欧洲启蒙运动论文参考文献

分别指文艺复兴，宗教改革和启蒙运动共同影响：打破了神权（王权）对人思想的桎梏，促进了思想解放，推动现代资本主义发展文艺复兴，欧洲历史时期，是指十三世纪末叶在意大利各城市兴起，以后扩展到西欧各国，于16世纪在欧洲盛行的一场思想文化运动，带来一段科学与艺术革命时期，揭开了近代欧洲历史的序幕，被认为是中古时代和近代的分界。马克思主义史学家认为是封建主义时代和资本主义时代的分界。中世纪末期，随着奥斯曼对东罗马帝国的不断侵略，东罗马人民在逃难的同时，将大量的古希腊、古罗马文化典籍和艺术珍品带到了意大利商业发达的城市。新兴的资产阶级中的一些先进的知识分子借助研究古希腊、古罗马的艺术文化，通过文艺创作来宣传人文精神。文艺复兴是西欧近代三大思想解放运动（文艺复兴、宗教改革与启蒙运动）之一。宗教改革（英语：Reformation）， 开始于欧洲16世纪基督教自上而下的宗教改革运动（抗议宗教改革运动，Protestant Reformation），该运动奠定了新教基础，同时也瓦解了从罗马帝国颁布基督教为国家宗教以后由天主教会所主导的政教体系，为后来西方国家从基督教统治下的封建社会过渡到多元化的现代社会奠定基础，因而西方史学界直接称之为“改革运动”（Reformation）启蒙运动（法文：Siècle des Lumières，英文：The Enlightenment，德文：die Aufklärung），通常是指在17世纪至18世纪法国大革命之前的一个新思维不断涌现的时代，与理性主义等一起构成一个较长的文化运动时期。这个时期的启蒙运动，覆盖了各个知识领域，如自然科学、哲学、伦理学、政治学、经济学、历史学、文学、教育学等等。启蒙运动同时为美国独立战争与法国大革命提供了框架，并且导致了资本主义和社会主义的兴起，与音乐史上的巴洛克时期以及艺术史上的新古典主义时期是同一时期。

法国启蒙运动是十八世纪法国的一次波澜壮阔的思想解放运动，它的斗争对象是封建专制制度和它的精神支柱——天主教会势力。启蒙运动是法国大革命的前夜，它在政治上、思想上和理论上为西方后来的经济社会高速发展奠定了坚实的基础，对整个西方近代文明产生了深远的、关键的影响，最终使法国走进现代文明发达国家行列。从封建主义向资本主义过渡的时代，随着资本主义与封建专制主义矛盾的不断深化，法国人在意识形态领域中，反对封建统治与教会特权的斗争也迅速展开。法国启蒙运动是继文艺复兴后，在欧洲历史上出现的第二次伟大的思想解放运动。启蒙，就是启迪和开导人们的反封建意识，给尚处在黑暗中的人们带来光明与希望，反对蒙昧主义、专制主义和宗教迷信，打破旧的传统观念，传播新思想，新观念。进步思想家对封建意识形态发起全面批判，企图使人们的思想从传统偏见、神学教条、天主教会和专制政权的压制下解放出来。在十七世纪自然科学和哲学成果的基础上，启蒙学者认为，正如牛顿发现万有引力定律一样，人们也能够凭理性的力量发现有关自然、人类和社会的法则，谋取世俗的幸福；他们以理性、宗教容忍和进步的观念向保守现状的旧观念进行冲击，反对一切禁锢思想和压制自由的教条和制度；其中最进步的思想家们，主张宗教上的无神论、哲学上的唯物主义、政治上的民主政体、经济上的自由放任。启蒙思想涉及宗教、哲学、伦理学、经济学、政治学、史学、美学等各个领域，出现各种学说体系和许多著名代表人物，如英国的阿迪生(Joseph Addison，1672-1719)、斯蒂尔(Richard Steele，1672-1729)、斯威夫特、彼普(Alexander Pope，1688-1744)，德国的门德尔松(Moses Mendelssohn，1729-1786)、莱辛、赫尔德，意大利的别卡里阿、维科，美国的潘恩、杰弗逊、富兰克林，俄国的别林斯基、赫尔岑、车尔尼雪夫斯基等。但运动的中心在法国，伏尔泰、孟德斯鸠、卢梭以及狄德罗为代表的百科全书派起了显著作用。运动影响深远，当代人即已开始使用“启蒙时代”的概念，以表示同“黑暗的中世纪”对立；法文、德文、英文原文均含有“以光明驱逐黑暗”之意。启蒙运动作为成熟的反封建、反教会的进步思潮登上了历史舞台，不仅为未来的政治革命制造了舆论，而且为法国创建了高度的精神文明。广义上的启蒙运动则不限于欧洲和北美，而是世界性的普遍的历史现象。

Abstract: America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began. Keywords: National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature 摘要： 从殖民地时期起，欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期， 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大 影响 。一直到美国独立后，美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要，美国的民族文学开始 发展 。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭， 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期，产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义，和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的 时代 是美国前所未有的文学变动时代，产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量，也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响， 社会 动荡不安，这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面， 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展，创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后，美国人陷入战后的茫然， 美国也开始进入了 现代 文学阶段。 关键词： 民族文学， 浪漫主义， 超验主义， 本土色彩， 现实主义， 现代文学 American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century. The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature. America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition，and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began. 1. Colonial and early American literature (1). Travelers and Explorers When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616). Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes. (2) Pilgrim settlements Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However , because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997) The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4) Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans. People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking. One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God. 2. 18th century—the Age of reason (1) The Age of reason In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason. Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world. Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England. And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations. During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience. (2) Early National Literature During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems. The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“. 放不下了，后面还有，在下面的网站里。满意拿分

分别指文艺复兴，宗教改革和启蒙运动

产生的共同原因：资本主义的产生的发展。

各自的特点：

文艺复兴：以复兴古希腊罗马文化为名，以人文主义为旗帜，提倡人性，反对神学，倡导个性解放。

宗教改革——以宗教改革的形式，进行反封建斗争，挑战以教皇为首的宗教权威，用反映时代特征的宗教理论实行宗教改革。

启蒙运动：斗争矛头直指封建专制，提出“天赋人权”“三权分立”“主权在民”，宣扬资产阶级的自由、平等、博爱。

共同的影响：冲破了封建神学的思想束缚，解放了人们的思想，有利于资本主义经济的发展，为资产阶级革命做了思想上的准备。

扩展资料：

文艺复兴是指发生在14世纪到16世纪的一场反映新兴资产阶级要求的欧洲思想文化运动。

核心为人文主义精神，人文主义精神的核心是提出以人为中心而不是以神为中心，肯定人的价值和尊严。主张人生的目的是追求现实生活中的幸福，倡导个性解放，反对愚昧迷信的神学思想，认为人是现实生活的创造者和主人。

宗教改革，开始于欧洲16世纪基督教自上而下的宗教改革运动，该运动奠定了新教基础，同时也瓦解了从罗马帝国颁布基督教为国家宗教以后由天主教会所主导的政教体系。

一：清除内部积弊，重新审定教规、教义。教会清除了一批无知、腐败、贪婪的神职人员，规定教士必须穿僧衣，执行教士独身制；在每个教区设立学校，提高神职人员的知识水平。教会在肯定赎罪券功效的同时，禁止非宗教目的的出售行为，并取消了销售机构。

二：继续强化异端裁判所。宗教改革中后期，异端裁判所的活动更为猖獗，大批“异端分子”被捕入狱，甚至被处死；同时，天主教会加强了思想控制，不断颁布违禁书目，查封宣传新思想的书籍，哥白尼的《天体运行论》赫然出现在第一批被禁书目中。

三：网罗各种狂热的信徒，组建反对新教改革的团体，千方百计的破坏宗教改革，提升教皇声威，其中最有代表性的团体就是耶稣会。通过内部改革，罗马天主教会暂时摆脱了困境。

启蒙运动，指发生在17-18世纪的一场资产阶级和人民大众的反封建，反教会的思想文化运动。

启蒙运动的倡导者将自己视为大无畏的文化先锋，并且认为启蒙运动是以引导世界走出充满着传统教义、非理性、盲目信念以及专制为目的的一个时期（这一时期通常被称为黑暗时期）。这个时代的文化批评家、宗教怀疑派、政治改革派皆是启蒙先锋，他们只是松散、非正式、完全无组织的联合。而当时的启蒙知识的中心是巴黎，法语则是共享语言

参考文献：百度百科-文艺复兴

参考文献：百度百科-宗教改革

参考文献：百度百科-启蒙运动