城市与城市规划论文英文文献

摘要：人类社会发展正面临着人口膨胀、资源超前消耗、环境急剧恶化的空前挑战，可持续发展理念指导下的的现代城市规划，决定了我国的大部分地区只能追求以公共交通为基础的高质量的可达性。具有多项显著优点的轨道交通(尤其是地铁运输模式)，是解决大城市中心区域交通拥堵问题的最佳途径，但必须在依托改善既有公交系统、并通过优化网络便捷换乘而达到相互协调配合的前提下，注意降低它的建造运营成本。 关键词：可持续发展；城市规划；轨道交通；建造运营成本 作为文明历史发展中的崭新时代，城市的诞生宣告了人类生存方式的彻底变革，也由此开创了城市建设与规划的初始形态。今天，伴随全球化的大潮，中国正经历着前所未有人口迁移与国土城市化过程，充满中国特色的城市规划实践，越来越体现出面向未来可持续发展的先进理念。交通是现代城市规划中一个不可或缺的方面，对于中国这样一个各方面处于跳跃式发展的人口大国，科学地制定切合实际又具有前瞻性的城市交通规划，意义尤其重大深远。 本文以当前城市化加速背景下城市交通规划面临的重大选择作为切入点，对如何解决轨道交通与现存城市公交系统的协调发展，特别是如何经济、优化地建造与运营城市轨道交通，提出自己的看法与建议。 1 轨道交通是我国城市交通规划的重大选择 城市交通规划面临的一切问题起源于三个基本因素：人口剧增、城市化加谜与出行方式机动化。为此，规划者们必须在各种可能的决策方向之问慎重取舍。国外专业杂志《世界城市化展望》2004年载文指出，全世界人口从1950的25亿左右增长到2000年60多亿，只用了半个世纪的时间，预计再过30年将达到80亿以上。作为世界最大的发展中国家，中国改革开放二十多年来的社会经济发展带动了1亿3千万农村人口流入城市，一般城市居民的交通出行方式也在过去二十多年里发生了根本性的变化。城市出行方式机动化日益加速，造成了今日中国主要大中城市里司空见惯的“出门难行路难”问题。专业人士称之为严重的城市道路交通拥挤。 一般而言，城市交通方式大致可分为步行、自行车、摩托助动车、小汽车与公共交通国内外的城市交通基本上都经历过从步行、自行车到摩托、小汽车大体相同的发展过程。但是，当人类普遍进入小汽车时代后，美国和欧洲选择了不同的交通方式和城市形态。美国以小汽车为主要交通工具，城市多数呈现分散、蔓延的形态。欧洲大陆则十分重视公交、特别是轨道交通，大城市通过轨道交通将市中心、近郊生活就业区与远郊卫星城镇连结起来，形成多中心的城市形态[1]。轨道交通系统的诞生，使城市的发展从中心聚集型向离心分散型转变成为可能，也因此造就了城市中心的“职住分离”现象。应该承认，私人小汽车和轨道交通是目前发达国家城市中具有代表性的两种交通方式，分别突出地体现着更优的生活质量与更高的运输效率。改革开放前，这两种交通方式在我国大城市中的数量少到几乎可以忽视不计的程度，近年来，它们已分别迈出了从无到有的第一步，表现_出强大的生命力。 城市的功能和社会活动的多样化是大城市的基本特征，由此决定了大城市的交通需求必然是多种多样的，人们可选择的出行方式也应该是多种多样的，并且所有的出行方式都可以在各自适用的范围内发挥出最大优势口[2]。我国的城市交通机动化正处于起步状态，自行车等非机动车仍是目前大部分城市中居民出行的主导方式。随着社会经济持续、快速增长与人民物质文化水平不断提高，建立多层次、立体型多元化的交通体系，是我国数量迅速增长的大城市的唯一发展方向。在此目标之下，科学规划的轨道交通理论上提供了最大限度满足可持续发展要求的可能性。 城市交通拥挤现状，决定了各级政府部门在宏观决策过程中，理当重点考虑规划在环境系统、资源系统、社会系统等多方面具有可持续发展优势的城市轨道交通公共交通系统[3]，这方面国内刊物近来论著颇多，本文不欲在此重复赘述。以下谨从技术与经济的角度，探讨进一步解决轨道交通建设面临的一些具体问题，加速走向它的现实可行性。 2 轨道交通需重视与城市公交系统的和谐 一般而言，轨道交通规划工作的核心内容是要充分实现路线选址与转乘配套两者的最优化，与现有的公交系统在各个环节上达到最大限度的互相补充协调运作。 首先，城市轨道交通是一项涉及面广泛复杂、需要许多专业协调配合的大型系统工程，必须与城市建设发展中长期规划密切结合起来进行。作为城市规划的有机构成部分，轨道交通的规划与整个城市交通的线网规划实为一体。为了避免客流稀少，线路走向应尽可能合理，否则，小客流低运量必然导致轨道交通无法发挥预期的骨干作用。总之，结合城市的总体客运需求合理规划布局，是保证城市轨道交通主导地位的必要条件。当然，这种合理布局要充分考虑不同城市的用地空间总体规划。北京地铁线明显采用了沿城市道路走向布局的方式，轨道交通网络形态与市区道路棋盘式格局高度一致，恰恰体现了保护北京古城的特殊要求。这方面类似的例子，还有南京地铁1号线采用高架方式从中华门附近跨越古城，也充分考虑了地下车站与周围环境、高架线路与地面景观的协调需要。 其次，在以轨道交通为主导编制城市公交综合规划时，要十分注意加强交通换乘枢纽的建设，将轨道交通与现有的常规公交体系统一安排、有序调整，保证轻轨、地铁等轨道交通与城市公共汽车、出租车、轮渡等多种交通工具的方便转接，以及与机场、火车站、港口等其他运输场所的顺利衔接。前文所举的欧洲发达国家的大城市，面对小汽车交通的冲击，纷纷寻求一种新的交通发展模式，在通向郊区的沿线地铁站大量修建小汽车停车场，引导小汽车乘客换乘后进入中心城区，使轨道交通的大运量优势得以发挥。国内方面新近建成的上海火车南站，则成功地将铁路与两条城市轨道交通与几十路近、远郊公交汽车线的零距离换乘需要融入规划设计中，成为一个值得学习借鉴的样本。 最后，我们不能不充分注意轨道交通与整合改善城市常规公交之间的互动关系。世界上绝大多数国家的轨道交通都是在既有城市公交体系形成后逐渐发展起来的。在未来相当长一段时间内，公共汽车／电车仍将是人们出行使用较广泛的交通工具之一。根据我国许多城市目前的经济发展水平与人口规模及交通总量需求，常规公交的整体地位短期内变化不大。但是，常规公交系统效率低下的现状应该在逐步发展轨道交通的过程中加以综合整治与改善。除了科学制订线网布局，修建港湾式停靠站台，合理编制车辆运行图，建设服务查询显示信息系统等具体措施外，从规划立法角度保障公交的道路优先使用权的思路也有待于细化落实。 近来，在轨道与公交配套发展背景如何建设大容量快速公交系统(BRT)引起了专业规划人员的高度关注。BRT是一种利用现代化大容量专用车辆、在专用道路空间快速行驶的一种公交方式。它具有接近轨道交通的运力与快捷，建造和运营成本又相对低廉，而且很大程度上可以利用改造提升现有的城市公交道路系统，在某些人口规模不是很大的城市中甚至可以考虑作为轨道交通的替代方式。 2003年国务院81号文件出台后，国内许多城市马上把发展BRT项目推到了缓解城市交通拥堵的前台。北京市新近编制的中心城区公共汽／电车厂线网规划中包含了18条BRT线路，总长约300多km，在强调机动性与可达性高度协调的前提下，首次将BRT作为一个功能层次融人公交线网整体结构中。此外，昆明市在园艺世博会期间开通的国内首条位于道路中央的公交专用道，即将升级为规范的现代BRT系统。杭州根据城市发展模式与空间功能布局制订的中远期公交规划，也确立以轨道与BRT为骨干，东西走向穿城而过的首条28 km BRT今年已基本开通。 3 轨道交通应解决低成本建造运营问题 作为城市中最大的基础建设项目之一的城市轨道交通投资巨大，京、沪、穗前几年修建地铁的综合造价平均每千米超过了6亿元人民币。显然，大多数国内城市的经济能力很难承受起如此高昂的成本。因此，不解决轨道交通的造价问题，城市轨道交通难以实现。综合考虑轨道交通的建造与运营费用，笔者以为解决成本问题拟应围绕以下三个方面认真思考。 3．1 轨道交通的用地空间应体现预留渐进原则 一般轨道交通建设成本中，包括拆迁费用在内的占用土地成本是其中不可忽视的一个组成部分，并不因为某些国家无偿划拨方式而改变它的社会成本性质。为了降低这方面的成本，许多城市在已经完成的公交总体规划中，都为轨道交通的线路场站建设预留了用地空间。然而，线路建设的具体时机取决于城市发展的不同进程，某些线路的客流形成需要一个长期渐进的过程。 因此，如何既能适应逐渐增长的客流需要，又能合理有效地利用预留土地空间，是低成本发展轨道交通中必须慎重规划考虑的现实问题。在巴西的大多数城市里，市政当局大都在轨道交通近期没有开发的走廊上发展前文介绍的快速公交，将BRT专用道建在道路中央，初衷就是为了降低轨道交通项目的初期投资与运营费用[4]。实际上，北京2005年全线通车的第一条BRT线路，正是敷设在预留的M8轨交走廊上，完全满足了近期单向8 000人次／h的客流需求。 经济合理地使用土地空间，不仅需要作为城市规划中发展轨道交通的指导原则加以确立，更应当具体落实在轨道交通系统工程的每一个子项目的设计图纸上。根据《上海市城市总体规划1999—2020》，到2020年将建成800 km左右轨道交通线，如果全都继续采取目前的集中供电模式，届时仅该项子系统就需建造50多座主变电所。 暂且不论一座主变电所动辙上亿元的巨额投资，仅建造变电所及电缆通道所需占用消耗的土地资源就将十分惊人。有鉴于此，最近上海相关部门已组织专家进行优化方案论证，将2020年前全网18条线路原先计划建造的51座主变电所减少为39座，更可节约投资10亿元人民币以上。 3．2 轨道交通的建造模式要体现经济合理原则 世界城市轨道交通近百年的历史展现了丰富多彩的发展模式，为我们提供了地铁轻轨、导轨、有轨电车、郊区铁路、磁悬浮等多种选择模式，线型电机牵引系统则被公认为最有发展前途的一种在我国百万以上人口的城市中，因地制宜地利用现有条件低成本发展轨道交通，已有了一些成功的经验。上海的明珠轻轨一期有3／4长度是改造利用原先的铁路内环线，这对武汉等其他一些存在废弃或利用率很低的铁路既有线路城市，不啻是一种有益的启发与示范。另外，东北沈阳、长春、哈尔滨等城市，还存有部分有轨电车线路[5]，在此基础上统一规划发展现代轨道交通，应该也能够达到节省一部分费用成本的目的。 其实，国内城市轨道交通建设成本居高不下的原因之一，还在于脱离国情片面追求豪华档次。表现在规划设计上就是大量采用类似于公共汽车系统的高线网密度、小站间距、低负荷强度。需知，轨道交通本质上属于快速大量运送中长距离乘客的交通工具，依靠其他交通工具为它输送客源，达到大运量高负荷。由于低线网密度、大站间距模式能够明显提高运行速度、缩短旅行时间，所以不但可以降低工程造价，而且还可以降低运行成本。正因为如此，将BRT系统规划为轨道交通线路两端的延伸段，或选择“轨交+BRT”的混合网络模式，都有助于达到适当降低轨道线网敷设密度的低成本目标。 另外，国内轨道交通运营成本高的部分原因，还与计划经济遗留下的传统思维方式与条块分割的管理模式密切相关。直到今天，许多城市在申请轨道交通立项时，每条线路都规划有独立使用的车辆段、控制中心、主要变电站，这套小而全的空间与管理体系必然造成资源的极大浪费。在轨道交通十分发达的日本，帝都高速交通营团运营管辖着8条线路总长183．2 km，但是所属16个车站统共只设置了1座综合控制中心。反观国内，即使在资源共享程度较高的上海地铁系统，已建和待建的控制中心仍有8座，另加1座轨道交通运营协调及应急中心。 3．3 轨道交通的管理配套要体现因地制宜原则 如前所述，城市轨道交通的规划不应盲目追求高标准，该建地面、高架的绝不钻入地下、该建轻轨的绝不建地铁，因为后者的造价往往是前者的3倍以上。此外，对地铁建设成本影响甚大的土建工程中，其地下车站底板的埋置深度与车站建筑高度是决定造价大小的两个关键因素。因此，合理设计基坑深度与车站建筑高度对降低总成本的意义，无论如何也不应低估。 如果说轨交模式、建造标准的选择较多地影响到土建工程造价部分，轨道工。程总造价的另外一半(45%～50 %)则取决于技术装备等硬件的建设、购置、安装费用。以地铁车辆为例，目前国产价格仅为进口产品的1／2～1／4。因此，降低成本费用的关键之一，是提高构成技术装备主要部分的车辆、牵引、供电、信号的国产化水平。这方面，较晚竣工投入使用的南京地铁为我们提供了很有说服力的例证。据有关杂志介绍，该项目通过车辆项目的合同谈判与国产化方案的慎密调整，大大减少了进口部件和材料，降低了进口设备的国际运输成本，在成功实现70 国产化率的情况下，车辆项目合同价从最初的每辆约135万美元降低到116．5万美元，与设计概算相比节约投资4 000多万人民币。 当然，轨道交通总体上属于公共产品领域，单纯的票务收入远远不足以偿付开通后的日常性运营支出，中长期的财务收支平衡对世界各国都是一个需要艰难应对的挑战。笔者了解到的香港地铁总收入中，票务收入约占60 ，其余40 9，6中广告与物业管理各占一半[6]，这一香港较为成功的地铁和物业综合发展经营模式，今年初已通过成立中港合营公司引入北京地铁4号线的管理，各方都期待着它能为国内轨道交通建设运营展示一种令人鼓舞的前景。 参考文献 1 邹胜勇．面向可持续发展的城市总体交通结构优化[J]．交通运输系统工程与信息，2006，6(2)：108． 2 David BAYLISS．世界范围的城市交通可达性现状(英文)[J]．TRI杂志(交通版)，2006(2)：17—18． 3 樊颖玮．城市交通可持续发展问题的思考[J]．交通与运输，2006(2)：67． 4 全永棠，孙壮志．关于BRT与轨道交通的理性思考[J]．交通运输系统工程与信息，2006，6(2)：117． 5 孙章．城市轨道交通的世纪回眸[J]．上海交通运输，2006(3)：14． 6 P．Y．Loo，L．Y．Chow．可持续城市交通：理念，政策与方法(英文)[J]．ASCE，2006(6)：76—77

1 defers to "the State Council about To strengthen City and countryside To plan Management by supervision Notice" (country to send the [2002]13 number) and "the Ministry of construction Notice" (constructs the gauge [2002]204 number) the request, for the standard our province each kind of urban planning compulsory content, the basis ministry of construction "Urban planning Compulsory Content Temporary provisions", formulates this establishes the urban planning compulsory content the guiding ideology is: The realization science development view, the implementation “four insistences”, namely the insistence economic development is a center, persisted serves for the most general populations, persisted the sustainable development, persisted realistic, emphasizes the actual effect, does what one and stops each kind effectively the construction development behavior which does not adapt with “four insistences”, guaranteed city each kind of resources the reasonable use, guides our province urbanization the healthy urban planning compulsory content, is refers to in the cities system plan, the city overall plan, the city detailed plan involves the region coordinated development, the resources use, the environmental protection, scenery scenic spot aspect and so on resource management, nature and cultural heritage protection, public benefit and public security urban planning compulsory content is the cities system plan, the city overall plan, the city detailed plan necessary urban planning compulsory content must conform to the country, province each kind of related standard, the union local urban planning management technology stipulation research cities system plan, the overall plan already authorized, had to supplement consummated the compulsory new establishment plan, specially the detailed plan and the near future will construct the plan, will have to be clear about the compulsory have the accurate mark on the blueprint, has in the text is clear about, the standard urban planning compulsory content is carries on the surveillance inspection to the urban planning implementation the basic plan definite compulsory content needs to announce to the cities system plan compulsory content: needs to protect strictly region and control development region and control nature protection areas: Is clear about the nature protection area branching location, the protectorate rank and the main protection object, delimits the nature protection area scope demarcation natural conservation regionalization divides into the core area, the buffer and the experimental plot, is clear about the limit and the prohibition development construction content, the plan control standard as well as the management measure the core area the strict prohibition each kind of engineering construction and production management which has nothing to do with with the resources the buffer may be engaged in by the authorization, the non-destructive scientific research, the teaching practice and specimen not have to construct any production the experimental plot may be engaged in by the authorized scientific experiments, the teaching practice, the visit inspects, the traveling, as well as the domestication, the reproduction rare and precious, is in imminent danger activities and so on wild animals and not have to construct the pollution environment, the destruction resources and the landscape production scenery scenic spot area: Is clear about the scenery scenic spot area branching location, the nature, the main function and the scenery scenic spot area rank, delimits the scenery scenic spot area scope demarcation the core protectorate (including ecology protectorate, natural landscape protectorate and historical site protectorate) the extent of protection, is clear about the protection key and the protective to “the strict protection, the unification management, the reasonable development, continues forever uses” the principle, is clear about in the scenery scenic spot area the limit and the prohibition development construction content and the management the core protectorate the strict prohibition each kind of engineering construction which has nothing to do with with the resources the scenic area, the classical botanical garden and in the periphery control area, does not have to construct the industry and mining enterprise, the warehouse, the hospital and so on has nothing to do with and the destruction landscape with the scenery and the tour, the pollution environment, the hindrance tour project and the in the scenic area scope and the plan in the natural environment retention region, does not have the newly built guesthouse, the boarding house, the country club, the sanatorium organization, the management structure, the quarters and other big-scale work any new items of basic construction nature, the layout, the building modelling, the amount of space occupied, highly and the color and so on, should locate the environment other ecology sensitive areas: Is clear about the large-scale lake, the wetland, the water source protectorate, divides the flood detention area, takes back from agriculture also the forest (also grass, also lake) the area, the basic farmland protectorate, the underground mineral resource distributes the area and so on each kind of protection and controls the region the position and the clear about the related local protection and the government goal, the control target, the limit and the prohibition development construction the region development, avoids the ecology sensitive area as far as possible, reduces to the wild animals and plants destruction, completes the conservation of water and soil work, enhances the afforested coverage fraction, guaranteed certain water surface rate, the enhancement wetland protection, does not have to reduce the ecology sensitive area the take the protection measure to the water resources, the control shore water district construction, carries out aspect the strictly and so on water pollution preventing and controlling and water source water quality protection not have to destroy the ecology sensitive area the flood prevention, drains waterlogged land ability and from only ability, does not have to destroy the biological resources and the ecological ecology sensitive area any construction, must control severely, maintains the natural style environment, the maintenance ecological regional characteristic significant infrastructure layout: Is clear about the regional characteristic significant infrastructure the position and moves towards, the corresponding control regional characteristic significant infrastructure must be clear about the coordinated request with each related city relation, controls the correlation to is clear about the highway, the level road, the second-class road, the region track transportation (city border railroad, region passenger transportation track transportation) the trend; Is clear about the harbor, the airport, the physical distribution center is clear about the large-scale hydro-junction project, the region flood prevention, the flood detention backbone project position, the region water supply, the accent water project trend; Is clear about position which the regional power plant, 500KV (or 300KV) the transformer substation, the natural tire valve stand, 500KV (or 300KV) high tension grid and natural gas branch tube trend; Is clear about the regional information key position the position, the communication line is clear about the neighboring city to be connected the waters the water environment function control request and the related target; Is clear about the city intake, the city sewage discharge outlet controls the waters scope, the regional characteristic altogether constructs the water works, the sewage treatment plant, the large-scale garbage disposal plant position; Is clear about the regional characteristic each kind of infrastructure the protection request. 3 city overall plan compulsory content: is clear about the limits to have to protect and the control development region : Scenery ecology sensitive areas and so on scenic spot area, large-scale lake, wetland, water source protectorate, basic farmland protectorate, underground mineral resource distributed urban constructions use: is clear about in the plan time the urban construction with the place development scale, the development direction, in the limits plan time the urban construction uses the place the scope; uses according to the construction to appraise the determination land use restrictive regulations, delimits the land use restrictive district demarcation line; is clear about city each kind of park and the green space position, the scope and the index of correlation and the plan city infrastructure and public service facilities: is clear about the city primary and secondary yang or male principle trend, the city track transportation line trend; Is clear about the railroad and the station yard, the harbor, the airport, the mass transit key position, the large-scale parking lot is clear about the city intake and the protectorate scope, the power plant, the 110KV above transformer substation, the natural tire valve stands, the large-scale fuel gas gas storage stands as well as facility and so on trash and sewage treatment positions; Is clear about for the water and the draining water branch tube, the natural gas branch tube trend, the position, the underground utilities common ditch moves towards and the influence scope, the high-pressured power line corridor, the microwave channel and receives the sending a letter area extent of is clear about the culture, the information, the education, the health, the sports and so on each kind of public service key facility scale, the position and the related technical specification and the plan historical city protection: determination historical city protection general goals and protection considered the old city the protection, manifests specifically in the historical river lake river system, the traditional spool thread, the old city city gallery, the building highly, city aspect and so on landscape line, old tree famous wood protection requests and the concrete control target, the is clear about all levels of key cultural relic preservation organ, the historical culture protectorate, the historical architectural complex, the important underground cultural relic disposal area concrete position, the demarcation the extent of protection, the construction control region, is clear about the protective measures, the control target and the city disaster prevention project: is clear about the city flood control standard, the flood-dam is clear about the city earthquake resistance and the fire prevention disperses the backbone city main civil air defense facility, fire facility is clear about the geological disaster to protect the cities will construct the plan in the near future: will be clear about the city to construct key and the development in the near future uses the will be clear about the near future to construct uses the place the concrete position and the is clear about controls and guides the urban development the delimits the land use restrictive district demarcation line and historical control areas and so on culture protectorate, scenery scenic spot area, is clear about the corresponding plan city detailed plan compulsory content: controllability detailed plans is clear about the division to be possible to use in developing the construction directly the land parcel, stipulated various land parcels use the nature, the building density, the building control highly, the volume fraction, the green areas coverage rate, the parking berth and other need disposition targets and so on public utility; Carries out the city “four” the plan control content, proposes maintenance main public space aspect and so on environment quality, visual landscape control as well as historical culture protection in view of the specific land sector plan construction detailed plan concrete determination plan construction, green space, path, square, parking lot, river lake water surface position and scope; Is clear about the road junction coordinates, the elevation, each kind of municipal administration public facility pipeline position, caliber, major control point elevation, as well as related facility and construction plan planning board when establishes various levels urban planning must rest on the ministry of construction "Urban planning Compulsory Content Temporary provisions", the standard compulsory content, and to plans the achievement to take the comprehensive technical urban planning administration department responsible for the work provides the plan design conditions, the examination items of basic construction, the no violation whatsoever will permitted urban planning compulsory adjusts the urban planning compulsory content, must organize to prove, the adjustment necessity to the plan examination and approval institution proposed the report on a special topic, in which involves the public rights and interests, must carry on male shows, only then carries on the adjustment after the examination the adjustment plan must defer to the stipulated procedure to examine and approve.