工商管理论文8000字英文

Managing people effectively in extension programmes is a skill that requires constant planning and development. An extension programme manager can be defined as the person who is vested with formal authority over an organization or one of its sub units. He or she has status that leads to various interpersonal relations, and from this comes access to information. Information, in turn, enables the manager to devise strategies, make decisions, and implement action (Mintzberg, 1988). Management is concerned with the optimum attainment of organizational goals and objectives with and through other people. Extension management organizations are characterized by many strategies, wide spans of control, democracy, and autonomy. Their management practices cannot be reduced to one standard set of operating guidelines that will work for all organizations continually. However, all managers of professional organizations face the same challenge: to manage one's time, objectives, and resources in order to accomplish tasks and implement ideas (Waldron, 1994). Managers of extension programmes are painfully aware of the need for revision and development of the new skill sets held by today's high performers. If change is not handled correctly, it can be more devastating then ever before. High performers reflect, discover, assess, and act. They know that a new focus on connecting the heads, hearts, and hands of people in their organization is necessary. Astute managers know what needs to be done but struggle with how to do it. Quite often they prefer to consider themselves as teachers or communicators rather than managers. This results in under-utilization of the increasing amount of literature on management theory and practice. The root of the problem is implementation. They must learn how to motivate others and build an efficient team. More formally defined, management is the process by which people, technology, job tasks, and other resources are combined and coordinated so as to effectively achieve organizational objectives. A process or function is a group of related activities contributing to a larger action. Management functions are based on a common philosophy and approach. They centre around the following: 1. Developing and clarifying mission, policies, and objectives of the agency or organization 2. Establishing formal and informal organizational structures as a means of delegating authority and sharing responsibilities 3. Setting priorities and reviewing and revising objectives in terms of changing demands 4. Maintaining effective communications within the working group, with other groups, and with the larger community 5. Selecting, motivating, training, and appraising staff 6. Securing funds and managing budgets; evaluating accomplishments and 7. Being accountable to staff, the larger enterprise, and to the community at large (Waldron, 1994b).The management functions listed above can be categorized by using the acronym POSDCORB (Bonoma & Slevin, 1978, from Gulick & Urwick, 1959): · Planning: outlining philosophy, policy, objectives, and resultant things to be accomplished, and the techniques for accomplishment · Organizing: establishing structures and systems through which activities are arranged, defined, and coordinated in terms of some specific objectives · Staffing: fulfilling the personnel function, which includes selecting and training staff and maintaining favourable work conditions · Directing: making decisions, embodying decisions in instructions, and serving as the leader of the enterprise · Coordinating: interrelating the various parts of the work · Reporting: keeping those to whom you are responsible, including both staff and public, informed · Budgeting: making financial plans, maintaining accounting and management control of revenue, and keeping costs in line with objectivesPlanningPlanning is the key management function of any extension worker. It is the process of determining in advance what should be accomplished, when, by whom, how, and at what cost. Regardless of whether it is planning long-term program priorities or planning a two-hour meeting, the planning aspect of management is the major contributor to success and productivity. Stated simply, "If you don't know where you are going, then you won't know when you have arrived!" Planning is the process of determining the organization's goals and objectives and making the provisions for their achievement. It involves choosing a course of action from available alternatives. Planning is the process of determining organizational aims, developing premises about the current environment, selecting the course of action, initiating activities required to transform plans into action, and evaluating the outcome. The types of planning that managers engage in will depend on their level in the organization and on the size and type of the organization. Generally there are four major types of planning exercises: strategic, tactical, contingency, and managerial. Strategic planning involves determining organizational goals and how to achieve them. This usually occurs at the top management level. Tactical planning is concerned with implementing the strategic plans and involves middle and lower management. Contingency planning anticipates possible problems or changes that may occur in the future and prepares to deal with them effectively as they arise (Marshall, 1992). Managerial planning is usually considered as microlevel planning. It helps in combining resources to fulfil the overall objectives of the extension organization. A needs assessment may initiate a need for developing a plan. The planning process begins with the creation of a philosophy that consists of statements describing the values, beliefs, and attitudes of the organization. Its mission statement is a proclamation of its purpose or reason for being. After the philosophy and mission statements have been established, various goals and objectives are defined. Goals are usually general statements that project what is to be accomplished in the future. An objective is a concrete statement describing a specific action. Policies are predetermined guides to decision making; they establish boundaries or limits within which action may be taken. Managers are related to policy formation in two ways. First, they play a crucial role in implementing organizational policies that have been established by higher management. Second, they create policies within their departments as guides for their own work groups. Procedures outline the series of steps to be followed when carrying out a designed policy or taking a particular course of action. Rules are used to provide final and definite instruction. Usually they are inflexible. Planning is designing the future, anticipating problems, and imagining success. In short, planning is essential for anyone who wants to survive. The functions of organizing, leading, staffing, and budgeting are means of carrying out the decisions of planning. Everyone is a planner - a planner of meals, of work time, Of vacations, of families. Formal planning, however, distinguishes managers from non-managers, effective managers from ineffective managers. Formal planning forces managers to think of the future, to set priorities, to encourage creativity, to articulate clear objectives, and to forecast the future in terms of anticipated problems and political realities. Long-Range Planning Long-range planning is vitally important in that it focuses attention on crucial future issues which are vitally important to the organization. It involves studying societal trends and issues, surveying current and anticipated learners' needs, and being aware of long-term research directions and changes in technology. Many extension workers may think that such management is beyond their level of authority, control, or involvement. They may feel that such management is the prerogative of the director, the deputy minister, or the president. However, while senior levels of management must be involved, those who implement the objectives resulting from long-range planning should also be involved.

战略性人力资本并非所有经理人都同样适合于所有企业的情况. 战略所需技能,以控制成本,在激烈的价格竞争,是不相同 需要改进的顶线在一个迅速增长的业务或平衡投资对现金流生存 高度周期性业务. 这种技巧通常转移到新的环境,是最便携型人力资本以外 一般管理技能,但他们不会提供一个有利的战略需求,该公司不配合 经理人的技能. 当电信业放松管制和挑战的新加入者,比如, 前几个钟系统管理者能够成功地过渡到快速移动,创业,成长的环境, 尽管老练的老兵何种行为会被视为是美国管理最佳的公司之一. 到1990年 通用电器和照明企业需要注意成本,成熟产业和高度工会劳动力. 其飞机引擎,电力系统,工业系统,交通系统业务是周期性的,需要小心地管理资金. 葛资本,塑料,医疗系统,及NBC分别增长领域,不论是有机或通过全球化或收购. 编码,我们葛经理人的简历, 我们能够决定自己的战略技巧和分类,这些人作为成本控制,种植者, 或周期管理的基础上根据自己的管理经验时葛. 用标准普尔产业报告 然后我们编码的战略挑战,每一个新的公司前经理葛被雇用. 9 20个行政过渡,我们研究了涉及战略技能比赛,也就是说,比如 悟性成本刀具被网罗成为公司的管理成本,反而是关键驱动力 成功. 其余的11家构成话题. 当战略需要相应的战略经验的聘请葛长官 公司出现异常年均回报为 ,而配对相合看到回报? . (见"的展览的影响,符合" ) .

工商管理论文企业如何保持核心竞争力为何有的企业昙花一现，有的中途陨落，有的历经坎坷仍生生不息？原因正在于核心竞争力极其维持。比如1896年被道．琼斯工业股票平均指数选作首批成分股的12家享有盛名的公司如今只剩下GE一家，再如曾经在国内辉煌一时的巨人集团、飞龙集团、亚细亚集团、秦池集团等如今都已销声匿迹……谁也不会怀疑它们曾经拥有过较强的核心竞争力。其由盛而衰只是由于核心竞争力的丧失或“得而复失”。因此维持核心竞争力是每个企业、尤其是那些已经获得成功的企业所面临的重要课题。 一、坚守主业审慎对待多元化 导致核心竞争力丧失的第一个常见原因是盲目、过度多元化。背离自己的核心专长，结果喧宾夺主，优势不再。如巨人集团从IT业起家，曾立志做中国的IBM；后转做营养食品“脑黄金”，再转做房地产，拆巨资建70多层的巨人大厦而一下被拖跨。再如上市公司猴王集团的当家产业是焊条制造，因上市募得大量资金而开始发热，盲目进行多元扩张，迅速涉及数十种不相关行业，俨然成了当地的“综合产业局”和“第二经委”，结果濒临破产的边缘…… 成功企业大都恪守两个字：专注，或叫“目不斜视”。全球500强大多是走专业化道路发展起来，以一业为主并在一业称雄的行业领袖、行业巨人。即使极少数多元化企业如GE，也是靠走专业化发迹的（一个灯泡厂做了几十年），如今也只在少数几个行业保持优势。当然，审慎对待多元化并不等于一概排斥多元化。理性的多元化经营要遵循的原则是：①在一业为主基础上的多元化；②关联多元化，如佳能围绕其光学核心技术涉足照相机、复印机、激光打印机、扫描仪、传真机等关联产业，海尔将其冰箱上获得的核心能力扩展到空调、洗衣机、彩电等多种家电产品；③有限多元化（非“泛多元化”），如GE最后只选择发展少数优势行业；④过度型多元化，多为适应转型的需要，如军转民、旧转新，中途可能军民、新旧并存，但一旦转型完成，则应确立新的核心专长。 二、运用核心优势，正确把握商机 导致核心竞争力丧失的第二个常见原因是相信什么赚钱做什么，四处寻求商机，盲目追逐热门产业、热点地区，如房地产热、娱乐城热、边贸热、海南热、淡水热……套死了多少企业，套牢了多少资金。据不完全统计，1992～1993年那波房地产开发热，仅在海南一地就套死了来自全国各地的上千亿资金，留下了大量的闲置地皮、烂危楼和惨痛的教训。 投资的扩张不仅不能“寻热”，恰恰相反，愈是面对热点地区，热门产业，愈要冷静审慎。 运用自身专长与把握外部商机相比何者更重要？当然是前者。商机并不一定都属于自己。只有当商机与自己的核心专长碰巧吻合时，那才属于自己。比如越南摩托车市场需求大，这对嘉陵、力帆是商机，对塞格、万达未必是；那里的彩电刚刚开始普及，需要大量小屏幕彩电，这对TCL是商机，对招商局未见得是。 三、守成与创业结合防止核心刚度 导致核心竞争力丧失的第三个常见原因是核心刚度。核心刚度就是把企业的既有优势或一时的成功经验固化、神话、教条化，今天对昨天只能照抄招般，不得越雷池一步。核心刚度会使企业产生惰性、迟钝、保守和“路径依赖性”。扼杀创新与活力，使之丧失市场应变能力和环境适应能力。比如与GE同时成为道．指成分股的另外11家著名工业公司在100多年中慢慢逐一出局，就是因为它们没有象GE那样在剧烈变化的环境里不断调整自己并努力寻求创新，被“核心刚度”引向失败。 守成即在事业上保持过去的成功做法、经验和“套路”，坚持自己的既有优势和成就。但过分守成就会变成守旧、保守，产生核心刚度，停止创新。正确的做法是将守成与创新结合起来，在坚持原有优势和核心专长的基础上创新，在不断创新的过程中强化自己的核心专长和优势，提升自己的核心竞争力。 四、分类分级管理防止关键要素流失 导致核心竞争力丧失的第四个常见原因是关键要素流失。比如核心团队成员或技术、业务骨干被挖走，以及由此引起的核心技术流失、核心经营管理方法流失、核心价值观流失等。有的甚至把核心专长带走自己单干，如某厂的销售经理掌握着企业的命脉——全部客户关系，他在逐步了解核心生产技术并通过了几位技术骨干后便拉出队伍另立门户；企业的两项最关键的核心资源——客户和技术被他带走，于是导致了该厂的迅速垮台。防止关键要素流失的方法是对其实行分类分级管控。一是对核心技术、核心商业机密、核心信息、核心资料、核心计划、核心设备等实行一级管控，知晓和掌握的范围愈小愈好。据说全球数千家可口可乐罐装厂所使用的核心配方只有两人掌握，而且他两不能同乘一架飞机，以免遇到空难使配方失传。不管此传闻真伪如何，企业对核心技术及信息的保密却是必不可少的，况且中国素有祖传秘方、绝技单传之类传统；二是建立健全核心要素的内控机制，就如同财务上的会计出纳制一样，不可让一人或一个部门独立掌控企业的全部核心要素；三是对核心团队成员和核心人才建立利益关联机制（利益共同体），如让其持股、行使股票期权、建立内部补充养老保险等。 五、适度扩张避免核心能力过度稀释 导致核心竞争力丧失的第五个常见原因是企业过快过度低成本扩张，结果核心能力被稀释。低成本并购和扩张是企业做强做大的捷径。但并购和扩张需将自己的核心能力（血液、骨髓）输往对方，所以你兼并得越多，你就输出得越多，你输出的东西就越“消淡”（稀释了），你的扩张效果就越差；一旦超出自己的承受能力，你自己就会虚脱、被拖跨。 改革之初的马胜利由于经营石家庄造纸厂获得成功，便一下将全国各地十几家陷于困境的造纸厂揽到自己麾下。结果母厂的业务骨干都被分派到各地厂去做领导，马自己也自顾不暇疲于奔命，最后只落得个“玉石俱焚”的结局。再如一度受中国消费者信赖的名牌自行车凤凰、永久，在1980年代中期收编或联营了全国各地数十家产品无销路的自行车厂，一夜间全国的自行车厂大都变成了凤凰、永久的分厂，全国的自行车鱼龙混杂，大都改姓为了凤凰、永久，结果彻底弄杂了这两块响当当的中国品牌。 所谓适度扩张，就是企业的扩张速度与规模要与自身的承受能力、消化能力相适应，要循序渐进、滚动发展。如中集用了还几年时间才逐步完成了自己的并购规划，如今成长为全国乃至全球的行业老大。六、完善制度保证权利传承 导致核心竞争力丧失的第六个常见原因是企业核心能力过分依赖个人，随着领导人的更迭或能力衰退而不再。由于企业家在培植企业核心能力的过程中起关键作用，企业家的离任或能力退化往往从根本上动摇企业的核心能力。如楮时建、于志安、刘晓庆等的“出事”，均在不同程度上使其所在企业的核心能力受到影响，有的甚至就此走向破产。 解决此问题有赖于建立和完善现代企业制度。现代企业制度的确立可确保管理权的平稳过渡与传贤（始终由最合适的人在其最合适履行职责的时间段来承担）。象艾柯卡、韦尔奇这样杰出的职业经理人，就产生在这样的机制下。这也说明我们不能在企业核心能力与企业家精神之间划等号，不可将组织能力混同为个人能力，其实，只有当企业培植出不里依赖于某个人，包括企业家的一整套知识、技能、经验与机制时，它才真正拥有了持久支撑事业发展的核心竞争力。~~~~~~~~~~~~现代社会是既竞争又合作的年代，而且合作和竞争是越来越重要。我们一定要对内合作对外竞争。然而如果我们没的自己的优势，别人就不会来找我们合作。那怎样提高我们的竞争优势呢？1、 竞争优势来自你的客户非常需要，而你的竞争对手做不到 或者不愿意做，做的没你好。因为我们只有做到了这些就可以提高我们自己的优势。2、 满足自己的需求，就能实现别人的梦想。 每当我们所需要的东西别人做不到或者没有做，或者做的没理好，那就是我们需要努力的地方，因为每当我们自己说需要的东西意味着别人也需要。3、 有不可被取代的专业能力，有非常受人欢迎的人格特质，所以我们要不断的学习，不断的提升自我。4、 我们要把现在处于边缘话的东西拉到边缘来，然后把它变成常态，最好形成一种生活形态。因为只要谁能创造一种新的生活形态，谁就能创造属于自己的财富。5、 我们在开办自己的企业时，一定要做到标准化科技化与人性化。这三样是缺一不可的，只有这样我们的产品就能更好的行销出去（因为行销永远比销售要好）。特别是公司的一些东西，我们一定要做到影像化、音像化、图像话和文字画。就当我们一个公司的很有能力的人走了后，我们可以参考他以前留下的这些资料。又比如在餐饮行业，当一个大厨师走了后如果我们没留下资料、他没把他的东西给大家分享，那我们的餐饮店就会做不出这道菜了。6、 我们要把未被合作的机会、未被提供的服务、未被创造的发明、未被提升的价值、未被交换的资源……做为提高自己的竞争优势的参考。还有我们要记住为客户节省时间，也是一种为自己创造财富的依据。以上内容仅作参考！