美国内战论文参考文献

墨西哥战争，美国走向帝国美国自从1783年独立战争中获胜以后,便决定要控制整个北美洲。1835年美国煽动墨西哥得克萨斯地区的种植园主叛乱,1845年,美国吞并了得克萨斯,并提出更大的领土要求,不仅要划定得克萨斯与墨西哥的疆界,还要向墨西哥强买加利福尼亚及新墨西哥。于是战争终于不可避免了。1846年,美国对墨西哥宣战。美国第11任总统波尔克(1845年～1849年)派出了一支3500人的正规军,在扎卡里·泰勒(后来成为了第12任总统)的率领下,出击墨西哥北部。波尔克的目标是加利福尼亚、内华达、犹他、亚力桑那、新墨西哥、科罗拉多和怀俄明。衣衫破烂的美军在得克萨斯,一支大约6万人的志愿军加入了泰勒的队伍,他们中的大多数人根本就还没有做好应付残酷战争的准备,制服五花八门,甚至破烂不堪。当时的陆军中尉拿破仑·达纳在给妻子的一封信中作了如下描述:“我们这里的人按照自己的喜好穿着各色各样的衣服,有的着五颜六色的衬衣,有的却偏好夹克;戴草帽的有之,戴宽边帽的也不少,甚至有些人还穿着棉裤,看看,这就是我们当时打仗的样子……我戴着一顶旧草帽,穿着宝贝亲自织的蓝色格子裤,可惜的是两个裤腿都磨破了,眼对眼洞对洞。你还记得我的那个外套吗?现在它已经洗白了。这样也好,敌人的子弹就认不出我是个当官的了。”尽管美军已经逼近了边境,但墨西哥人仍然不把他们放在眼里,因为从人数上看,墨西哥军超过美军3倍,甚至外界也纷纷看好墨西哥。伦敦的《泰晤士报》就明确说墨西哥军队“强于美国军队”。历史学家罗·菲尔德并没有把分析的目光仅仅停留在双方的制服上,他勾画了一个更加真实的图画:“形势明显对墨西哥不利。墨西哥的人口是725万,只及美国的一半;而且墨西哥正处于一个统治不稳定的政府领导下……军队不可避免地卷入国家权力争夺的内讧中,这样对士气和军纪都是一个相当大的影响;直到1847年墨西哥军队还要求士兵在长官面前必须致敬或者脱帽行礼。”尽管在战场上,墨西哥军队拥有一批新式骑兵,如枪骑兵、轻骑兵、重装骑兵,但美军的优势在于他们的指挥系统。泰勒和斯科特以及其他的一些高级指挥官都是非常优秀的将领,他们有着一批大约200人的、毕业于西点军校的各级指挥官加以支持。这其中就包括罗伯特·李和尤里西斯·格兰特,也即是这批下级军官在以后的南北战争里却各持一方,互相厮杀。民主党政府派出了军队,但他们从没有真心希望自己的子弟兵顺利凯旋,相反,波尔克总统倒是希望斯科特在通往墨西哥的路上犯足够多的错误。北部战场的胜利使得波尔克冷落了泰勒在最初的几次交锋中,美国在墨西哥以北赢得了一系列的胜利,取得了先机。然而他们的成功很快就被可怕的流行病大打折扣,霍乱、麻疹和黄热病开始爆发,1846年夏天至少有1500名士兵倒毙。9月份,泰勒进抵蒙特里(现为加州西部一城市)。得克萨斯的骑兵队与美国的正规军一起占领了环城高地上的炮兵阵地,然后他们调转炮口猛轰蒙特里。这次行动造成了120名美军死亡,368人受伤,而墨西哥的死伤人数就更多。攻占蒙特里的消息在美国引起了轰动,大家额手称庆。如此一来,泰勒就成了反对派总统候选人的最佳人选,波尔克本来想就此收手停止战争,但遭到了舆论的强大批评,反对派说总统对墨西哥人太仁慈。波尔克骑虎难下,他只好命令泰勒驻守在蒙特里,他的大部分军队则加入斯科特的队伍,准备直捣墨西哥心脏。从两栖登陆到决战为了彻底打败墨西哥,美国总统波尔克命令美军向墨西哥首都挺进。由于从陆路攻占墨西哥城需要走800公里乡村道路,波尔克决定利用美国的制海权运送一支9000人的军队通过墨西哥湾直抵韦拉克鲁斯(墨西哥东部海港),这支军队由斯科特率领。韦拉克鲁斯是墨西哥东海岸的最大港口,具有重要战略价值。斯科特集中军队万人,配备50门大炮,在海军墨西哥湾分舰队的支援下,进攻该港。海港有4000墨军防守,工事坚固。为完成两栖攻击,斯科特专门订购了特制的登陆艇,并对部队进行了强化训练,做好了周密的准备工作。3月9日开始,美军在韦拉克鲁斯东南5000米处的海滩开始登陆。因墨军未抵抗,美军8000人无一伤亡,顺利登陆。接着,美军开始围攻韦拉克鲁斯,美72艘军舰和陆军的大炮对维拉克鲁斯进行了连续几天的野蛮炮击。在美军猛烈的炮火下,城市受到严重破坏。占领了韦拉克鲁斯后,美军直扑墨西哥首都,9月份,美军兵临墨西哥城。墨西哥总统圣塔安把大部队放在了墨西哥城内,同时在两翼布置了数量可观的军队:一个是马力莫附近的磨坊和另一个是能够俯瞰城内的查培尔佩戈要塞。9月8日,美军乘着夜色偷袭了马力莫,这次冒险非常成功,墨西哥军队被迫撤离了磨坊,后来人们才发现,这个磨坊并不是生产枪炮的地方,而是一个储放粮草的仓库。5天后,对查培尔佩戈的进攻开始了,斯科特调来炮兵对着要塞猛轰了一整天,9月13日早上,500名志愿兵拿着云梯开始强攻。这是一次残酷作战。冲在最前面的是美国海军陆战队(他们这次行动还写进了美国《海军陆战队之歌》),而突击行动总指挥特威格斯少校拿着心爱的双筒猎枪身先士卒,结果阵亡于此。由于海军陆战队如此英勇,23名军官里有13名在战后立即得到晋升。墨军也毫不含糊,军校里的学生们冒着枪林弹雨,奋勇还击,美军死伤遍地。墨军子弹打光后,与敌展开了白刃格斗。最后,有6名少年学员战斗到最后一人,光荣牺牲,被誉为“少年英雄”。9月13日晚上,圣塔安见大势已去,率领军队就从城里撤退了,他释放了监狱里的全部犯人,为的是给进城的美军添加麻烦。墨西哥城市长向斯科特求情,要求他的军队尊重他的人民的权利。第二天拂晓,美军大批进城。“在入城的时候,美军处处遭到了偷袭,”格兰特在《自传》里写道,“街道上渺无人烟,几乎成了一个死城,除了时不时从隐蔽的地方传来偷袭的枪声外。”一个奇怪的特使还在战争尚未结束的1847年4月,美国总统波尔克派遣国务院秘书尼古拉斯·特里斯特随部队前往墨西哥,他的使命就是要和平地让墨西哥放弃加利福尼亚和新墨西哥,但到1847年10月,随着战争顺利进行,总统不仅要求更多的土地,而且认为特里斯特有辱使命,要将其召回。但特里斯特拒绝回国。1848年2月2日,特里斯特以最初的指示为基础,谈判并签署了《瓜达卢佩·伊达尔戈条约》。条约规定,美国将付给墨西哥1500万美元,并赔偿因本国公民对墨西哥作战造成的损失费325万美元。作为交换,墨西哥让出了230万平方公里的土地。毫无疑问,波尔克总统对这家伙的自行其是感到不可思议,而国内的扩张主义者也认为美国得的领土太少,但3月10日,参议院居然批准了这个条约,那位无视总统命令的特里斯特先生,一点事都没有。1849年,一直病痛缠身的波尔克拒绝参加总统连任的竞选,回到了田纳西州的家中几个月后就病故了。由于他为美国开拓了大片新边疆并且和平解决了与加拿大的边界问题,被历史学家评为“接近伟大”的总统。美墨战争是美军第一次在异国作战,战争中第一次使用蒸汽战舰。这次战争也是美国第一次由职业军队单独进行的战争。征服的胜利是“伟大的”,但代价并不低廉:至少100万美元的军费以及万名士兵的性命为此作了注脚。而且正如后来的一些历史学家所说,边疆的扩大,随之而来的是蓄奴州的扩大,并最终使得美国走向了南北战争。美国史论文《美国的西进运动》一场突如其来的SARS打乱了我们的正常学习，不过这也给了我们充足的时间去阅读一些书籍。在何老师的推荐下，我阅读了人民出版社《美国通史》中的《美国的独立和初步繁荣》与《美国内战与镀金时代》这两本书，对美国的历史有了一定的了解。在感叹于美国由一个地处一隅的小邦在几百年时间内奇迹般地变成一个泱泱大国的同时，我也被美国人民对此所付出的艰苦卓绝的斗争和顽强的创业精神所折服。由于我是从甘肃考到北大的，现在西部大开发又进行的如火如荼，所以我对书中的“大陆扩张 西进运动”这一章特别感兴趣，因此就以此来作为我的读书报告。19世纪发生的西进运动是美国人民由阿巴拉契亚山脉向西部地区进行经济大开发和领土扩张的过程,它是美国经济飞跃的重要因素。自18世纪末到19世纪末,大约经历了100年左右的时间,使美国版图由独立战争时大西洋沿岸13块殖民地至19世纪末延伸到太平洋沿岸的广大地域,它是美国历史上一次跨越时空、规模巨大、影响深远的社会迁移运动,被美国历史学家特纳称之为体现“美国精神”的伟大运动。千百万的美国人民胼手胝足、艰苦奋斗,为美国创造了巨大的物质财富,极大地促进了美国经济的飞跃,使美国成为世界工业强国。1783年美国赢得了独立。按照《巴黎和约》的规定,美国领土从独立前13州90多万平方公里扩大到230多万平方公里,它南至佛罗里达,北接加拿大与大湖地区,东起大西洋沿岸,西止密西西比河。然而这一点领土并不足以满足美国社会发展的需要，于是美国开始向密西西比河以西扩张，用购买和战争手段兼并了法国、西班牙、英国的殖民地和墨西哥的大片国土。1803年，美国乘拿破仑忙于应付欧洲战争之际，从法国手中以1500万美元价格购买了称为路易斯安那的广大地区(面积约为83万平方英里)。1810年和1819年美国从西班牙手中夺得佛罗里达；1846年，又强迫英国订约，把美国北部北纬49度的国界线一直延伸到太平洋沿岸，排挤走了这个地区的英国人。1846年和1853年，美国与墨西哥发动战争，胜利后购买了墨西哥的大片国土，总计约95万平方英里。到1853年，美国已把它的国境线推进到太平洋沿岸，领土面积达777万平方公里，比宣布独立时的版图增加7倍多。在大陆扩张的过程中，“天定命运”的理论也随之诞生。1845年7月,美籍爱尔兰人民党纽约刊物《美国杂志和民主评论》主编约翰•奥沙利文宣称,外国政府企图阻止得克萨斯合并,这样限制了上帝把天定命运扩展到北美大陆的意志,从而首次提出了“天定命运”的口号,接着众议员罗伯特•温思罗普1846年1月3日在国会中提出:“我们天定命运的权利是扩展到整个大陆。”奥沙利文又积极鼓吹他的理论,1845年12月27日在《纽约晨报》上再次大肆渲染:“上帝赋于我们在整个大陆发展的权利是天定命运。”其基本含义有三点，其一为美利坚合众国建立的必然性；其二为美国领土扩张的合法性；其三为传播民主制度的神圣性。由于1837年至1845年经济危机的打击，各种新的社会思潮的涌现，以及人口迅速增加的巨大压力，“天定命运”说在19世纪40年代中期盛极一时，被统治阶级视为恢复经济的一剂良方，也成为美国扩张主义者的有力工具，在当时被广泛地用来论证美国吞并俄勒冈、兼并得克萨斯、侵略墨西哥的合理性。在大陆扩张的同时，美国也开始了向西部广大地区的移民和拓殖过程，即西进运动。美国的西部是指阿巴拉契亚山以西至太平洋沿岸这一广大地区,但又以密西西比河西岸为界将西部一分为二:密西西比河以东为旧西部,以西为新西部。习惯上人们又把新西部一分为二,其分界线是落基山,落基山以西至太平洋沿岸称远西部,以东至堪萨斯城南北一线为大草原。在西进运动中，首先是对旧西部的开发。联邦国会分别于1784年、1785年和1787年连续颁布了有关开发旧西部的3个土地法令和土地条例;不久又颁布了在旧西部建立领地制的法令,根据该法令遂于同年(1787年)建立了“西北领地”,1790年建立了“西南领地”。旧西部的开发正式开始了,并出现了南北两大开发区:西北开发区(西北领地)、西南开发区(西南领地)。所谓“领地制”就是在开发的地区由联邦国会任命的总督、书记官和3名法官来治理,一旦该领地发展到一定程度时就可以建立州政府加入美利坚合众国而成为一个州。在这些优惠政策鼓舞下,那些来自东部沿大西洋各州的拓荒者以及海外的投资者首先涌入俄亥俄河以北地区,并于1787年～1788年在西北领地建立了第一个移民点;部分移民沿俄亥俄河顺流而下,在今辛辛那提亦建立了移民点。1803年,西北领地的俄亥俄地区符合建立州的条件,便建立了自西进运动以来的第一个州,即俄亥俄州。西北领地的不断开发与移民的大批涌来,相继又建立了一些领地,如印第安纳领地(1800年)、密执安领地(1805年)、伊利诺斯领地(1809年)。到1802年,印第安纳领地已有人口万人,伊利诺斯领地有人口万人。到1814年俄亥俄河和密西西比河交汇处以北至五大湖地区被开发出来,形成美国最大的粮仓,即有名的大湖平原。大湖平原的被开发是美国西部开发进程中的一大胜利,为美国建立了一个大农业基地。美国政府为了进一步开发西部,又分别于1800年、1804年和1820年颁布了更优惠的土地法令。如1800年的土地法令规定:每英亩(等于市亩)土地以两美元价格出售,一次可购买320英亩,在20天内付清地价的1/4,4年内付清其余地价,其土地便成为购者的地产。1804年的土地法令规定:地价降为美元一英亩,一次可购买160英亩。1820年土地法令再次降低地价和缩减购买土地的数量,每英亩地价下调到美元,每次可购买80英亩。这样一再下调地价和缩小购买地皮数量的政策,目的是鼓励中小农牧场主到西部来,也是为防止大地产的产生和土地投机的猖獗。到1830年,拓荒者和移民便涌入肯塔基、印第安纳波利斯和威斯康星等地,并在这些地区建立了领地。自1831年起,来自东部和欧洲的移民继续向西北领地涌来,从而又建立了衣阿华和明尼苏打两个领地。到1858年,上述所有领地都相继符合建州条件,建州后都加入了联邦。旧西部的西北领地就这样开发出来了。在开发西北领地的同时,西南领地亦逐步被开发出来。西南领地为旧西部的第二大开发区,来自美国东部诸州以及国外的移民亦如潮水般地汹涌而来,6年后便在这里建立了第一个州,取名田纳西州。到1800年在西南领地定居开发的人口已达30万人之多,主要从事种植玉米和烟草。1793年,惠特尼发明轧棉机,这一发明在很大程度上推动了美国棉花种植业的发展,而棉花种植业的发展又推动了各类移民向墨西哥湾以北的大平原涌入。到1819年仅在海湾平原定居的人口达20万人,向他们出售的土地达228万英亩(万市亩),他们在1817年和1819年分别建立了亚拉巴马州和密西西比州,并成为合众国的成员州。拓荒者们在这里大规模地种植棉花,所产的棉花占全国棉花的1/2,被称为“棉花王国”。棉花种植园主们和其他拓荒者越过密西西比河向阿肯色扩张。1819年阿肯色获得领地地位,到1835年该地人口已达7万人。南北战争前夕,旧西部形成了南北两大平原开发区:大湖平原和海湾平原,前者在北,以生产玉米和小麦为主,使用雇佣劳动力进行生产;海湾平原在南,以生产棉花和烟草为主,利用奴隶进行生产。这样就造成了美国那时的“一国两制”的局面,而南北战争爆发的原因就是这两种不同的劳动制度。随着南北两大平原的开发,表明整个旧西部已基本上被开发出来了。随着旧西部的开发，新西部的拓殖也逐渐展开来。1804年,杰斐逊总统为了开发新西部派遣了两个考察团,一个考察团从圣路易斯城出发,沿密苏里河与哥伦比亚河前进,在新西部的北方地区考察,向西一直抵达太平洋沿岸;另一个考察团在新西部的中南地区考察,向西直达红河。这两个考察团的活动拉开了开发新西部的帷幕。在开发新西部的进程中,首先开发的是远西部,它的开发是和4件大事密切联系在一起的。第一,在19世纪四五十年代,美国以武力和外交手段从邻国墨西哥手中夺得了得克萨斯、新墨西哥、俄勒冈、加利福尼亚和亚利桑那等地,并开始向这些地区大规模地移民,进行开发,到19世纪末成为美国最重要的工农业基地,为合众国的州成员。第二,大规模地建筑交通设施。拓荒者们最先在这无路可走的荒原开辟了由旧西部西行,越过大草原,翻过落基山通往太平洋的数条通道,其中最有名的是“加利福尼亚—俄勒冈小道”。这些通道的开辟在铁路和公路未建造前起了莫大的作用,成千上万的拓荒者和各种类型的移民就是通过它们到达远西部开发的。1862年,联邦国会决定成立联合太平洋铁路公司和中太平洋铁路公司,并确定由这两个铁路公司建造横贯美国大陆的铁路。与此同时还建造了从堪萨斯城向西横穿大草原到丹佛的铁路,并且在夏延与联合太平洋铁路接轨。1864年联邦中央政府批准建筑北太平洋铁路。1879年建成托皮卡至圣菲的铁路。美国在南北战争以后掀起了建造铁路的热潮,到1893年在旧西部和新西部建成以四大干线为核心的铁路网:联合太平洋铁路(1881年)、北太平洋铁路(1882年)、大北方铁路(1893年)和芝加哥—圣保罗铁路。美国仅在1862～1893年在其西部建造的铁路就高达万公里,比目前我国全国铁路至少多两倍。此外还开辟了许多内河航线,开凿了多条运河,修筑了数万公里的公路。大规模地建造近现代化的全国交通运输网是美国开发新西部和旧西部成功的最重要的因素之一,同时也是开发西部的主要内容。第三,19世纪50年代在远西部发生了震惊世界的“淘金热”,从而拉动了远西部的大开发。1848年在加利福尼亚的萨克拉门托发现了金矿。淘金者从美国各地和世界各国蜂拥般的向远西部奔来,因而远西部人口大增,也因此使这里的开发进入了高潮。“淘金热”一方面吸引来大批的移民,另一方面也给美国的西部开发,尤其是远西部的开发带来巨额资金。到19世纪60年代“淘金热”过去之后,大批淘金者转入工业、商业、农业及其他行业,远西部亦开始了工业化的进程。第四,南北战争(1861～1865年)以北方的胜利而结束,消除了阻碍国家发展的分裂局面,可以集中国家的主要力量来进行西部尤其是远西部的开发。对大草原的开发是在南北战争之后开始的。过去拓荒者们在旧西部开发出来后没有在大草原停留下来便直奔远西部去了,这是因为大草原降水量很少,每年平均降水量不足51厘米,是干旱荒无人烟之地,移民们无法在这里定居开发,只好越过它。但是南北战争后出现了促使其得以开发的许多重要因素。首先是农业技术的新发明,如旱地农业耕作法和适用于开发大草原的农具;其次是大规模建造铁路和其他交通设施;再次是1889年3月经总统批准的《宅地法》亦适用于大草原,根据这一土地法令,任何美国公民只要缴纳10美元证件费就可以得到160英亩(市亩)土地,在该土地上耕种5年便可获得绝对产权;第四,工商业不仅在东部发达地区而且在旧西部甚至在远西部亦发展起来,因而对原料产地、工业品、销售市场和资本投资市场的需求日益扩大。这些因素，形成了推动开发大草原的强大动力，进而推动了美国的进一步发展。这样,到19世纪90年代,北起美国加拿大边境,南至墨西哥湾,东起堪萨斯城南北一线,西至落基山这样一片广大的草原终于开发出来了,形成了美国最大的牧业基地和农业的又一个大基地。1890年,美国人口调查局向世人宣布:“现在未开发的土地大多已被各个独自为政的定居者所占领。”美国史学家特纳就此发表评论说:“这一简略的官方说明表示历史上一个伟大的运动已告结束。”特纳所说的“伟大的运动”显然是指美国的西进运动。西部大开发彻底改变了美国的面貌:大片荒地被开垦出来,大批的资本主义农场建立起来,西部农业的发展为工业的发展提供了大量的粮食、原料、出口产品和国内市场;使美国的劳动力布局有所改变:促进了国内统一大市场的形成,东西部互补性贸易迅速发展;西部资源的开发和利用还满足了工业发展的需要,交通运输业也飞速发展……美国的西进运动激发了美国人的创造力和经济活力,提高了美国的综合国力和国际地位,对美国整个国民经济的起飞具有重要的意义。同时,它扩大了美国领土,巩固了资本主义政权。此外,在西部新开辟的土地上,是按北方资产阶级生产方式经营还是按南方种植园奴隶制的生产方式经营,成为引发南北战争的原因之一,南北战争为美国资本主义发展进一步开辟了道路,使资本主义统治进一步巩固。更为重要的是,持久而艰巨的西部开发,磨练了美国人的意志品质,增强了美国人的民主意识,培养造就了美国人那种自力更生、不畏艰险、积极探索、锐意进取、勇于开拓的民族精神。同时形成的独特的西部文化,影响也十分深远,成为世界文化瑰宝之一。美国干涉墨西哥1910—1917年革命探析在墨西哥1910-1917年资产阶级革命期间，美国政府曾两次出兵对其进行干涉。与美国历史上其它无数次大规模的军事行动相比，这两次侵略行为尽管微不足道，但与同一时期美国对拉丁美洲地区频频发动、成果颇丰的军事行动相比，这两次军事干涉行为又具有“规模最大和军事成果不明显”的特点。由于这两次军事行动发生在第一次世界大战期间和美国参加欧洲战争之前，这一特殊的历史大背景对于促使美国参加欧战、进行军事改革、增强军事力量，无疑具有重要意义。同时，通过探讨这两次军事行动，也可以折射出同一时期美国出兵拉丁美洲和加勒比海地区的性质和某些特点。 对于这两次军事行动，许多论著和材料只是作了粗略的概述，或仅就某个或某些方面进行了简单论证，没有作详尽的全貌记载和深入细致的论述。笔者对两次军事行动进行了较为深入的研究和探讨。本文首先简单回顾了两次军事行动前美国国内迅猛发展的经济力量、日渐涌动的扩张思潮和在世界各地频频发动的军事行动，重点论述了19世纪末20世纪初美国军事力量的崛起。对于19101917年革命前墨西哥的国内状况和1910-1917年革命的经过，也作了简单介绍。文章进而从经济、政治和军事战略等方面分析了美国进行武力干涉的原因，较为详尽地论述了两次军事行动的导火索、战争目的、计划和进程。文章最后从性质、美国失败的原因、历史影响和特点等几方面对两次军事行动进行了述评。同时，也驳斥了某些资产阶级学者的错误说法和观点。从性质上看，美国的两次军事行动无疑是典型的侵略之举；战争的性质、墨西哥各阶层的反抗、拉丁美洲等国际进步力量的有力支持和美国日益卷入欧战的危机形势等因素让美国的干涉行动遭到了失败。同时，两次武装干涉行动对美墨两国的历史也产生了深刻的影响，从军事层面讲，两次军事行动无异于美国军队的一次大演习和大练兵，为即将参加的欧战树立起了一种战争精神，更重要的是暴露了美国军事上存在的许多问题，使美国政府和军方得以及时改正；两次军事行动也加速了美国《1916年国防法》等军事法律的产生，加速了美国参加第一次世界大战的脚步。对于墨西哥而言，美国的干涉行动阻碍了其历史进程和社会经济的发展，但同时也强化了墨西哥人民的民族意识和维护国家资源的意识。两次军事行动有以下特点：交战双方的力量对比悬殊；美国的两次出兵，规模大、时间长、耗资多，但军事成果微乎其微；两次军事行动也显示了现代战争的雏形或某些特点；“潘兴远征”具备了美国当代“低强度战争”的许多特点；在两次干涉墨西哥革命中，威尔逊总统的“理想主义”得到了最淋漓尽致的上演，美国外交中的理想主义与现实主义在两次军事行动中发生了的激烈的碰撞、冲突和矛盾，理想主义最终遭到破产。

内战（南北战争）原因：南北双方在奴隶制的存废问题上存在着不可调和的矛盾。北方坚持废除奴隶制，而南方种植园主希望保持奴隶制从而减少财富支出，双方矛盾激化经过：西进运动→林肯当选总统（导火线）→战争初期形势不利于北方军队→林肯政府颁布《宅地法》和《解放黑人奴隶宣言》扭转了战局，加快了北方胜利的进程→葛底斯堡战役中北方军队取胜，取得了战争的主动权→1865年，南方军队投降，北方取胜，南北战争结束。意义和评价：南北战争废除了黑人奴隶制度，较好的解决了农民的土地问题，维护了国家统一，为美国的资本主义发展扫清了道路，并为美国跻身于世界强国之列奠定了基础。

南北战争（American Civil War）即美国内战，是美国历史上唯一一次内战，参战双方为北方和南方的美利坚联盟国。战争最终南北和谈结束。美国南北战争是美国的第二次资本主义革命，扫清了资本主义发展的又一次障碍。战争的原因是美国北方的资本主义工业制度与南方的种植园经济体制产生了矛盾。这一矛盾在林肯就任美国总统后爆发。林肯为了平息这次叛乱，维护美国统一，先后颁布了《解放黑人奴隶宣言》，《宅地法》。这一做法鼓励了黑人奴隶参战，使得北方军队有了战斗的基础。总而言之，美国内战，就是美国资本主义的第二次改革，为美国以后的经济发展，技术创新奠定了政治基础。希望你能采纳我的答案。

The importance of family education Family education on the issue since ancient times by people's concern, but as a subject to study in China in recent years is also the matter. This is the development of the times, the demand, the National necessary to improve the overall quality of the issues involved. Here with the parents of the importance of family education, the aim is to the family and society, the education sector to shoulder the common task of educating the next generation. The education is a system of education works here include a family education, social education, collective (Tuoyouyuansuo, school) education, the three interrelated and organic combination of mutual influence, interaction and mutual constraints The education project from which one can, but in this project, family education is the foundation of all education. The former Soviet Union educators famous Su Huomu Belinsky transferred to a child than marble, he said, to shape this into a marble statue of need six sculptor: 1 family, 2 schools, 3 children of the collective; 4 child; books; 6 occasional factor. From the order, the family was included in the first place, can see the family in shaping children in the course of a very important role in the hearts of the educators occupy a position. For this reason parents understand the importance of family education is very necessary. First, family education is the starting point for education and basic point Family education generally refers to the family of parents and adult children of minors education process. Their educational objectives should be: the child into the community to accept collective education (kindergarten, school education) prior to guarantee the physical and mental health development of children, to accept the kindergartens, schools of education to lay a solid foundation. The child for admission into the school, with kindergartens, schools to moral, intellectual, physical, the United States, the various aspects of comprehensive development. Education is the focus of moral education mainly among children good moral quality and develop good habits mainly habits include: living habits, labor practices, learning habits, the church children how to learn "life." As a result of family education in the family, and kindergartens, schools of education, social education, compared with the following characteristics of these features so that family education to become the starting point for education and basic point is by no other educational advantages. (A) family of early education The family is the cradle of life of children, who are receiving education after the birth of a venue that is the first class life; parents are children's first teachers, that is, the Enlightenment division. Therefore, parents of children by the application of early education the most. Generally speaking, after the birth of a child after three years of development, access to early childhood, from the 3-year-old…… 6-year-old is preschool, which is said in the early stages of education, this is the physical and mental development of an important period. China's Gu Yan: "Cang, with the Cang, with the yellow, yellow." Childhood is gradually nurture life with the beginning of many basic human capacity is a stage of this age, such as language, and some basic moves Living habits, and so on, the character is gradually taking shape. . psychologists Bloom, a person's intellectual development if his 17-year-old regarded as the level reached 100 percent, then 4 years old when it reached 50 percent. 4-8 years old and a 30% increase ,8-17-year-old also won 20 percent. This shows that children in the 5-year-old former intelligence is the fastest growing period, the early intellectual development is the best, if parents in this period by the implementation of good family education, early child will be the key to intellectual development. Since ancient times, many people with lofty ideals, celebrities in the early years of fruitful period by a good family education is their future become an important cause. For example, the German poet, playwright Goethe's become, effective early education in the family. Goethe 2-3 years old, his father hold on to the outskirts of the field visit to observe nature, culture Goethe's observation capability. 3-4 years old, his father taught him to sing, the songs back, said a fairy tale, and we intend to let him in the face of public lectures, training his speaking ability. These are awareness education so that young Goethe optimistic, progressive, happy to think, be good at learning. Goethe-8-year-old can use, Germany, Britain, Italy, Latin, Greek reading books, 14-year-old wrote the script, the 25-year-old with a month's time wrote a famous poem in Europe, "The Sorrows of Young Werther . " Another example of ancient "and his son calligrapher," Wang Xizhi's known for, Wang Xianzhi, there have been a number of 1350 Edison invented the great inventors, the generation of literary star Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and other celebrities of the growth process that the family education in the early intellectual development is very important . Instead, the period of childhood are not good family education and intellectual impact on the normal development of many of the examples is. Such as India, "Langhai" Ka Mala, who was Diao to the wolf, when 8-year-old was found, but their living habits with the same people, their living habits and almost like a wolf, limbs, crawling, eating raw meat, day V Night, Later, a man-made training, two years before standing, after six years can be like walking Xiangren, four years learned to six words, in his 17-year-old, the intellectual level reached only 3-year-old child's level. According to "China Women" revealed that China's Nanjing City Xingma one of the workers suffering from mental and psychological diseases, Shenpa children persecuted by the people, will own three children from small lock at home, people so that they contacts with the outside world, has a long Up to 10 years, resulting in the children mental retardation, speech delay, compared with their peers, intellectual capacity and very different life, near idiots, so the family can not be neglected the role of early education, (B) family education continuity of family education second characteristic is the continuity. After the birth of a child, from small to large, almost 2 / 3 of time living in the family, Zhaochaomumu, all the parents in the education. Such education is the intentional and unintentional, planned and unplanned, consciously and unconsciously, are carried out, no matter what, in what time education, parents are in their own words and deeds at any time affect their children's education . Such education of children living habits, moral conduct and behaviour and so on in the style of conversation kept to influence and demonstrations, the subtle influence of the considerable role, accompanied by a person's life can be said to live to old to learn the old, some Parent educator again called for life teachers. This life of the education often reflects a family's Family Style, Family Style is good or bad often have to continue for several generations, or even a dozen, dozens generation, and this Family Style often with family members engaged in the employment-related . Such as: Xinglin family "," Pear Orchard House, "" family education ", etc. At the same time Family Style also reflects a family's style of study, study, good or bad is often the continuation of many generations, a dozen people, several dozens of generations . As in modern China, Wuxi people Yan Gong added-not "countries selected in the Museum", statistics from 2003-Shunzhi Branch to Guangxu 30 years Bing Xu Jia Chen Branch, the champion of 114 people, including his son by the first brothers Shuzhileishi Absolutely not, such as Suzhou Miao, Wu and Pan Sanxing, Changshu Weng, both surnamed Jiang, Chen Haining, Zhejiang, check the two surnames. See, family education is often the continuity of personnel groups have an important impact on the rise. This Situation. Ancient and modern times quite prominent in the contemporary with the development of science, and social needs of the unemployed increased, the broad people's careers, a family member can not have all engaged in the same work, but many see this situation That some family members work frequently appears in the results, be commended, but some family members one after another crime. This is a continuous education and family have great relations. (C) family education authority Family Education is the authority of parents in their children on their elders reflected by the power and power. The existence of the family, parents and children identified the blood relationship, upbringing, emotional, moral and ethical children in the living needs of the elderly parents have great dependence, family members and the fundamental interests of consistency, have decided The father of each of their children a greater role in the constraints. Parent education was easier to accept and submit to the children, parents and reasonable use of this feature, the children good moral character and habits formed the usefulness, for child care, in particular, is the case. Child care and other children in playing the game, when disputes arise when parents are often invoked to confirm their own speech act is right, if they like to say: "My father is saying this." Or "My mother is So do. "And so on. Children of parents in the eyes of the authority decided to accept the child how to treat the nursery schools and community education. The relationship between children and parents, the child is the first to face an important social relations. In this relationship, almost embodies the moral social ethics in all aspects, if such a relationship in the formation of cracks and defects, the children then to the community, in a variety of relationships will be reflected. Therefore stressed the importance of parental authority, but also because the children of parents in childhood has always played a dual role: the safety of children is not only the survival of protected persons, but also a life of the Wizard of Enlightenment. The effects of parental education, depends on the extent to establish the authority of parents, foster parents must be authoritative Built on respect for children on the basis of personality, rather than the feudal patriarchal system, parents are wise to understand the importance of establishing authority, but also know how to establish the authority does not rely on repression and force, subjective assumptions, but the method used Gangrouxiangji. Both parents in the education of their children's attitude on the first concerted and coordinate with each other, should be wide, wide, it should be strict martial law, in front of their children establish a kind of dignity and image, so that parents accept their children's education. (D) of the infected family education Parents with children between the blood relationship and kinship between the natural and close, making the parents of the children have strong feelings on the role of infection. Children on the demeanour of the parents can often Xinlingshenkuai to intelligence-intelligence. In dealing with in and around the side of the relationship between matter and the issue of children on the attitude of parents is very easy to resonate. In the happy parents, the children will take part in joy, the parents showed irritability and Menmenbuyue, the child's emotions can easily be affected, even young children as well. If the parents lack of rational and emotional, hot temper, will enable blind children to absorb its weaknesses. Some parents in dealing with unexpected incidents, show panic anxiety, surprise, the impact on children is not good if the frightened parents the same, steady firm and children in distress will also calm the situation calmly, so the quality of child psychology training Play a positive role. (5) timeliness of family education Family education process, parents are parents of children in the family of the individual acts of education than kindergarten, school education should promptly. As the saying goes:知子莫若父, that women Morrow home. Overnight between parents and children, their situation can be said to be well known to the children was slightly changed, even a look, a smile can make parents Xinlingshenhui, so as parents through their children's every move, his every word and deed can make the best of At this very moment of their psychological state, found the child on the existing problems, timely education, timely corrective, not the problem overnight, so that bad habits in the embryonic stage of the eradication. And kindergartens, schools, teachers faced with dozens of children, only for the children of this age stage for general education, that is, education groups, because of time and energy constraints, it is impossible to take care of each child's characteristics, Prone to the phenomenon of loss, or even to take care of the children of teachers and the poor do not have a sense of trust, and parents could guide their children promptly correct understanding. So parents of children to the correct family education so that children can enter kindergarten before forming a good habit, to accept collective education has laid a good foundation, can make up for the lack of mass education. Second, a good family education is the 21st century created the necessary conditions for personnel "China's 1990s development program for children" in the specified: "Today's children are the masters of the 21st century, child protection and the bottom-up development is to improve the quality of the population base, which is a prerequisite for development. The healthy growth of children Related to the future and destiny of the motherland. Improve the quality of the entire nation, from the start with children. "And:" In 2000 to make 90 percent of children (under the age of 14) of the parents to varying degrees, master conservation, education of children of knowledge. "This Top targeted the parents shoulders for the state created the heavy responsibility of the 21st century talents. Can this generation of children training to become Dezhitimei the all-round development of people, this country is Houjiyouren relationship to the Bainiantaiji. Fu-Lu Bell also said: "The country's fate is not so much lies in the hands of those in power, we might as well have said to be in the hands of his mother." This sentence is very philosophical, it profoundly understand the parents pick in the education of their children in The role played by. Parents should first clear direction of education and national interests, the people's request in line with the principle, the child can not be regarded as private property, it is necessary to establish the idea of the country, correct educational purposes. China's 21st century is what the situation, with the words of Comrade Deng Xiaoping, to make our country in the middle of the 21st century to achieve the level of moderately developed countries, per capita income reached 4,000 . dollars, in gross national product amounted to 6 trillion . dollars. The 21st century should be a good ideologies and noble moral character, and improve the psychological quality, positive spirit of cooperation with others, strong adaptability, Chikunailao the comprehensive development of the new generation. If the 21st century do not have such a group of high-quality builders is very difficult to complete this great, with such a quality is not overnight can do, and a good family education training is a prerequisite for high-quality people. Third, a good family education is a catalyst to optimize the children hearts Children from infancy into childhood, with age, from the family environment will eventually enter the small community, contact with the crowd outside the home, things. Lee Jia Choue those in society from time to time to enter the child's perspective, adults take isolation tactics will not work, because in the family video from different angles will continue to reflect the reality in today's society, issues both positive and negative have The. Children, especially young children lack a rational ability to distinguish right from wrong, but sensitive than adults have the feeling of capacity. They occurred around the kind of terrible things, sensitive, and this sensitivity training is the ability to rationally distinguish between a good basis, as parents should take advantage of this extension, help the children feel in this capacity on the basis of , The development of the social life of the ability to identify and psychological capacity, social filter information, optimize the hearts of young children. If parents in their daily life can be for young children is not strong capacity to accept the characteristics specific to seize the day-to-day chores, help children understand the community in identifying the Shishifeifei, specifically so that they feel Lee's bright side, Experience to the ugly despicable, can help children enhance the Yangshan Chuxie sense of justice, thus resist the dark side of the ugly soul of the child erosion. For example, today's video into the urban residents in almost every family, the children almost every day to deal with them, it can be said is not out of their homes, Bianzhi the world. Which can be received from all over the world all kinds of information. There are political situation, scientific and technological progress, ordinary people of Sushi, from which you can learn a lot of knowledge and understanding of major domestic and international events, both within and outside small home. It is inevitable that some homicide violence, obscene absurdity of the lens Yingru child's eyelid. Parents should address these issues timely guidance, to improve their children's ability to identify, we need to keep their own perceptions of behaviour, for their children establish a positive image, optimizing the hearts of children, the prevention of child make mistakes, and even violations of law and discipline. Family to work in this area, help small and stability of the environment. The family is society's cells, with healthy cells, can we have a sound body, the sick cells, the body will cause disease. As an ancient saying goes: "body repair and then home-and-then-State governance, rule of the then-world", "Qijia, the country, the world-the" point of view is that this truth. For this reason parents do a good job in optimizing the work of children's mental stability and social, stability and national power in ages. In short, as parents to the importance of family education fully and conscientiously do a good job in their children's education, make good parents responsibilities and obligations for the country to train qualified personnel in the building.

黑人民权领袖马丁路德金为美国民主献出生命，马丁·路德·金为黑人谋求平等，发动了美国的民权运动，功绩卓著，闻名于世。金在成为民权运动积极分子之前，是黑人社区必有的浸礼会的牧师。民权运动是美国黑人教会的产物，本文记叙金的第一次民权演说，揭示了民权运动与黑人教会的关系。马尔科姆·艾克斯于1925年出生在美国内布拉斯加州东部的奥马哈市，少年时期是个不学无术的街头混混，贩毒、吸毒、滥交、抢劫、杀人几乎无恶不作。终于自食恶果，被抓入监狱。入狱后，他居然从看字典开始，学习了世界历史，哲学，政治，自然科学等方面的知识，并参加了黑色穆斯林组织。出狱后，他投身黑人运动，成为声望仅次于马丁·路德·金的黑人运动领袖。