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The Growth of English LanguageA learner of English even a native may wonder why the spelling and pronunciation of English words bear much resemblance to that of German’s or why it has a great ocean of synonyms. And when he happens to meet with a sentence like “he haefd an swithe aenlic wif.” He might not be sure if it is English or not. Therefore it may be helpful for those who want to undertake a deeper study of English to get a general idea of the shift of the paper divides the growth into four periods:Anglo-saxon (450-1150)Middle English (1150-1500)Modern English (1500-1900)Present- day English (1900-) (And more stress will be given on neologism on present day English through some social facts.)Though it is not possible to fix the precise dates of the change from on step to another, the shift of the English language kept pace very closely with the progress of English history and development of English literature. Let’s begin with the visit of islands by Juliss Caesar invaded the Land on which the ancestors of Scottish Irish Wales called Britons inhabited. And Roman mode of life also came cross to the British Island. Roman theaters and baths quickly rose in towns. Their refinements of civilization however did not affect Britons very much. They still spoke various Celtic languages and were treated like slaves. The Roman occupation lasted 400 years. During the period Britons fought bravely with their invaders and at the beginning of 15th C. the Roman Empire was 410 AD Conquerors went back and left Latin alphabet behind that replaced the runic the departure of the Romans about 450AD some Germanic tribes of Anglo-saxons and Jutes invaded southern and western parts of England from north Germany, and northern region was occupied by Scandinavians from across North Sea. These tribes together brought their language called Teutonic which was the base of old English. In the earliest period of the old English there were four main regional dialects:Northumbrians,Mercian,West saxon and Kentissh, which were spoken over all England outside of Wales, over all the low land of Scotland and over a great part of German the old English had a highly developed system of endings to show case number, and tense. For example, a noun, in old English has four cases which lead to various forms according to its use:stan(stone)-stanes-stane stonas-stane and stantum. In addition to this the spelling and meaning of some words are quite different from that of modern English, “syle” in old English means “give” and now means “sell”, “on” means “in”, “into” means “on”, “of” means “from” in old 6th century, the introduction of Christianity into England made contribution of new Latin words to old English by Roman missionaries. These words mostly dealt with religion such as candle, priest, and temple. Though daily dealings with those tribes from Demark, Norway, the Anglo-saxon also adopted such words as egg, sky, sister, and they, them, even the “are” of the verb “to be”.In 1066 the Norman conquest made a division between old English and Middle English. When these French speaking Normans conquered the Anglo-saxon England, she was already in a state of transition from tribal organization towards feudal system. Norman reinforced this and brought in many new laws social customs and literary ideals. More than ten thousand French words were introduced into English, covering government, the church the army, and many other fields. As a result of this English has an extremely rich vocabulary with a great ocean of synonyms. Owing partially to Scandinavian inroads, partially to the Norman conquest, and partly to the natural progress, the Anglo-saxon dropped its inflections and changed its syntax to such an extent that it began to resemble modern English. Though there were not much literature works available of the period to show the resemblance the passage from Layamon’s BRUT will give a good idea of it. Thenne cumeth the wulf wilde: toward hire windenThen comes the wolf wild, toward her the wulf beon one, buten aels imaneThough the wolf be one, without all companyAnd ther weoren in one lopken:fif hundred gatenAnd threw re in one fold five hundred goatsThe wulf heom to iviteth and alle heom abitethThe wolf them to cometh and all the process of the change went on with greatly increased rapidity during the period (1150-1500)which we call the Middle English period. The language continued to lose its inflections and also aquired lots of French words. On the whole the process was from chaotic to systematic. In general character, and also in most of its details it became so like modern English that it may be read with comparative ease by one who has no knowledge of Anglo-saxon as we can see in the following passage from LANGLAND’S Vision of piers plowman:Ac on a may morweningOn malveern hills Me bfel a ferly,Of fairy me to restUnder a brood bank,By a burn’s side,And was I lay and learned,And looked on the watersI slombered into a sleeping,It swayed so mury,Then gan I metenA morvellous sweven,Wist I never also during this period, a great change in English vowels, called the Great vowel Shift, played a very significant role in the development of the language. For most English vowels were affected, which brought about the most characterisc difference between Chaucerian pronunciation and that of today. The two long vowels ; and ; were diphthongized and other long volwels became broader longer as indicated bellow:Chauser’s chauser’s Shakespeare present daySpelling pro. Pro. Pro. SpellingDeel del. Del dil dealName nam nm neim nameHous hus hous haus houseApart from the shift of sounds we also have the great and important change in sentence structure and forms of word. As the inflectional endings were in the state of having lost, word-order became more important than that in old a simple old English sentence as “Us gelicap seglung” to us “pleases sailing” naturely became “We like sailing.” Here the case of pronoun has been shifted from dative to nominative and grammatical subject refers not to the action but to the agent. A still more striking example of this shift of grammatical subject to the beginning of the sentence with proper change in position though not in form of the pronoun, is seen in such a sentence as “He was given the boat.” For old English “Him waes gegiefen se bat” to him was given the boat, where “bat”(boat) is grammatical subject which in present day English became retained Middle English and modern English we can not find a clear division as Norman Conquest made between old English and middle English but by the 16th century the language had already taken on look of modern English. The most remarkable feature in the development of modern English is the increase of its vocabulary AS a result of Renaissance a large number of Latin-loan words were brought into English. And due to the trade with all parts of the world many loan-words are the names of foreign products, such words are “tea” from china “potato” from Haiti through Spanish, etc. Later in modern English period science and speedy developed modern society began to exert a great influence on English particularly in the growth we came to see that English as a social phenomenon never ceases to change and this is especially true with the language we are speaking now. We may be offered a more clear conception by some World War I great changes had taken place in English society, economics science and technology. Advanced science brought considerable influence on the mode of people’s life and reformed environment . It’s no doubt that all this would reflect in the our society the advancement of science and technology is so remarkable that the steam locomotive has already become the living specimen in museum. Even when a transistor radio is put next to a . set it seems old or somewhat out of date. And people would name it steam radio. So the word” steam” is considered as a symbol of oldness. This provides us with an adequate idea that those words formerly were associated with past have to adopt themselves to the new situation. If there is none they have to be created. So now we have new expressions of old words as well as new words created from new situation. The word anti-social, is not a new word itself. Since it was created in 18th century the meaning of it has changed three times. Primarily it meant inharmonious with society” or unwilling to be with others”. In 19th century it came to mean “to be against the principle of new society” But now we refer to those who are incompatible to the public the criterion of moral is in the state of progressing when people speak of “conscience” they will have “social conscience” in the back of their this modern and industrialized world, some industrial terms have widely spread over the other fields. Today we may hear people saying that “we should step up the output of graduates or they are the end products from the university.”The word “processing” generally refers to the changing of characteristic of something through a systematic physical or chemical method. But now it is so widely used that it has encroached upon its unusual usage. It can be picked up to describe any action that goes back and forth or any action that causes the change. When an officer in the airport says: “process passengers” he means to lead the passengers to go through all experiment in nuclear weaponry turned out a very interesting accidental product-bikini, new English-Chinese dictionary gives a clear definition-a very small 2 piece swimming suit for women covering only tiny parts of body”. As matter of fact the word bikini derived from the name of a coral island in Pacific Ocean, on which an atom bomb was experimented in 1946. Then what is the relationship between these two different objects? This may be puzzling, but in fact the explanation is quite simple: The charm of a beautiful young girl with an erectness of carriage in this kind of swimming suit would immediately arouse the emotional excitement of those young men who catch the sight of her. And such excitement is so strong that can be compared to the explosion of atom bomb. This is invention must owe to those admen for they have such talented skill that makes something banal this warfare century, it’s most likely that with warlike nature man has found a very ideal field to probe space in competitive manner. Now they have taken their first step. In order to meet the needs of the new subject of the space navigation a group of new technical terms has to be brought into being. This new subject relies on the Rocketry. At present space men are continued to the orbit round the earth, but they wish to build a space platform or space station from which they can make journey to other planate. And when we are watching a play of space navigation we call it a space word “pre-war” also is changed in its use. For some time in the past it referred to the time before 1914, but the World War II affected it. Therefore now it tells the time before 1939. For the sake of avoiding confusion we usually use the term “inter-war years” to mean the time between 1918 and 1939. The functions of the word have been expanded too. For a long time it is utilized as an adjective as in the sentence “He made fortune in pre-war years.” It is also taken as an adverb as in sentence “Pre-war he could hardly exist”.And now we come to a new era, the era of e- and dot com. So we have now a great number of newly coined words that are utilized in our daily life. According to Barnhart Dictionary Companion they can collect 1500-1600 new words yearly. You could almost put an e-to anything that then would be associated with electronic; the most popular one might be e-mail that has already become a part of our life. As Internet is widely accepted people are gradually relying on it. One graduated in an e-school may sit at home engaging in e-lancer economy through e-business while using an e-bank. All these examples have proved that language is closely related to the society in which it is spoken. The language develops as the society moves forward. Therefore an English learner who has desire to gain a real mastery of the language, is well advised to obtain a general knowledge of the growth of the language and adapt himself to the changing language in the changing :1.“He had a very incomparable wife.” on a May morningOn Malvern hills Me befell a wonder If fair me was worn out with wanderingAnd went me to rest Under a broad bankBy a stream’s side:And so I lay and leanedAnd looked on the watersI slumbered into a sleepingIt sounded so pleasantThen began I to meetA marvelous dream,That I was in a wildernessKnew I not where.
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现在许多公司都有自己的中英文简介，以供外商看。下面由我为你提供的公司简介英文翻译，希望能帮到你。
公司简介英文翻译(一)
XXXX co., LTD is a professional design and production of sanitary products manufacturers, the main shower room, simple shower room, bath screen, shower screen, and other products, is a collection of product research and development design, production and sales in the integration of industry and trade 's wholly owned foreign enterprise, Norway's parent company in the field of wei yu product development design and sales have more than 25 years, has the very high popularity in the industry at home and abroad. Norway and Europe's product design ideas into the XX bath concept of designers and engineers, we in the research and design of shower room set off a revolution. Norway, meanwhile, the management and quality control system is deeply rooted in the domestic production and operation activities, make our products can satisfy any customer requirements for product is the life of the enterprise, this sentence has a XXX deeply rooted in everyone's heart. Standard of international and domestic clients fully understand and grasp the "is one of our advantages in the market, we according to the market requirements, in accordance with the access standards in different countries, chosen to meet the requirements of the market materials, to produce quality products to meet the requirements of the guests. Direct contact with the client and the consummation post-sale service enable us to better understand customer needs, producing products that meet the needs of the center covers an area of 60000 ㎡, have an independent office area, production workshop and warehouse logistics workshop. Within the enterprise based on the 6 s management, and gradually expand to the 7 s, 8 s. Clean and tidy work environment, equipment division and put orderly, open and orderly circulation of materials, planning and warehousing. Enable us to work in an attractive working environment and did you choose us? Perfect quality control syste
公司简介英文翻译(二)
Nike, Inc. (pronounced /ˈnaɪkiː/; NYSE: NKE) is a major publicly traded sportswear and equipment supplier based in the United States. The company is headquartered near Beaverton, Oregon, which is part of the Portland metropolitan area. It is the world's leading supplier of athletic shoes and apparel[3] and a major manufacturer of sports equipment, with revenue in excess of US$ billion in its fiscal year 2008 (ending May 31, 2008). As of 2008, it employed more than 30,000 people worldwide. Nike and Precision Castparts are the only Fortune 500 companies headquartered in the state of Oregon, according to The company was founded on January 25, 1964 as Blue Ribbon Sports by Bill Bowerman and Philip Knight,[1] and officially became Nike, Inc. on May 30, 1978. The company takes its name from Nike (Greek Νίκη, pronounced [nǐːkɛː]), the Greek goddess of victory. Nike markets its products under its own brand, as well as Nike Golf, Nike Pro, Nike+, Air Jordan, Nike Skateboarding, and subsidiaries including Cole Haan, Hurley International, Umbro and Converse. Nike also owned Bauer Hockey (later renamed Nike Bauer) between 1995 and 2008.[4] In addition to manufacturing sportswear and equipment, the company operates retail stores under the Niketown name. Nike sponsors many high profile athletes and sports teams around the world, with the highly recognized trademarks of "Just do it" and the Swoosh logo.
公司简介英文翻译(三)
Adidas is one of the world’s top sporting brands. It is based in Germany and includes other brands like Reebok in its group. The three parallel bars that form its logo is known worldwide. The company bought these “Three Stripes” from a Finnish sports company in the 1950s. Adidas has provided quality sporting goods for decades. They create a very strong brand loyalty among consumers. Many people wear Adidas clothes and shoes as a fashion statement. The company also manufactures other products such as bags, glasses and watches. Adidas is heavily into sponsoring sports stars and teams. It is involved in sponsorship deals with the top soccer, rugby and cricket teams all over the world. Its current marketing slogan perhaps sums up the company’s success - “Impossible is Nothing”.
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A virtual world is an interactive simulated environment accessed by multiple users through an online interface. Virtual worlds are also called "digital worlds," "simulated worlds" and "MMOG's." There are many different types of virtual worlds, however there are six features all of them have in common: 1. Shared Space: the world allows many users to participate at once. 2. Graphical User Interface: the world depicts space visually, ranging in style from 2D "cartoon" imagery to more immersive 3D environments. 3. Immediacy: interaction takes place in real time. 4. Interactivity: the world allows users to alter, develop, build, or submit customized content. 5. Persistence: the world's existence continues regardless of whether individual users are logged in. 6. Socialization/Community: the world allows and encourages the formation of in-world social groups like teams, guilds, clubs, cliques, housemates, neighborhoods, etc. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------Virtual worlds have been created for many different purposes. The largest and most common type of virtual world is the "MMORPG" which stands for "Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Game." But virtual worlds have also been built for purposes other than gaming. The following section summarizes a few ways in which virtual worlds are currently used: Commercial GamingCommercial gaming worlds tend to focus on a singular fictional theme and consistently follow formal conventions such as character-focused avatars, progression through an interactive narrative storyline, and a series of competitive events. Strongly influenced by fantasy, science fiction, and anime genres of literature and film, the majority of sizable virtual worlds in existence today are commercial gaming worlds. Examples include Everquest, Lineage 2, and World of Warcraft. While Virtual Worlds Review includes several top-quality gaming worlds on the review list, we mostly feature worlds that fall outside the traditional gaming mold. Fortunately there are many other great sites that contain comprehensive lists of commercial gaming worlds. Here are a few: Gamespot Gamespy Socializing / Online Community BuildingIn addition to the traditional fantasy RPG worlds, there are many commercial community-focused virtual worlds that emphasize socializing rather than gaming. These worlds offer a more open-ended experience and are strongly influenced by the cultures of text-based chat rooms. Although small-scale, casual games may be incorporated into a social world, participants are not necessarily there to win or play a game, but rather to socialize with others and, in many cases, create and decorate a personal space such as a home, room, or apartment. Social worlds tend to use settings based on idealized versions of reality. Most provide some basic building tools and the ability to host activities and events that revolve around a wide variety of topics. EducationSome virtual worlds have been created for educational purposes. In most cases, educational worlds are sponsored by academic institutions or nonprofit organizations, although some educational worlds are sponsored by corporations. Educational worlds come in a wide variety of forms, including 3D recreations of museum and gallery spaces, computer programming tutorials, virtual libraries, and meeting spaces for online university courses. Active Worlds Educational Universe is one of the oldest and largest networks of educational worlds. Adobe Atmosphere is also being used to build virtual worlds for educational purposes. A great example of a corporate-sponsored educational world is Mokitown. Political ExpressionVirtual worlds can serve as forums for political expression and debate. While real-world political issues can crop up in gaming, social, and educational worlds, there are a few cases in which completely separate virtual worlds have been built for the purpose of political debate or even experiments in various types of self-governing online communities. A great example of a virtual world with a political focus is AgoraXchange. Military TrainingVirtual world technologies are also being used in some interesting ways by the . military. America's Army is being used as a tool to recruit potential soldiers, while companies like Forterra Systems are working with military groups to develop training simulations. And this is just the beginning. As these technologies develop further over the next several years, virtual worlds will be used for all types of purposes as more people begin spending more time in them. If you're new to the "world of virtual worlds" we hope that Virtual Worlds Review will serve as a user-friendly, informative place to learn a bit about them. For those who are already familiar with virtual worlds, we hope the site will let you know about other types of worlds you may not have heard of before. In either case, welcome and enjoy the site. -------------------A virtual world is a computer-based simulated environment intended for its users to inhabit and interact via avatars. These avatars are usually depicted as textual, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional graphical representations, although other forms are possible[1] (auditory[2] and touch sensations for example). Some, but not all, virtual worlds allow for multiple computer accesses a computer-simulated world and presents perceptual stimuli to the user, who in turn can manipulate elements of the modeled world and thus experiences telepresence to a certain degree.[3] Such modeled worlds may appear similar to the real world or instead depict fantasy worlds. The model world may simulate rules based on the real world or some hybrid fantasy world. Example rules are gravity, topography, locomotion, real-time actions, and communication. Communication between users has ranged from text, graphical icons, visual gesture, sound, and rarely, forms using touch and balance multiplayer online games commonly depict a world similar to the real world, with real world rules and real-time actions, and communication. Communication is usually textual, with real-time voice communication using VOIP also possible.[clarify]Virtual worlds are not limited to games but, depending on the degree of immediacy presented, can encompass computer conferencing and text based concept of virtual worlds predates computers and could be traced in some sense to Pliny.[5] The mechanical-based 1962 Sensorama machine used the senses of vision, sound, balance, smells and touch (via wind) to simulate its world. Among the earliest virtual worlds to be implemented by computers were not games but generic virtual reality simulators, such as Ivan Sutherland's 1968 virtual reality device. This form of virtual reality is characterized by bulky headsets and other types of sensory input simulation. Contemporary virtual worlds, multi-user online virtual environments, emerged mostly independently of this virtual reality technology research, fueled instead by the gaming industry but drawing on similar inspiration.[6] While classic sensory-imitating virtual reality relies on tricking the perceptual system into experiencing an imersive environment, virtual worlds typically rely on mentally and emotionally engaging content which gives rise to an immersive first virtual worlds presented on the Internet were communities and chat rooms, some of which evolved into MUDs and MUSHes. MUDs, short for “Multi User Dungeons,” are examples of virtual worlds that consist of virtual space inhabited by representations of data and other users [7]. Early virtual worlds were text-based, offering limited graphical representation, and often using a Command Line War (also known as The Maze Game, Maze Wars or simply Maze) was the first networked, 3D multi-user first person shooter game. Maze first brought us the concept of online players as eyeball "avatars" chasing each other around in a maze.” (, 29th Feb). According to the website this was in 1974, it was played on Arpanet (the initial internet), however it could only be played on an Imlac, as it was specifically built for this type of in 1978 MUD was released, it however was not 3D, it was text-based and used a TELNET program, by following the link you will be able to play the game, and understand just how far virtual worlds have come since . You can understandably argue whether or not this is a “virtual world” and that Maze War was more sophisticated (being 3D), but you must understand that MUD could be played by anyone, Maze War was computer specific. Perhaps in today’s senses it is not a true virtual world, but the idea of a virtual world in those days were different (see Neuromancer link in bibliography for more information).Some early prototyptes were WorldsAway, a prototype interactive communities featuring a virtual world by CompuServe called Dreamscape, Cityspace, an educational networking and 3D computer graphics project for children, and The Palace, a 2-dimensional community driven virtual world. However, credit for the first online virtual world usually goes to Habitat, developed in 1987 by LucasFilm Games for the Commodore 64 computer, and running on the Quantum Link service (the precursor to America Online).[citation needed]In 1996, the city of Helsinki, Finland with Helsinki Telephone Company (since Elisa Group) launched what was called the first online virtual 3D depiction intended to map an entire city. The Virtual Helsinki project was eventually renamed Helsinki Arena 2000 project and parts of the city in modern and historical context were rendered in 3D.[citation needed][edit] Virtual world conceptsOne perception of virtual worlds requires an online persistent world, active and available 24 hours a day and seven days a week, to qualify as a true virtual world.[citation needed] Although this is possible with smaller virtual worlds, especially those that are not actually online, no massively multiplayer game runs all day, every day. All the online games listed above[clarify] include downtime for maintenance that is not included as time passing in the virtual world. While the interaction with other participants is done in real-time, time consistency is not always maintained in online virtual worlds. For example, EverQuest time passes faster than real-time despite using the same calendar and time units to present game virtual world is a fairly vague and inclusive term, the above can generally be divided along a spectrum ranging from:massively multiplayer online role-playing games or MMORPGs where the user playing a specific character is a main feature of the game (World Of Warcraft for example). massively multiplayer online real-life/rogue-like games or MMORLGs, the user can edit and alter their avatar at will, allowing them to play a more dynamic role, or multiple roles. Some would argue that the MMO versions of RTS and FPS games are also virtual worlds if the world editors allow for open editing of the terrains if the "source file" for the terrain is shared. Emerging concepts include basing the terrain of such games on real satellite photos, such as those available through the Google Maps API or through a simple virtual geocaching of "easter eggs" on WikiMapia or similar mashups, where permitted.[edit] BoundariesVirtual worlds are well-known as being fantasy spaces sealed off from the real world, but more careful analysis reveals that the boundaries between the real and virtual worlds is quite porous. Participants constantly arrive and depart from the world, carrying with them their unique set of behavioral assumptions and attitudes that cannot be disentangled from their interactions in the virtual world.[8][clarify] For example, in virtual worlds which bring together players from multiple cultural backgrounds, a participant in a virtual world brings their own cultural preconceptions about those other cultures across the boundary into the world while playing. The term magic circle has been used to describe the imaginary barrier between the virtual world and the real world. The fantasy environment of the virtual world is protected from the intrusion of real life by this magic circle, but practices such as the sale of virtual items and virtual currency for real life currency challenges this separation while reinforcing the notion that objects in the virtual world have real life value. In a 2001 study by Edward Castronova, the value of the currency in the MMORPG Everquest was evaluated based on its exchange rate at USD , making this unit of virtual currency of higher value than the Yen or the though Virtual Worlds are most of the time seen as 3D Games, there are many different kinds of it: forums, blogs, wikis and chatrooms where communities born. Places which have their own world, their own rules, topics, jokes, members, etc... Each person who belongs to these kinds of communities can find like-minded people to talk to, whether this be a passion, the wish to share information about or just to meet new people and experience new things. Some users develop a double personality depending on which world they are interacting with. Depending on whether that person is in the real or virtual world can impact on the way they think and act. It is not all about video games and communities, virtual world also plays a part in the social as it can allow people to speak or share knowledge with each other. Best examples are instant messaging and visio-conferences which allow people to create their own virtual world. It can also be used to help hospitalized children (suffering from painful disease or autism for example) to create a comfortable and safe environment which can help Virtual Worlds can be seen as a new way for people to socialize, they are said to be at the heart of a lot of anti-social behaviour. People playing video games online and more precisely, MMORPG are sometimes so addicted to the game that they cannot live without playing it. Such people are called “No Life” or Otaku and spend most of their time in their house not leaving it for days. They are often wrongly treated like insane people and also represented as dangerous when criminal cases imply links with video games. The thing is that video games played online are most of the time designed to be played for a long period of time (and even in the case of World Of Warcraft indefinitely – programmers provide updates and new things to discover regularly). People who abuse this kind of video games end up living most of their live in their bedrooms, do not develop any social life or skills: they communicate with friends mostly via the game or the internet, they create their own life on the internet with a specific name, image and charisma. The example of Second Life is totally unique because players develop communities and businesses in this game. Second Life is a game where the player has to create his/her own character with a human aspect and live a second life in a virtual world. The thing is that some people are so involved in this game (and created their “own self” in this game) that they have a double personality.
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