期组织教师参加 社会实践 活动，比如到银行、四大会计师事务所、咨询公司和企业等单位，参与其经济管理工作，掌握经济管理工作的最直接的资料，根据自身实践，对教学案例资源进行完善、充实，使之更加贴合生活，更便于学生理解。其次，激励授课老师尤其是年轻教师参加银行从业资格证、证券从业资格证等经济学专业资格考试，充实教师各层次的知识，有助于教师水准的提升。最后，从校外邀请 经验 丰富的经济学基础教学经济学专家或者企业经济管理者组织专题讲座，不仅可以对课堂教学进行很好的补充，同时还可以有效地拓展学生的知识和眼界。 提高案例教学水准 经济学基础具有很强的实践性，高效的案例教学可以很好地帮助学生理解专业知识，还可以实现教和学两方面互相影响和促进，共同都得到提高。同时，在案例教学涉及的相关考试可以鼓励学生尽可能表达自己的见解，无须顾及试卷的限制。授课老师可以学生实际的理论知识和实践水平，对案例教学进展进行合理的控制，同时在教学活动中，有意识地关注学生的课堂表现，注意学生对案例的反映及其观点，站在客观的角度对学生的表现进行评价，同时还可以把该项评估情况加入学生的最终的成绩中，作为学生成绩评价的一个有效参考。 经济学基础实践基地建设 现阶段，多数企业并不乐于接收实习学生，然而学生可以进入的银行、事务所、咨询公司的数量毕竟是有限的，进入之后也只能从事一些基础性工作，甚至是劳力工作，无法真正涉及非常专业经济管理工作。因此，学校建立经济学专业实验室更加科学，效果更加显著。在实践基地，可以对企业的经济管理进行模拟，利用模拟情境，学生进行相关操作，处理相关的经济问题，进而更加深刻地掌握，改善教学状况，实现更加理想的教学效果。在此基础上，对企业的工作环境进行高效模拟，尽可能再现企业发展情况，综合各类专业知识，一方面，有效帮助学生系统巩固教材知识，另一方面，可以很好地锻炼学生的适应能力，培养其动手操作能力，符合当前复合型人才的发展要求。 3结论 综上所述，当前的经济学基础教学存在较多问题，教学模式刻板，教学环境封闭，无法满足实践性经管人才的需求，同时也无法很好地适应市场经济发展现状。文中笔者从增强教学的实践性、改善案例教学质量、建立实践基地三个方面革新“经济学基础”的教学环境，提升专业教学水平，满足现代企业经济人才需求。 经济学论文篇2：《《国际经济学》教学方法的改革与实践》 《国际经济学》是一门研究国际经济活动的学科，集国际贸易理论和国际金融理论于一体，是传统经济活动在跨国领域的运作和延伸。该课程一般开设于大二学年上学期，是经济相关专业的学生接触到的第一门“国际类”课程，在整个教学体系中起着承上启下的作用，它的教学方法运用得当，可提升学生学习的积极性、增强课堂教学的效果，具有举足轻重的作用。 一、《国际经济学》相关教材的选择 《国际经济学》作为经济专业的一门传统课程，教材版本众多，选择余地大，但是由于理论发展迅速，内容庞杂，各版本教材的内容差异较大，选择不同的教材可导致学生学到的理论差异很大。比较经典的国内教材是人大版和高教版的21世纪系列教材，也是国内众多院校选择的教材，这类教材中规中矩，尽量选择的是国际经济学中的传统理论，去掉旁枝末节，只对核心部分加以阐述，基本能满足教学要求。缺陷在于这类教材一般理论性较强，知识更新速度慢，实例和练习题较少，导致教学手段也比较单一，不能很好的举一反三。国际上关于该课程的经典教材也比较多，像克鲁格曼和萨尔瓦多的版本，都是一版再版，受到许多国内985和211院校教师的追捧。这些教材内容全面，知识新颖，一般都配以大量实证分析和习题，并有网络教学资源加以利用，教学效果更好。但此类教材一般难度较大，计量模型类分析较多，基础差的学生学习起来比较吃力，容易放弃。对于普通本科院校的学校，我们建议还是以国内学者编撰的教材为主，以国外经典教材为参考书或课外阅读书籍，做到有的放矢，深入浅出，以达到更好的教学效果。 二、《国际经济学》教学内容的调整 《国际经济学》与 其它 课程由浅入深的内容编排不同，一开篇就是难点，关于西方传统的国际贸易理论难度较大，不好理解，依赖于较好的微观经济学基础，否则部分学生会觉得雾里看花，对该课程首先留下了晦涩难懂的印象。比如相互需求理论和提供曲线，不结合微观基础理论分析会觉得理论突兀，结合基础理论部分学生又无法理解，针对这个问题，我们的主张是保证课堂教学的紧凑性，只讲解核心部分内容，并提供整个理论分析的参考资料供有基础的学生课外阅读，并把相关曲线的分析编入习题中，让学生熟悉它的推导过程。 《国际经济学》中大部分的内容都是国际贸易理论部分，分成不同的流派，形成不同的观点，许多派系直到现在仍然在发展充实。教师在进行这几章内容的备课时，一定要注意分类整理，避免逻辑混乱，并且在同一派系中还有不同分支，观点不尽相同，一定要注意分析和比较，让学生在思考中掌握问题要点。其中有几个理论，诸如贸易保护理论和生命周期理论等，在现代国家的发展中有很好的运用，所以适合结合实际来分析，避免就事论事。否则，学生也会在其它课程里面从另外的角度再次学到这些理论，那么他们就会心存疑虑，认为这些理论描述不一致，很难对理论信服和认可。我们建议教授《国际经济学》的教师和教授《国际贸易实务》的教师必须有集中备课的习惯，以便于知识的传承和衔接。关于国际金融理论部分的知识也在讲授中的一个难点，按照教学大纲要求是需要进行讲解的，但是该部分与《金融学》和《国际金融》的理论都有所重叠，许多教师甚至直接把备课的内容在这几门课上重复运用，没有做到严格区分，容易让学生觉得这些课程重复太多，学起来没用的假象。 在讲授该部分内容时，应侧重金融知识为贸易知识服务的重要性，国际经济活动是多重性的活动，实体贸易经济最终需要货币结算和资金流动等一系列的活动来配合完成，这才是《国际经济学》中编排金融知识的目的。所以金融理论知识的讲解一定要跟前面的贸易理论知识结合起来，主要贸易领域资金结算和投融资活动的分析，这样才能把《国际经济学》两部分的内容更好的融合，保持整体性和连贯性。开放经济政策下的宏观经济政策是该课程的又一个难点，这部分内容是宏观经济学的延伸和运用，同时也是近几十年来经济学者比较集中研究的内容。要引起学习的积极性，可以布置一些课堂任务，让同学们下去查询相关学者取得的成就和经济政策在不同国家的运用，让他们主动发现这部分内容的重要性，有了心态上的主动认识再加上课程的讲解，对经济政策的运用和不同国家的比较就可以学得更加透彻。《国际经济学》的内容众多，需要选择和取舍，分清主次，这就需要任课老师一定要根据学生的基础因材施教，有的放失，才能取得较好的教学效果。 三、《国际经济学》教学习题和案例分析的甄别 (一)教学习题方面 《国际经济学》是一门承上启下的重要课程，必要的练习是帮助学生更好理解教学内容，掌握解题思路的手段之一，国外众多版本的教材中都有较多参考资料，但是难易程度不一，需要选择。诸如在讲解提供曲线时，许多教材都在习题中对这个问题以习题形式来分析，但难度比较大。教师可以把这部分内容编入课堂教学中，以课堂思考题的形式直接提出并进行分析解答，可根据课堂反应来判断讲解的深入程度如何。纵观国内教材，习题编撰比较单一，一般都以简答或名词解释的形式呈现，没有任何新意，这就需要教师根据课堂教学内容进行习题编写，融入选择、判断以及计算分析等多种题型。比如在讲述区域经济一体化内容时，往年习题集中于问答题型，但讲授时可以把中国关于自贸区的政策介绍进去，那么习题编写时就可以考虑到时事部分，把关于自贸区的内容变成填空、选择或判断题，来考察学生在课后是否认真了解了这些经济时事政策。在讲述外汇和汇率时，可从贸易角度讲述金融结算方面的知识，那么习题就可以出一些计算分析题，国际经济活动中不同情形需要用什么汇率结算，怎样计算和分析等，这样学生就可以对该问题的应用有了更深的了解。 (二)案例分析方面 《国际经济学》的案例众多，选择性大，所以要选择合适的案例，要分析得当，讲解有深度，而且要为理论知识服务。比如在讲解国际直接投资和跨国公司的相关内容时，关于跨国公司的案例很多，但我们可以选取世界500强公司的前三十名进行比较分析，近三年来该榜单有什么变化，是什么原因造成的，经济形势对跨国公司的经营产生了怎样的影响，通过该案例的分析再来讲解跨国公司的相关理论，课堂的教学效果就非常好，学生理解起来也非常直观。在讲解国际收支相关内容时，除了罗列国际收支平衡表让学生理解分析外，还可把这几年国际收支平衡表的变化列出来给学生看，让其分析原因，再结合中国的“走出去”战略，让学生在学习国际收支平衡表内容的同时也知道了当前国际经济新形势下新的战略和选择。案例分析也要与时俱进，也要注重实例分析为理论服务的特点，才能达到较好的效果。 总之，为了把《国际经济学》的教学工作做得更好更透彻，任课老师应该充分作好各种准备工作，多阅读参考教材，将各类素材整理归纳到课堂上来讲解，多准备案例教学，让案例导入理论，从理论归纳到做法，从做法再总结出案例，循序渐进。每一章都要编写配套习题，习题内容要与课堂教学内容配套，做到相辅相成，相互融合，才能起到习题的训练效果。另外，国际经济的活动日新月异，跨境电商贸易和互联网金融异军突起，给该门课程的发展带来了新的契机，我们在讲授时也要充分意识到这一点，做到知识更新，才能取到更好的效果。 经济学论文篇3：《农业信息化建设在农村经济发展中的作用》 一、引言 如今我国各地区的贫富差距仍然较大，一些农村可能还在温饱阶段，而我们的社会已经不满足于小康社会，已经逐步向全面建设小康社会转型，这样发展的严重不均衡，使得农村经济发展更加落后。因此，全面建设小康社会的重点和难点就在于农村。随着社会的发展，农村人民对于生活也有了更高的要求，所以在农村实施农业信息化建设不仅可以缩小贫富差距，而且对于农村的经济发展是一个重大的推动力。中国农业要发展，就必须坚定不移地走农业信息化的道路。 二、农业信息化建设的意义 农业信息化是指在农业领域充分利用信息技术的方法手段和最新成果的过程。我国作为一个发展中国家，农业是国民经济的基础，农业的发展直接制约着工业和第三产业的发展，所以为了加速发展农村经济，农业信息化建设至关重要，它不仅仅可以促进农业增效，是统筹城乡经济社会发展的重要举措，还可以实现全面建设小康社会。 (一)有利于社会主义新农村建设 农业信息化建设可以引导农民改变传统的生产生活方式，促进农民享受现代社会的文明成果，推进农村科技、 文化 、 教育 、医疗等社会各项事业的发展。 (二)有利于改变农民的消费观念 农业信息化可以改善农民的生活环境，促使农民的消费观念和方式的改变。通过农业信息化的建设，农民可以利用网络了解关于农业生产的各种信息与技术。农业信息扩大了农民的视野，丰富了农民的文化娱乐生活，使他们不再封闭在自己的世界中，抵制消费，而是由注重物质文化生活的消费，向注重精神文化生活消费的转移。 (三)有利于提高农民的整体素质 通过农业信息化的建设，可以培养有文化、懂技术、会经营的新型农民。在现代信息化的时代，捕捉信息的 渠道 很多，信息化的建设就是信息来源的渠道之一，没有信息化的建设，到达农村的信息就是迟缓的、过时的，农民就无法得到有价值的信息，就无法掌握经济市场，和生产经营的主动权。如此农民就会丧失机遇，陷于被动，从而遭受经济损失。如果农民的整体素质提高了，就能快速抓住有价值的信息，为自己的农业生产创造条件。农业信息化提高了农民的整体素质，为他们的学习提供了更多的资源，以及为他们的经营管理提供了更多的方法。 (四)有助于促进农民走进社会市场 以前农村的生产基本上是自产自销，没有与社会市场连接，缺乏市场信息观念。对于社会市场信息不灵通，导致价格制定不合理，造成农副产品的生产大起大落。但是随着农业信息化建设，农民不再盲目生产，大大提高了生产效率和管理水平，促进了管理科学化、合理化和规范化，加快了农业的全面发展。 (五)有利于推动农村农业的进步，实现农业现代化 现在农业技术在不断地发展，农业信息化也被普遍运用于农业生产。农业信息技术的出现，带给了农民一种新的体验，这种技术的推广和普及，使农民能够通过网络进行远程技术培训和教育，弥补了原先农民农业生产知识和技术的缺乏。它促进了农民文化素质的提高和科技意识的增强，从而加快了农业现代化的步伐，促进了农业现代化的持续、稳定、健康的发展之路。 三、农村经济发展中的阻碍 (一)基础设施落后 基础设施是农村经济发展的基本物质保证，完善的基本设施是农村经济发展的基本前提。我国一些农村经济发展之所以缓慢，就是因为基本物质条件太差，比如道路交通不完善，交通网络结构单一，水、电、通讯不健全等，这些都是导致农村居民生活质量低下，严重阻碍农村经济发展的主要原因之一。 (二)农业生产方式落后 在农业信息化建设进入农村之前，不少地方的农民都是依靠传统的耕耘方式进行农业生产，使用的农业生产工具也是需要大量劳动力的传统工具，农村的农业生产方式落后，阻碍了农村的经济发展。 (三)农村资源开发利用率低 作为我国资源的宝库，农村具有较强的潜在资源优势。但是目前我国广大农村资源的开发力度低，资源开发利用率低，因此造成了大量资源闲置、浪费，无法促进资源优势向经济优势转变，从而无法带动农村经济的发展。 (四)农村经济发展对外开放程度低 我国农村普遍现象是农村较为封闭，导致外部资金无法进入，先进的科学技术和人才也难以引入，农村市场无法与外部市场接触，农村产生的经济难以推动整个农村的经济发展。 这些问题使得农村的经济发展受到了严重的阻碍，而农业信息化的到来，解决了这些影响农村经济发展的问题，从而加快了农村的经济发展。 四、农业信息化建设在农村经济发展中的作用 (一)农业信息化可以实现建设农村小康社会 随着中国特色社会主义建设事业的深入，在基本实现小康社会的情况下，我国正在向全面建设小康社会迈进。如今全面建设小康社会应该重点关注农村经济发展，所以农业信息化在农村的实施不可避免。目前，我国农村经济发展还比较落后，农业生产各方面的条件和机制都不够完善，而通过农业信息化建设，能够逐渐缩小贫富差距，让农村的经济发展一步步走上正轨，改善农民生活，从而逐渐实现建设农村小康社会。 (二)农业信息化可以提高农民收入 我国的传统农业模式正在慢慢转向信息化农业模式。以往农村科学技术和信息技术的落后，使得自然灾害容易对农业生产造成巨大的损失，而农业信息化的引入，改善了农业就业结构。对于农村居民来说，农业信息化提高了农业生产效率，有效的避免了自然灾害等因素所带来的影响，也就是在农业信息化的带动下，农村居民的收入提高了。另一方面，从整个社会来说，农业信息化提高了农业资源的利用率，提高了农业的生产水平和生产效率，效率提高了，所得到的回报也就更多。 农民收入的提高也表现在以下方面。一是农业信息化减少了市场交易的风险。农业信息化结合了生产、分配、消费等各个方面，它连接了买卖市场，减少了流通环节，节约了交易费用，也避免了消费过程中的各种纠纷，从而提高了农民收入。二是促进了农业经营模式的改善。以前农民都是通过自身的经验来生产产品，经营管理也没有系统的方式。然而通过农业信息化的建设，可以向农民传输科学知识以及农业生产的相关信息，使他们的经营管理规范化，从而使他们获得更大的经济效益。三是加快农业生产技术的推广。农业信息化可以有效的解决农村信息落后的问题，信息通过网络和多媒体技术把农业生产技术传递给农民，使农业生产科技得到发展和推广。 (三)农业信息化可以发展农村的市场经济 众所周知，我国是一个农业大国，长期以来，农业成本高，投入大，效率低，科技含量低，农民的文化素质和消费观念低下，相对落后的生产和销售方式制约着农村市场的经济发展。农村生产的产品量大时，即使低于城市多倍的价格销售，仍然解决不了大量积压产品，农村市场经济的不完善，使得产品没有销路是农村市场经济难以发展的原因之一。我国在几十年的农村改革中，农村市场经济通过农业信息化的建设，让农民进一步了解了社会的需求，供求走势，价格行情等，有效促进了农村市场经济的发展，使得农村经济发展又向前迈出了一步。 (四)农业信息化可以统筹城乡经济社会发展 农业信息化有助于推进农业和农村经济结构的调整，可以促进农村各项社会事业的发展。农业信息化的建设，让农村居民在教育、医疗、科技等方面逐渐拉近与城市居民之间的差距，以实行以城带乡，以工促农，城乡互动，协调发展，实现农业和农村经济的可持续性发展。 五、 进一步加强农业信息化发展的途径 (一)需要政府加大扶持力度 农业信息化的过程中肯定会遇到许多困难和矛盾，如果没有政府的大力扶持和资金支持，农民对农业信息化难以信服，特别是一些思想封闭，技术落后的农村。没有政府扶持的农业信息化建设就会像一盘散沙，没有企业化经营的管理人员，以农业信息化促进农村经济发展的规划就达不到预期的效果，那么农业信息化要真正地走进农村并被作用于农业生产等方面是很难的。 (二)需要培养农村信息人才，以此来推广农业信息化的应用 原本农民的文化程度都不高，他们因为农村的落后、种种因素和不利条件而无法接收良好的教育，这些原因使得农村人才匮乏，在这样的情况下，即使农业信息化对农民生活有诸多的好处，农民无法把它运用到生产农业事业中，那么农业信息化只是一场空谈。所以培养农村信息人才极其重要，有了这些专业的信息人才，农业信息化才能发挥它最大作用，农民也才会因此而受益。培养农村信息人才不仅是为了传播农业信息化的功能，也是为了激励农民工提高信息意识，自觉的关注信息和利用信息，培养他们使用信息的习惯和调动他们依靠信息的积极性。 六、结语 农业可持续发展是社会经济可持续发战略的重要组成部分。在全面实行农业信息化建设的过程中肯定会遇到困难，但是只有坚定不移的走农业信息化的道路，我国农村经济发展才会得到更好、更快的发展。相信在农业信息化的建设下一定会实现农村经济可持续发展，提高农民生活质量，增加农民收入，从而促进社会经济的发展。 猜你喜欢： 1. 大一经济学论文范文 2. 关于大一经济学论文范文 3. 关于大学经济学论文范文 4. 经济学术论文范文 5. 大一经济学论文范文精

Microeconomics is a branch of economics that studies how individuals, households and firms make decisions to allocate limited resources,[1] typically in markets where goods or services are being bought and sold. Microeconomics examines how these decisions and behaviours affect the supply and demand for goods and services, which determines prices; and how prices, in turn, determine the supply and demand of goods and services.[2][3] Macroeconomics, on the other hand, involves the "sum total of economic activity, dealing with the issues of growth, inflation and unemployment, and with national economic policies relating to these issues"[2] and the effects of government actions (such as changing taxation levels) on them.[4] Particularly in the wake of the Lucas critique, much of modern macroeconomic theory has been built upon 'microfoundations' — . based upon basic assumptions about micro-level behaviour. One of the goals of microeconomics is to analyze market mechanisms that establish relative prices amongst goods and services and allocation of limited resources amongst many alternative uses. Microeconomics analyzes market failure, where markets fail to produce efficient results, as well as describing the theoretical conditions needed for perfect competition. Significant fields of study in microeconomics include general equilibrium, markets under asymmetric information, choice under uncertainty and economic applications of game theory. Also considered is the elasticity of products within the market system. Assumptions and definitions The theory of supply and demand usually assumes that markets are perfectly competitive. This implies that there are many buyers and sellers in the market and none of them have the capacity to significantly influence prices of goods and services. In many real-life transactions, the assumption fails because some individual buyers or sellers or groups of buyers or sellers do have the ability to influence prices. Quite often a sophisticated analysis is required to understand the demand-supply equation of a good. However, the theory works well in simple situations. Mainstream economics does not assume a priori that markets are preferable to other forms of social organization. In fact, much analysis is devoted to cases where so-called market failures lead to resource allocation that is suboptimal by some standard (highways are the classic example, profitable to all for use but not directly profitable for anyone to finance). In such cases, economists may attempt to find policies that will avoid waste directly by government control, indirectly by regulation that induces market participants to act in a manner consistent with optimal welfare, or by creating "missing markets" to enable efficient trading where none had previously existed. This is studied in the field of collective action. It also must be noted that "optimal welfare" usually takes on a Paretian norm, which in its mathematical application of Kaldor-Hicks Method, does not stay consistent with the Utilitarian norm within the normative side of economics which studies collective action, namely public choice. Market failure in positive economics (microeconomics) is limited in implications without mixing the belief of the economist and his or her theory. The demand for various commodities by individuals is generally thought of as the outcome of a utility-maximizing process. The interpretation of this relationship between price and quantity demanded of a given good is that, given all the other goods and constraints, this set of choices is that one which makes the consumer happiest. [edit] Modes of operation It is assumed that all firms are following rational decision-making, and will produce at the profit-maximizing output. Given this assumption, there are four categories in which a firm's profit may be considered. A firm is said to be making an economic profit when its average total cost is less than the price of each additional product at the profit-maximizing output. The economic profit is equal to the quantity output multiplied by the difference between the average total cost and the price. A firm is said to be making a normal profit when its economic profit equals zero. This occurs where average total cost equals price at the profit-maximizing output. If the price is between average total cost and average variable cost at the profit-maximizing output, then the firm is said to be in a loss-minimizing condition. The firm should still continue to produce, however, since its loss would be larger if it were to stop producing. By continuing production, the firm can offset its variable cost and at least part of its fixed cost, but by stopping completely it would lose the entirety of its fixed cost. If the price is below average variable cost at the profit-maximizing output, the firm should go into shutdown. Losses are minimized by not producing at all, since any production would not generate returns significant enough to offset any fixed cost and part of the variable cost. By not producing, the firm loses only its fixed cost. By losing this fixed cost the company faces a challenge. It must either exit the market or remain in the market and risk a complete loss. [edit] Market failure Main article: Market failure In microeconomics, the term "market failure" does not mean that a given market has ceased functioning. Instead, a market failure is a situation in which a given market does not efficiently organize production or allocate goods and services to consumers. Economists normally apply the term to situations where the inefficiency is particularly dramatic, or when it is suggested that non-market institutions would provide a more desirable result. On the other hand, in a political context, stakeholders may use the term market failure to refer to situations where market forces do not serve the public interest. The four main types or causes of market failure are: Monopolies or other cases of abuse of market power where a "single buyer or seller can exert significant influence over prices or output". Abuse of market power can be reduced by using antitrust regulations.[5] Externalities, which occur in cases where the "market does not take into account the impact of an economic activity on outsiders." There are positive externalities and negative externalities.[5] Positive externalities occur in cases such as when a television program on family health improves the public's health. Negative externalities occur in cases such as when a company’s processes pollutes air or waterways. Negative externalities can be reduced by using government regulations, taxes, or subsidies, or by using property rights to force companies and individuals to take the impacts of their economic activity into account. Public goods are goods that have the characteristics that they are non-excludable and non-rivalous and include national defense[5] and public health initiatives such as draining mosquito-breeding marshes. For example, if draining mosquito-breeding marshes was left to the private market, far fewer marshes would probably be drained. To provide a good supply of public goods, nations typically use taxes that compel all residents to pay for these public goods (due to scarce knowledge of the positive externalities to third parties/social welfare); and Cases where there is asymmetric information or uncertainty (information inefficiency).[5] Information asymmetry occurs when one party to a transaction has more or better information than the other party. For example, used-car salespeople may know whether a used car has been used as a delivery vehicle or taxi, information that may not be available to buyers. Typically it is the seller that knows more about the product than the buyer, but this is not always the case. An example of a situation where the buyer may have better information than the seller would be an estate sale of a house, as required by a last will and testament. A real estate broker purchasing this house may have more information about the house than the family members of the deceased. This situation was first described by Kenneth J. Arrow in a seminal article on health care in 1963 entitled "Uncertainty and the Welfare Economics of Medical Care," in the American Economic Review. George Akerlof later used the term asymmetric information in his 1970 work The Market for Lemons. Akerlof noticed that, in such a market, the average value of the commodity tends to go down, even for those of perfectly good quality, because the buyer has no way of knowing whether the product they are buying will turn out to be a "lemon" (a defective product). [edit] Opportunity cost Main article: Opportunity cost Although opportunity cost can be hard to quantify, the effect of opportunity cost is universal and very real on the individual level. In fact, this principle applies to all decisions, not just economic ones. Since the work of the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser, opportunity cost has been seen as the foundation of the marginal theory of value. Opportunity cost is one way to measure the cost of something. Rather than merely identifying and adding the costs of a project, one may also identify the next best alternative way to spend the same amount of money. The forgone profit of this next best alternative is the opportunity cost of the original choice. A common example is a farmer that chooses to farm his land rather than rent it to neighbors, wherein the opportunity cost is the forgone profit from renting. In this case, the farmer may expect to generate more profit himself. Similarly, the opportunity cost of attending university is the lost wages a student could have earned in the workforce, rather than the cost of tuition, books, and other requisite items (whose sum makes up the total cost of attendance). The opportunity cost of a vacation in the Bahamas might be the down payment money for a house. Note that opportunity cost is not the sum of the available alternatives, but rather the benefit of the single, best alternative. Possible opportunity costs of the city's decision to build the hospital on its vacant land are the loss of the land for a sporting center, or the inability to use the land for a parking lot, or the money that could have been made from selling the land, or the loss of any of the various other possible uses—but not all of these in aggregate. The true opportunity cost would be the forgone profit of the most lucrative of those listed. One question that arises here is how to assess the benefit of dissimilar alternatives. We must determine a dollar value associated with each alternative to facilitate comparison and assess opportunity cost, which may be more or less difficult depending on the things we are trying to compare. For example, many decisions involve environmental impacts whose dollar value is difficult to assess because of scientific uncertainty. Valuing a human life or the economic impact of an Arctic oil spill involves making subjective choices with ethical implications.