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作文如下：
Law is also called the law, legal science, is based on law, legal phenomenon and its regularity of science that studies the is the study of specialized knowledge and law related issues, is about the legal problems of knowledge and theory is about the science of law.
法律又称法律，法学，是以法律、法律现象及其规律性为研究内容的科学。它是研究专门知识和法律相关问题，是关于法律问题的知识和理论体系。法学是关于法律的科学。
The direct purpose of law, is to maintain social order, and by order of the construction and maintenance, to realize social take law as the research object of law, its core is in for the research of order and justice, is the knowledge of order and justice.
法律的直接目的，是维护社会秩序，并通过秩序的建构和维护，实现社会正义。作为以法律为研究对象的法律，其核心在于对秩序与正义的研究，是对秩序与正义的认识。
The theory of criminal law of shallow understanding errors1. irrtumslehreLegal irrtumslehre, namely, refers to the illegality mistake for own behavior in law, whether what crime constitutes a crime shall be punished by, or what is wrong, is to oneself the legal nature of the action of meaning or misunderstandings. Legal irrtumslehre usually includes three conditions: (1) the actor's behavior in law does not constitute a crime, the offender and constitutes a crime for which imaginary guilty, (2) the behavior in law constitutes a crime and does not constitute a crime, the offender mistaken assumptions that innocent, (3) for his act constitutes a crime shall be convicted and punishment in light of the existing errors, misunderstanding or punishment. Due to the legal irrtumslehre, only to the behavior of the offender is not correct understanding of the legal assessment, and for their actions in fact correct understanding of the situation is still there, so its act constitutes a crime shall be investigated for criminal responsibility is and how it is not usually occurs.（1）Imaginary innocent treatment principleThe principles for imaginary innocence, whether it involves a deliberately elements. Foreign criminal law theory basically has the following kinds:1）Should know that don't speak, just for criminal facts have understanding. Canada criminal code article 19 regulation: "the ignorance of the law excuses and crime can be ShuZui reason." Motto: "Roman law and legal disclaimer" somehow also expressed a principle, namely: "in the crime as subjective FanYi established condition, not request to recognize his behavior of richtswitrig".2）Should know the reason, according to two: moral responsibility theory, personality responsibility theory. Moral responsibility theory emphasizes on the rationality of free will blame illegal conduct, is considered to be objective stance. 3）That said, the possible illegality of responsibility for deliberately, at least to the possibility of understanding illegality. While in China mainland, the introduction of the concept of crime has another concept -- social consciousness that harm to discuss richtswitrig already meaningless. Because the deliberate crime according to law condemn the illegality of the offender is not known, the law itself is not damaged, the law of the social consciousness is harm. Social harm consciousness is the essential contents of the crime, illegal consciousness is the legal form of social consciousness. Therefore, our country law more emphasis is on the rationality of essence, which is harmful to the society values. Just because of its social harmfulness, with a social moral evaluation colour, easier for people to grasp and observe. Therefore, the author thinks that, in general, the person need to recognize his behavior may be the result of inevitable or harmful to the society, and has already know. With intentionally But in fact, the forbidden by law and mass that is harmful to the society in our country nowadays the behavior under the constitution should be consistent, in other words, know the social harmfulness also know the possibility of illegal, but know the possibility of illegal is inevitable should also realize social harmfulness, both are unified. Therefore, it is generally thought that the law is no excuse, the reason of law does not exclude the misunderstanding in principle, but can be culpable for deliberately discretion. （2） Misunderstandings treatment principle. PunishmentWe might as well so the essence of blame for his due: the crime in the subjective should blame or blame, for the intent or negligence performance. If the offender because of misunderstanding that legal person feels very innocent, lack of this should blame or condemning sexual, from the fundamental measure, blame is absolutely not consider disclaimer. Especially in the modern society, the legal category SAN marino, legal entry in different fields and different levels of books, recognized, comprehend legal apparently endless and same, so the person of law and misunderstandings, not inexcusable. Now, both in theory and practice, the method not cling to forgive "seems to have in shake. Therefore, to a certain extent, can also think admits exceptions excusable is legal misunderstanding of criminal law is an important symbol of humanity. In addition, it was not in the act of which is prohibited by the laws and regulations, especially after a circumstance, should have knowledge of richtswitrig actor, constitute the understanding of deliberate point of view, with the attitude of this understanding, of course, that is not the illegality or by the simple statement actor. The author thinks that the only when the legal establishment of may, FangKeZu but . The fact mistakeThat mistake, is to determine its subjective behavior nature and the criminal responsibility of the relevant facts wrong understanding. From the wrong reasons and phenomenon of angles, generally known that there are several mistakes:（1） Object irrtumslehreThe object is known for errors, whether there is objectively error object. It includes actor in the implementation of the existing criminal behavior of the hazards for the object and actually does not exist, or for criminal object and actually does not exist, or infringe a criminal object and actually invaded another crime object. The object of objects is usually known errors caused by mistake, but the object of different social relationship reflects different. Evil doer of objects and actual expected in fact not only harm object does not agree, and in the nature of law is not consistent. Therefore, the object irrtumslehre may affect the form of sin, crime accomplishment, and may even attempted to influence the crime. For example, in view of the circumstances, not a thought before the enemy, and a party came to stick, afterwards just know the ox was wounded. A thought of damage is "people", and the actual wounded is "cow", do not belong to the same laws of the object. Similar situation and will generally be mistaken for drug trafficking items, Actor will stolen items in the theft of guns in stealing together. This object from the subjective errors, see, is a kind of mistake, From the objective, because the mistake crime to no avail, where the criminal attempted ）Object mistakeObjects can be generalized mistake, including object mistake to belong to the object know mistake is inevitable object irrtumslehre. These include, is known to be wrong object of legal property of the same object mistake and legal properties of different objects, namely the object irrtumslehre irrtumslehre. In order to distinguish with the object mistake here, the cognition to the same object only mean error between the different objects, namely the misunderstanding of the evil doer expected objects and actual harm to the object, but not in fact in the legal nature of the same situation. This object mistake again say things on purpose mistake not criminal responsibility. As a reserve, killing b shall be killed as b and c, do not affect a rap. This is the need to consider that a kill b behavior "mistake" cause others (c), belong to an intentional crime (b) "death", for the excess result, according to the results, which determine the ordinary mail of death was deliberately recognized for deliberately, to the death of the fault is propylene, identified as negligence, according to the intention or negligence of the general mark recognized FanYi or state of mind, not applicable rules of the ） Behavior irrtumslehreBehavior mainly includes two kind of mistake: first, the behavior nature irrtumslehre. That actor has to its social harm nature, such as understanding not imaginary defense. Behavior nature mistake might affect the form of sin, and may also affect crime. Second, the behavior tools (methods) irrtumslehre. That person to use when the conduct of tool (methods), which affects not correct understanding of harm results, behavior tools (methods) mistake can affect crime or attempted was founded, also can affect crime or belongs to the incident, a typical for murder on hazardous substances, because the drug failure and failed to kill people, can think method or tools for error doer of consciousness beyond reason not to succeed. And as actor see armour, second coming together, hence shot to play, but can't hit by the party and. Look, this is from the phenomenon of an object, or the final results for the mistake, but this error is based on the fact that the wrong doer identify offender is carefully identify to begin, can think recognize is accurate, errors in ChaWu itself. The solution to this situation, "said", its legal with qualitative and recognize wrong object is consistent, namely directly recognized as an intentional homicide accomplishment. The death of a person is directly intentionally to b, death is the indirect intentional, just for a to b is attempted, accomplished. Additionally, if in daily life because misidentification object and damage of consequences, the crime itself is not just any criminal negligence because of )Causality irrtumslehreCausality mistake, is on his behavior and harmful results of actual connection between errors. Generally include: first, not some harm result, as has happened actor. This generally constitute a crime. Second, has certain harm result, but not for actor or for his behavior is caused, and does not affect crime accomplishment. Third, really happened, the offender is aware of its behavior, but with the actual development between the harm to the process or a mistake, general to punish crime accomplishment. In theory, the offender is not only a crime, but continuous movement, this several continuous action is not a few crime, but a crime. In this sense, doesn't exist on the results of the irrtumslehre and facts mistake and proceduresDomestic scholars in fact know mistakes and errors between the issue legal representative views mainly include:（1）For own behavior whether in law constitutes a crime, criminal or what kind of criminal punishment shall be under the incorrect understanding is legal irrtumslehre for his behavior on the implementation of the incorrect understanding is the fact that mistake,（2）The objectivity of crime is a false understanding of crime, that mistake of objective facts have clear understanding, only to act in the evaluation of existing laws on the concept of law is not correct mistakes。（3）Actor known facts and actual fact don't agree is wrong, the person that judgment and objective law is law of illegal inconsistency ideas basically could in theory and legal irrtumslehre fact distinguish mistakes, it is important to emphasize that：1) With the conviction that the so-called irrelevant, as this mistake to hit each other, the shooting head caused the death of heart, without vision of research into our. 2) Study of the theory of error, error occurs when the purpose, but whether to intentionally resistance, reduce plots affected only the wrong cognition, natural sentencing nor will it into the error theory category. 3) This does not constitute a crime and actor for crime, and for their behavior in the criminal law on the crimes and how to apply for criminal punishment on such specific knowledge error, conviction according to law. Based on this, the author thinks that, at the fact that criminal law is only to know wrong doer of elements to know the so-called objective facts constituents of mistake is the fact that the legal irrtumslehre error refers to the legal action is illegal and the evaluation of the mistake. From the theory of facts and legal irrtumslehre error, but the problem is in the law, criminal elements to the facts and law closely combined circumstances (like some administrative crimes and economic crimes), or is in a fact itself contains certain laws of evaluation content, to distinguish with a mistake is the fact that mistake or legal wrong, is often difficult. If the property of his humanity and obscenity obscenity, administrative rules and regulations, JinYuOu, disrupt public until its precondition of the legitimacy of the public, and legal irrtumslehre facts wrong intertwined, and this is what we distinguish facts and legal irrtumslehre errors will solve the some cases, the defendant should know that because of the lack of knowledge, and not to the behavior of social harmfulness, so that the defendant is not "knowledge they will entail harmful consequences to society, and hope or allows such results" and deliberate crime, the burden of proof is only FanYi prosecution, in addition, prosecution without proof the defendant not normal, but normal mental and spiritual normal presumption defendant directly if the defendant that his spirit is not normal, it shall provide necessary evidence by himself to prove. Thus, the author, on legal irrtumslehre processing, can adopt the presumption of ways to handle. Which country presumption every normal citizens are known, unless the law can put forward defense "advantage prove" above, or the evidence rebut these presumption is established. From the efficiency of lawsuit, said the country is impossible to prove the defendant is known of the law.
结构严谨，表达简明，语义确切。摘要先写什么，后写什么，要按逻辑顺序来安排。句子之间要上下连贯，互相呼应。摘要慎用长句，句型应力求简单。每句话要表意明白，无空泛、笼统、含混之词，但摘要毕竟是一篇完整的短文，电报式的写法亦不足取。摘要不分段。
学术堂整理了一篇5000字法律专业本科毕业论文范文，希望你从中有所收获：范文题目：试析习惯对法制建设的影响摘要: 本文在习惯这一词语的基础上，仔细阅读了英、德、日、传统中国法制度建设的相关内容，分析习惯在对各国法制建设中的地位和作用，并试提出对当代中国法制建设的启示。习惯对于中国法制建设是良好的，有传统基础的；习惯汇编是实现习惯对中国法制建设影响的重要条件之一。关键词习惯法制建设影响启示造成一国之拙本，形成一国之国风，即习惯也。故此如有无视该民族之习惯，而规定各种法令，则不能期待于行政之完全者明矣。习惯是无论何种法律文化背景下都存在的一种法的渊源，法律中有不少规则就直接来自于习惯。一、习惯对英国法制建设的影响（一）习惯对属人主义产生影响的背景属人主义指的是法律适用于一个族群，民族，而这个民族中的每一个人也都拥有了该法律，无论身处何处，均适用这法律。孟德斯鸠在其《论法的精神中》分析了日耳曼法属人主义产生的原因，他认为环境的因素影响日耳曼人的居住方式，他们喜欢分开居住，分开居住造成了各个群体产生各自的生活习惯和各自处理问题的方法，当日耳曼的各个群体相聚一起时，他们自然的按照各自已有的习惯去处理问题，这就是孟德斯鸠所理解的属人主义的由来。（二）属人主义对英格兰及其殖民地的影响日耳曼人的这种属人主义思想深刻影响着世界法学的发展方向，英格兰王国威廉一世原来是法国诺曼底公爵，他在征服英格兰后，并没有把自己领地原有的一套法律体系灌输于英格兰，而是在尊重当地英格兰民众原有的习惯习俗来进行断案，这样有效地缓和与盎格鲁撒克逊人的矛盾，巩固他在英格兰的统治。后来的亨利二世继续在英格兰的实施属人主义，进行了一系列司法改革，他定期派巡回审判的专员到各地，这些专员在办案时，除依据国王诏书敕令外，主要是依据日耳曼人的习惯法和地方习惯。凡是他们认为正确、合理，并与国王的立法不相抵触的习惯和惯例，便被确认为判决的依据。他们经常聚集在中央所在地威斯敏斯特交换意见，彼此认可各自的判决。这样，一些被引为依据的习惯便成了以判例法形式出现的普通法。总之，英国的“普通法大部分是以接受和一般化全国的或广泛流行的习惯为基础的；英国的普通的，一般的习惯变成了普通法”。通过该措施，中央的司法权力得到统一，地方领主的司法权力得到削弱。这一习惯很好的贯彻到后来英国的殖民地统治当中，当时英国人统治香港时，也并没有将英国的法律直接适用于华人群体中去，只是当双方或者单方是英国人是才适用英国法，由此得出英国人在殖民地中的统治实施属人主义。当地的华人群体援用的仍然是大清律例，只有当他们的法律严重违反人权价值时，港英立法机关才会干预。这样就出现这这么一种现象，一个政府，两个司法机构，随着时间的推移，当地华人接受和认同了英国法的价值时，他们在20世纪70年代，主动放弃大清律例作为法律适用的依据，由原来的属人主义最终演变为属地主义。大清律例已经不再适用，但里面的一些规定，以习惯的方式存在于华人群体中去。詹宁斯指出，统治乃是一种合作的功能，而法律规则不能单独地促成合作的行动。惯例有助于民主制度的运转，能促使国家机构更加协调，否则，就会产生摩擦。这就是属人主义所带来的优点，它是一种缓和方式促进司法统一，它有利于维护统治者的统治，促进社会的稳定，有利于经济的发展。属人主义就像用文火熬成的汤，汤的营养价值得到很好的保存。英格兰和香港都一样，当地民众的优秀习惯得到了很好的保留。这些都是有利于本土法学文化的继续传承。二、习惯对德国法制建设的影响（一）萨维尼思想对德国成文立法的影响萨维尼在其《论立法与法学的当代使命使命》中阐述了他反对在全德立即制定包括民法典、刑法典、诉讼法在内的成文法典，他的主要观点为：“法律首先产生于习俗和人民的信仰，其次是假手于法学——职是之故，法律完全是由沉潜于内，默默无言而孜孜～～的伟力，而非法律制定者的专断意志所孕就的。”进而可以得出这样结论：本国的法律应该随着时间自然形成，立法机关的制定过于急进地制定法律必然使得法理的讨论不甚充分，从而使得有法律则无实施。民众不能充分理解其法理，则其实施的效果不大。因此，萨维尼非常重视习惯的作用，在笔者看来这个习惯不止是日耳曼习惯，也包括罗马法习惯。（二）萨维尼的研究方法中止所产生的影响1896年德意志帝国制定了民法典，并规定1900年1月1日施行，当今的联邦德国还是在适用该民法典。民法典的制定客观上确实促进了国家的政治统一，社会秩序的稳定，但是民法典的颁布，确实将罗马法以及日耳曼法送进了历史里面去了，人们的研究再也不是民族传统习惯，而是专注于法典理论的研究，怎么样使得法典的逻辑结构能够更加完善，这样做确实能使得法典体系更加的完备。此时的我，不禁想起这么一个问题，萨维尼的研究方法，为什么德国成文法的出现就会嘎然终止呢？我想，应该有以下几点原因：第一，德国人出现了像康德、黑格尔、马克思这样的大家，他们最为有名的是哲学理论，哲学使得人们变得有思辨，变得严密，变得具有逻辑性，他们觉得逻辑性的东西能够自我完善，因此制定一部具有严密逻辑体系的民法典是德国人的首要选择；第二，当时政治、经济的需要。德国的统一，经历血与火的考验。德国人的统一，由于教会的力量阻拦，再加上，英法等国不希望欧洲中部出现一个强大的国家来破坏其原有的政治、经济秩序。因此，德国人民希望尽快制定成文法典来维护这来之不易的统一，增强国家统一意识，实现民族复兴。第三，法国大革命不止冲垮了欧洲大陆的封建势力，不止为欧洲其他国家带来了自由、平等、博爱的思想，而且也为其他国家带来了法典化的思想。因此，德国人自然受到法国法典化的思潮。但是过于注重法典本身难以有效解决实际问题，法典是具有滞后性的，社会生活中的问题，法典是不可能完全解决，因此，传统民族所遗留下来的习惯和民族精神此时将能发挥一定的作用。三、习惯对日本法制建设的影响（一）从日本文化中的启发有一位学者说日本的文化是一种“洋葱”文化，把他一片一片地洋葱拨开之后，我们发现其是没有核心。日本文化的包容性实在领人值得深思。当深入了解日本，你会发现相扑运动，人们还是十分的喜爱，你会发现日本人民喜爱橄榄球。你会发现日本的时装还是让人着迷，你会发现和服是那样的端庄。所有这一切，引起我们对日本的法制现代化产生更加深入的思考。（二）习惯在日本法制近代化中的体现日本的法制现代化自倒幕运动开始，倒幕运动的成功，使得天皇的统治的模式得以重新确立。为下一步中央集权奠定十分深刻的基础。以大久保利通为首的内阁实行一系列集权政策：（1）废藩置县，版籍奉还；（2）废除士、农、工、商身份，实行新的身份，建立崭新的户籍制度；（3）文化教育上，实行全面的义务的国民教育（4）实行殖产兴业政策，集中以国家的力量进行经济建设（5）法制建设上，翻译照搬法国的法典。通过一系列这些政策，日本的近代化速度加快，大久保等人想进一步地脱亚入欧，对日本进行更深层次的改革，结果是因改革过于激烈，改革过于去习惯化，大久保被暗杀。新上任的伊藤博文对此进一步的思考，改革的力度不仅要强，而且改革应该要更加注重习惯。为此，伊藤博文为此到了与日本国情更加相似的德国进行考察，以德国《普鲁士普通法》为蓝本对日本的宪法的蓝图进行勾画，天皇就像是人的脑袋，政府就像是人的心脏，上下两院如同人的左右两臂，海陆军就像人的拳头，政府各部门、司法部门组成人的躯体，民众是人的两条腿脚。基于此，伊藤博文基于日本国民所习惯的自然理念设置日本的宪政，天皇于1889年基于上述的构想颁布了《大日本帝国宪法》；此后日本对六法在仿照德国法的基础上结合本国制定了适合日本国情的六法体系，日本的法制近代化基本完成。比如日本民法中有这么一条规定：“因特定行为选定假住址，关于其行为视为住址。”假住址制，是日本结合本国习惯所采用的制度。德国民法中不采用此原则，因为德国用数个住址主义，故不必有假住址。四、习惯对传统中国法建设的影响在传统中国，基层存在着许多婚姻的缔结、解除，家庭财产继承等各种各样的民事纠纷。在当时，统治者重刑轻民，民事方面的法制不发达。民众在解决民事纠纷中往往是依据当地的习惯，并且在当地的社会中，这种解决方式得到大家的遵循。这些习惯被当时的基层长官以及他的法律助手们所认真的关注。实际上，基层的长官们并不一定要按照习惯对案件进行判决，他们可以依照当时律令等进行判决。但是，这些当地习惯之所以被他们娴熟地运用，最为主要的原因在于这些判决应该要得到当地民众的接受以及使得这些判决符合礼的规定，从而起到教化的目的。上级政府在收集习惯上的不遗余力有助于规范其行政。以清朝为例，地方的习惯经过按察使以及布政使的整理被编入省级资料库中，他们在法律布告中引用这些习惯用以纠正基层不良的民风民俗。除此之外，各地的有代表性的惯例，经过筛选被纳入到国家正式法典当中。最为有名的例子：“承继两房宗祧”的做法于1775年被编入到大清律例第78条第5条例中。其中规定了：“如可继之人，亦系独子，而情属同父母亲，两相情愿者，取其阖族甘结，亦准其承继两房宗祧”。“承继两房宗祧”这样一个民间习惯关系到当时整个清帝国的利益，民间的继承秩序得到明确修正，有利于当时的社会稳定以及财产安全。如今，“承继两房宗祧”这种制度虽然已经没有在成文法中规定，但是这样一种习惯仍然在农村社会普遍存在，正如刘作翔所说，习惯仍以其顽强的生命力遗存下来，成为人们的心理积淀或意识表现，在社会生活中以隐文化形态发挥功用。五、启示通过上面的分析，笔者以为有两点启示应引起我们的关注。一是重视习惯在法制建设中的良好作用。从英、德、日法制建设中可以看出尊重习惯并不是保守的表现，相反，在各国法制的改革中尊重习惯可以使得法制改革变得更加平稳。对于一个成文法的国家来说，尊重习惯也是有利于克服成文法典的僵化性以及滞后性。苏力指出，国内民商法极少强调尊从民商事习惯和惯例。2500件法律文件中。没有任何法律明确提出“依习惯”，只有一件强调了依据商事习惯。而另一方面，《民法通则》明确规定，“法律没有规定，应当遵守国家政策。”而在同样的2500件制定法中，竟然有1015件（2412条）以不同方式提及了各种类型的“政策”。政策能否解决一切问题呢？答案是否定的。传统中国法有着深厚地尊重习惯和惯例的传统，中国的法制建设应该继承这些有益习惯，在这种基础上建立符合本国国情的新法律制度。只有这样，民众对法才能比较容易接受，法律的执行效果才能更好，更充分。二是重视习惯的整理汇编。或许有人认为这项工作意义不大，因为现在人口流动频繁或者习惯的适用很不方便等各种原因。但笔者认为建立完整的习惯汇编应该说还是必要。首先，我们要清楚中国人有“同乡”以及“安土重迁”的传统观念。我们很容易地发现，同乡借钱的现象屡见不鲜；在外打工的人们工作多年还是会回老家定居的情况也不少。建立习惯汇编有利于同籍同地的人们解决各种各样的纠纷。其次，习惯汇编也是中国法文化的宝贵资产。习惯的整理汇编促进法理、法史的理论发展，尤其是民商法的理论发展，进而得出这样一个观点中国民商法典的制定应该更加注重本民族的习惯。最后，各省在收集习惯时，应该归纳总结一些相同的习惯和惯例以方便人们使用，进而总结各省通用习惯来充实我国的成文法典。
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O. J. Simpson murder case辛普森杀妻案The O. J. Simpson murder case has been described as the most publicized criminal trial in history,[1] in which O. J. Simpson, former American football star and actor, was brought to trial for the murder of his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her friend Ronald Goldman. Simpson was acquitted in 1995 after a lengthy trial, the longest jury trial in California history.[2]Simpson hired a high-profile defense team led by Johnnie Cochran and F. Lee Bailey. Los Angeles County believed it had a solid prosecution case, but Cochran created in the minds of the jury the belief that there was reasonable doubt about the DNA evidence (then a relatively new type of evidence in trials),[3] including that the blood-sample evidence had allegedly been mishandled by lab scientists and technicians.[4] Cochran and the defense team also alleged other misconduct by the Los Angeles Police Department. The televising of the lengthy trial riveted national attention on the dramatic case. By the end of the criminal trial, national surveys showed dramatic differences between most blacks and most whites in terms of their assessment of Simpson's guilt.[5]Later, both the Brown and Goldman families sued Simpson for damages in a civil trial, which has a lower standard of proof for determining responsibility.[citation needed] On February 5, 1997, the jury unanimously found there was a preponderance of evidence to find Simpson liable for damages in the wrongful death of Goldman and battery of Brown. In its conclusions, the jury effectively found Simpson liable for the death of his ex-wife and Ron Goldman.[6] On February 21, 2008, a Los Angeles court upheld a renewal of the civil judgment against him.这个案子很经典，上面的一段是wiki上的英文案例，你可以找一些关于这个的中文资料，然后选择一个角度（比如种族歧视与陪审团制度的矛盾、毒树之果原则、媒体和舆论与司法公正的矛盾等等），或者一篇参考的中文文章（很多中国的法律人也会研究这个案子，发表一些观点），自己写或者翻译一篇英文论文出来就是了。下面引用一段英文资料，有个人在提问，为什么法院在刑事诉讼中判决辛普森无罪，但是在民事诉讼中又判决他赔偿自己妻子死亡赔偿金。 Jeralyn Merritt对这个问题进行了简略的回答。我想你大一的论文，字数要求不会太多，所以参考一下他这段答复吧。如果字数不够就把上面wiki的资料加一些进去,简单的交待一下案情。Q. I am a high school government student, and I have a question that has been bothering me that my teacher refuses to answer. In the . Simpson case I know that the state jury did not find him guilty on the charge of murder, but the federal court did on the charge of wrongful death. What is the difference and why were they able to do that? -- Geni A. . Simpson was charged with first degree murder in the state court in California. The jury found him "Not Guilty." A "not guilty" verdict means the state failed to prove the charges "beyond a reasonable doubt", which is the standard of proof in all criminal prosecutions. Criminal cases are brought on behalf of the citizens of a particular state or federal district, not by the victims or their . Simpson was found not guilty in the criminal case, the families of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron Goldman sued him in the state (not federal) court in California for wrongfully causing their deaths. Civil lawsuits for wrongful death are tried for money damages, not to put the defendant in prison. Civil cases are brought in the name of individuals, not in the name of the evidence was introduced in the . Simpson civil and criminal trials. For example, although . Simpson denied it, evidence was presented in the civil trial that . Simpson owned a pair of Bruno Magli shoes that matched shoeprints left at the murder . Simpson exercised his constitutional right against self-incrimination and chose not to testify in the criminal trial. All defendants in criminal cases have this right. In the civil trial, . no longer had such a right because he had been found not guilty of murder and could not be tried again for it. He had to testify when the opposing side called him as a witness. Thus, the jury in the civil case got to hear 's testimony while the criminal jury did the criminal case, the jury got to see that the glove left at the scene of the crime did not fit . Simpson. This experiment was not repeated for the civil jury. The jury in the criminal trial got a far stronger portrayal of the problems with the DNA and other scientific evidence in the case, and the poor management of the crime scene, than did the civil jury. And the criminal jury got to hear the false testimony of Los Angeles police officer Mark Furman, who later admitted lying and pleaded guilty to , the burden of proof in criminal and civil cases is different. In criminal cases, the standard is "proof beyond a reasonable doubt." There is also a presumption of innocence that stays with the defendant until and unless the jury returns a guilty verdict. In civil cases, the standard of proof is "by a preponderance of the evidence," which essentially means "more likely than not," or put another way, proof by 51% or jury's verdict in the civil case was not that . Simpson was guilty of murder, but that he was liable for (which essentially means responsible for causing) the deaths of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron light of the different evidence presented, burdens of proof and ultimate issues the juries were called upon to decide, the verdicts in the criminal and civil trials were not really all that inconsistent. -- Jeralyn Merritt
Analysis of Legislature Proposals on Concurrence of Claims of Medical DisputesAbstractMedical disputes refer to the disputes and discrepancies occurred in the medical procedure between hospitals and patients. Concurrence of claims mean the parties concerned may choose only one of such claims when entitled to many claims. As for the medical relations in recent years, with the improvement of the patients' awareness to protect their own rights, there are increasingly discrepancies between the health of patients themselves and medical science, one of the issues is the settlement of the concurrence of claims in the medical disputes---which may protect the patients' rights more efficiently, claim of breach or claim of tort. In the medical disputes, when there is medical agreement between the parties concerned, medical damage may constitute breachment of the medical agreement asit satisfies the essential factors of breachment; meanwhile, it may as well constitute action of tort as its damage to the patients' rights of life, health, boday and reputation. This thesis analyses the liability of beachment and tort from the perspective of civil liability of concurrence of claims and medical disputes, and concludes the loopholes of our legislation. At the same time ,this thesis puts forward my own views toward the settlement of concurrence of claims by reference to the advanced international legislation regarding concurrence of claims in medical words: concurrence of claims , liability of breachment, liability of tort, legislation 纯手工翻译。别忘给分啊楼主。
The theory of criminal law of shallow understanding errors1. irrtumslehreLegal irrtumslehre, namely, refers to the illegality mistake for own behavior in law, whether what crime constitutes a crime shall be punished by, or what is wrong, is to oneself the legal nature of the action of meaning or misunderstandings. Legal irrtumslehre usually includes three conditions: (1) the actor's behavior in law does not constitute a crime, the offender and constitutes a crime for which imaginary guilty, (2) the behavior in law constitutes a crime and does not constitute a crime, the offender mistaken assumptions that innocent, (3) for his act constitutes a crime shall be convicted and punishment in light of the existing errors, misunderstanding or punishment. Due to the legal irrtumslehre, only to the behavior of the offender is not correct understanding of the legal assessment, and for their actions in fact correct understanding of the situation is still there, so its act constitutes a crime shall be investigated for criminal responsibility is and how it is not usually occurs.（1）Imaginary innocent treatment principleThe principles for imaginary innocence, whether it involves a deliberately elements. Foreign criminal law theory basically has the following kinds:1）Should know that don't speak, just for criminal facts have understanding. Canada criminal code article 19 regulation: "the ignorance of the law excuses and crime can be ShuZui reason." Motto: "Roman law and legal disclaimer" somehow also expressed a principle, namely: "in the crime as subjective FanYi established condition, not request to recognize his behavior of richtswitrig".2）Should know the reason, according to two: moral responsibility theory, personality responsibility theory. Moral responsibility theory emphasizes on the rationality of free will blame illegal conduct, is considered to be objective stance. 3）That said, the possible illegality of responsibility for deliberately, at least to the possibility of understanding illegality. While in China mainland, the introduction of the concept of crime has another concept -- social consciousness that harm to discuss richtswitrig already meaningless. Because the deliberate crime according to law condemn the illegality of the offender is not known, the law itself is not damaged, the law of the social consciousness is harm. Social harm consciousness is the essential contents of the crime, illegal consciousness is the legal form of social consciousness. Therefore, our country law more emphasis is on the rationality of essence, which is harmful to the society values. Just because of its social harmfulness, with a social moral evaluation colour, easier for people to grasp and observe. Therefore, the author thinks that, in general, the person need to recognize his behavior may be the result of inevitable or harmful to the society, and has already know. With intentionally But in fact, the forbidden by law and mass that is harmful to the society in our country nowadays the behavior under the constitution should be consistent, in other words, know the social harmfulness also know the possibility of illegal, but know the possibility of illegal is inevitable should also realize social harmfulness, both are unified. Therefore, it is generally thought that the law is no excuse, the reason of law does not exclude the misunderstanding in principle, but can be culpable for deliberately discretion. （2） Misunderstandings treatment principle. PunishmentWe might as well so the essence of blame for his due: the crime in the subjective should blame or blame, for the intent or negligence performance. If the offender because of misunderstanding that legal person feels very innocent, lack of this should blame or condemning sexual, from the fundamental measure, blame is absolutely not consider disclaimer. Especially in the modern society, the legal category SAN marino, legal entry in different fields and different levels of books, recognized, comprehend legal apparently endless and same, so the person of law and misunderstandings, not inexcusable. Now, both in theory and practice, the method not cling to forgive "seems to have in shake. Therefore, to a certain extent, can also think admits exceptions excusable is legal misunderstanding of criminal law is an important symbol of humanity. In addition, it was not in the act of which is prohibited by the laws and regulations, especially after a circumstance, should have knowledge of richtswitrig actor, constitute the understanding of deliberate point of view, with the attitude of this understanding, of course, that is not the illegality or by the simple statement actor. The author thinks that the only when the legal establishment of may, FangKeZu but . The fact mistakeThat mistake, is to determine its subjective behavior nature and the criminal responsibility of the relevant facts wrong understanding. From the wrong reasons and phenomenon of angles, generally known that there are several mistakes:（1） Object irrtumslehreThe object is known for errors, whether there is objectively error object. It includes actor in the implementation of the existing criminal behavior of the hazards for the object and actually does not exist, or for criminal object and actually does not exist, or infringe a criminal object and actually invaded another crime object. The object of objects is usually known errors caused by mistake, but the object of different social relationship reflects different. Evil doer of objects and actual expected in fact not only harm object does not agree, and in the nature of law is not consistent. Therefore, the object irrtumslehre may affect the form of sin, crime accomplishment, and may even attempted to influence the crime. For example, in view of the circumstances, not a thought before the enemy, and a party came to stick, afterwards just know the ox was wounded. A thought of damage is "people", and the actual wounded is "cow", do not belong to the same laws of the object. Similar situation and will generally be mistaken for drug trafficking items, Actor will stolen items in the theft of guns in stealing together. This object from the subjective errors, see, is a kind of mistake, From the objective, because the mistake crime to no avail, where the criminal attempted ）Object mistakeObjects can be generalized mistake, including object mistake to belong to the object know mistake is inevitable object irrtumslehre. These include, is known to be wrong object of legal property of the same object mistake and legal properties of different objects, namely the object irrtumslehre irrtumslehre. In order to distinguish with the object mistake here, the cognition to the same object only mean error between the different objects, namely the misunderstanding of the evil doer expected objects and actual harm to the object, but not in fact in the legal nature of the same situation. This object mistake again say things on purpose mistake not criminal responsibility. As a reserve, killing b shall be killed as b and c, do not affect a rap. This is the need to consider that a kill b behavior "mistake" cause others (c), belong to an intentional crime (b) "death", for the excess result, according to the results, which determine the ordinary mail of death was deliberately recognized for deliberately, to the death of the fault is propylene, identified as negligence, according to the intention or negligence of the general mark recognized FanYi or state of mind, not applicable rules of the ） Behavior irrtumslehreBehavior mainly includes two kind of mistake: first, the behavior nature irrtumslehre. That actor has to its social harm nature, such as understanding not imaginary defense. Behavior nature mistake might affect the form of sin, and may also affect crime. Second, the behavior tools (methods) irrtumslehre. That person to use when the conduct of tool (methods), which affects not correct understanding of harm results, behavior tools (methods) mistake can affect crime or attempted was founded, also can affect crime or belongs to the incident, a typical for murder on hazardous substances, because the drug failure and failed to kill people, can think method or tools for error doer of consciousness beyond reason not to succeed. And as actor see armour, second coming together, hence shot to play, but can't hit by the party and. Look, this is from the phenomenon of an object, or the final results for the mistake, but this error is based on the fact that the wrong doer identify offender is carefully identify to begin, can think recognize is accurate, errors in ChaWu itself. The solution to this situation, "said", its legal with qualitative and recognize wrong object is consistent, namely directly recognized as an intentional homicide accomplishment. The death of a person is directly intentionally to b, death is the indirect intentional, just for a to b is attempted, accomplished. Additionally, if in daily life because misidentification object and damage of consequences, the crime itself is not just any criminal negligence because of )Causality irrtumslehreCausality mistake, is on his behavior and harmful results of actual connection between errors. Generally include: first, not some harm result, as has happened actor. This generally constitute a crime. Second, has certain harm result, but not for actor or for his behavior is caused, and does not affect crime accomplishment. Third, really happened, the offender is aware of its behavior, but with the actual development between the harm to the process or a mistake, general to punish crime accomplishment. In theory, the offender is not only a crime, but continuous movement, this several continuous action is not a few crime, but a crime. In this sense, doesn't exist on the results of the irrtumslehre and facts mistake and proceduresDomestic scholars in fact know mistakes and errors between the issue legal representative views mainly include:（1）For own behavior whether in law constitutes a crime, criminal or what kind of criminal punishment shall be under the incorrect understanding is legal irrtumslehre for his behavior on the implementation of the incorrect understanding is the fact that mistake,（2）The objectivity of crime is a false understanding of crime, that mistake of objective facts have clear understanding, only to act in the evaluation of existing laws on the concept of law is not correct mistakes。（3）Actor known facts and actual fact don't agree is wrong, the person that judgment and objective law is law of illegal inconsistency ideas basically could in theory and legal irrtumslehre fact distinguish mistakes, it is important to emphasize that：1) With the conviction that the so-called irrelevant, as this mistake to hit each other, the shooting head caused the death of heart, without vision of research into our. 2) Study of the theory of error, error occurs when the purpose, but whether to intentionally resistance, reduce plots affected only the wrong cognition, natural sentencing nor will it into the error theory category. 3) This does not constitute a crime and actor for crime, and for their behavior in the criminal law on the crimes and how to apply for criminal punishment on such specific knowledge error, conviction according to law. Based on this, the author thinks that, at the fact that criminal law is only to know wrong doer of elements to know the so-called objective facts constituents of mistake is the fact that the legal irrtumslehre error refers to the legal action is illegal and the evaluation of the mistake. From the theory of facts and legal irrtumslehre error, but the problem is in the law, criminal elements to the facts and law closely combined circumstances (like some administrative crimes and economic crimes), or is in a fact itself contains certain laws of evaluation content, to distinguish with a mistake is the fact that mistake or legal wrong, is often difficult. If the property of his humanity and obscenity obscenity, administrative rules and regulations, JinYuOu, disrupt public until its precondition of the legitimacy of the public, and legal irrtumslehre facts wrong intertwined, and this is what we distinguish facts and legal irrtumslehre errors will solve the some cases, the defendant should know that because of the lack of knowledge, and not to the behavior of social harmfulness, so that the defendant is not "knowledge they will entail harmful consequences to society, and hope or allows such results" and deliberate crime, the burden of proof is only FanYi prosecution, in addition, prosecution without proof the defendant not normal, but normal mental and spiritual normal presumption defendant directly if the defendant that his spirit is not normal, it shall provide necessary evidence by himself to prove. Thus, the author, on legal irrtumslehre processing, can adopt the presumption of ways to handle. Which country presumption every normal citizens are known, unless the law can put forward defense "advantage prove" above, or the evidence rebut these presumption is established. From the efficiency of lawsuit, said the country is impossible to prove the defendant is known of the law.
在法学本科毕业论文选题方面，以下是一些可能的选题方向供您参考：
题目是法学论文的一个组成部分,可以起吸引读者的作用。下面是我带来的关于法学毕业论文论题的内容，欢迎阅读参考!
1、论法治社会中的人权保障
2、同案不同判的反省与现实出路
3、当代中国案例指导制度的构建与困境
4、论网络舆论监督的法治意义
5、网络舆情对司法公正的影响
6、论法治社会构建中的权利冲突
7、当代中国法治社会构建中的公权力定位
8、网络监督与司法公正
9、能动司法的意义及其局限
10、法制现代化中的问题及其解决
11、司法体制改革的困境与出路
12、网络时代的法治秩序建构
13、审判方式改革与司法独立
14、和谐社会的法治标准
15、当代中国法律职业共同体建构的意义与问题
16、社会主义法治理念的实践价值及其培育
17、论法的正义价值
18、论法治的社会基础
19、论法的自由价值
20、论法律解释的必要性及其局限
1. 论法官有限自由裁量权的意义及其局限
2. 论当代中国法律实施中的文化阻碍及其克服
3. 当代中国司法实践中法律论证的应用
4. 论法律解释的原则
5. 论司法裁判中法律原则的功能
6. 当代中国法治进程的困惑与出路
7. 论当代中国法治社会中习惯法的价值
8. 论网络时代的司法监督
9. 论中国法律文化传统中的合理因素及其当代价值
10. 论法律权利与人权的关系
11. 论和谐社会构建中的法与道德关系
12. 论法律原则的生成与实践价值
13. 公民文化与法治社会的构建
14. 论当代中国公民法律信仰的培育
15. 论法治国家的公民社会基础
16. 当代中国法治国家构建中法与道德关系的重新审视
17. 论当代中国法治发展中的传统文化优势与阻碍
18. 论中国传统法律文化中的和谐精神
19. 和谐社会构建背景中的权利与义务的关系
20. 转型中国的法治秩序建构与困境
1、中国奴隶制法制特点研究
2、成文法的公布及其对中国法律发展的意义
3、秦律研究
4、汉律研究
5、“文景之治”与汉代的刑制改革
6、唐律研究
7、白居易判词研究
8、宋代司法审判制度研究
9、明大诰研究
10、中国古代清官现象研究
11、清代少数民族立法研究
12、清代法制对中国资本主义萌芽的扼杀
13、中国死刑制度的发展演变研究
14、领事裁判权制度研究
15、清末变法改制研究
16、太平天国法律制度研究
17、中国古代法官自由裁量问题研究
18、国民党六法全书评析
19、东北解放区土地立法问题研究
20、黑龙江流域金代法制研究
法学 毕业 论文的选题至关重要，题目在一定程度上会影响到毕业论文的质量。那关于法学的毕业论文的题目有哪些呢?下面是我带来的关于法学论文题目的内容，欢迎阅读参考! 法学论文题目(一) 1. 权利质权的客体范围研究 2. 权利质权公示问题研究 3. 留置权与同时履行抗辩权的制度比较 论留置权的取得 4. 论担保物权竞合的处理规则 5. 我国民法对占有保护的完善 6. 占有效力研究 7. 论房屋与土地一体处分原则 8. 论债的特征 9. 论债的发生原因 10. 论附随义务 11. 论不真正义务 12. 论先合同义务 13. 论后合同义务 14. 论债的客体 15. 论单独行为 16. 论情势变更原则 17. 论债的适当履行原则 18. 连带之债基本理论研究 19. 债权人代位权的构成要件研究 法学论文题目(二) 1. 论定金合同 2. 论反担保 3. 论债权让与的成立条件 4. 论债权让与的法律效力 5. 应收帐款转让的法律问题研究 6. 债务承担中的法律问题研究 7. 债权让与中的第三人保护问题探讨 8. 论债的清偿 9. 论债的抵销 10. 论我国债的提存制度之立法完善 11. 论债的免除 12. 民法中的混同问题探究 13. 对要式合同书面形式法律效力的探讨 14. 论第三人利益合同 15. 非典型合同理论初探 16. 论要约(相关其他选题：论承诺、约因理论借鉴问题之思考) 17. 合同缔结过程中的若干法律问题探讨 18. 合同条款的理论问题探究 19. 合同格式条款的法律问题研究 20. 论合同解释的原则 法学论文题目(三) 1. 论继续性合同中的同时履行抗辩权行使 2. 论不安抗辩权与预期违约 3. 论不安抗辩权的成立条件与法律效果 4. 完善我国合同解除制度的思考 5. 论合同的法定解除权 6. 合同解除与合同撤销的差别辨析 7. 论缔约过失责任 8. 论违约责任的归责原则 9. 违约行为的类型化研究 10. 论合同免责条款 11. 论违约责任的免责事由 12. 论强制实际履行与其他违约责任的并用和排斥 13. 违约精神损害赔偿的理论思考 14. 论违约损害赔偿中的合理预见规则 15. 论减损规则适用中的法律问题 16. 论损益相抵规则的适用 猜你喜欢： 1. 法学毕业论文标题 2. 法学毕业论文题目大全 3. 法学毕业论文题目 4. 有关法学毕业论文题目 5. 法学专业毕业论文题目 6. 法学论文参考题目
现各高职院教都开设思想道德修养与法律基础课程,实践证明,法律基础知识的教学重要性日益突出。下面是我为大家整理的法律基础小论文，供大家参考。
摘要：案例教学法是法律课堂常用的教学形式。所谓的案例教学法就是通过对现实案例的解读，让学生充分理解 法律知识 。案例教学法充分结合了现实情况，考虑到了多方面的联系，将法律基础知识运用到了极致。本文深入解读了如何在法律基础课中充分发挥案例教学法的作用。
关键词：案例教学法 法律基础知识 应用 教学活动
随着社会的进步，法律不断得以完善，在各个方面都基本实现了有法可依。在法律基础知识的教学活动中，教师应注重对法律基础知识的利用，而不是单纯的进行知识讲解。学生通过案例教学的方式可以对知识的具体利用一个有清晰的认识，从而将法律条文转化为解决实际问题的依据，做到活学活用。本文将案例教学法在法律基础知识课堂中的运用进行了深入分析，希望可以为教学实践提供帮助。
一、 案例教学对法律基础知识学习的作用
案例教学是开展法律基础知识教学离不开的一种教学方式。法律基础知识是客观固定的，是在国家长期发展过程中形成的，具有一定的稳定性。然而，现实生活中一个案例往往会涉及到多个法律知识，那么如何合理地运用知识解决现实中的问题，就成为了学习法律基础知识的关键性问题。案例教学正好补充法律知识运用的空白，给了学生运用法律基础知识的空间。
案例教学法是在案例的基础上。结合教学知识点所开展的教学活动。教师和学生针对案件的具体情况，会做出自己的评析，并从法律知识层面进行深入解读。案例教学法可以为学生法律知识起到良好的促进作用。首先，让学生摆脱了枯燥的单纯法律知识的学习，切实体会到法律知识的作用;其次，学生从案例中学到了法律知识的具体运用，提高了学生素质;最后，案例将法律知识与现实情况联系到了一起，锻炼了学生分析处理法律事件的能力。
二、 案例教学法选取案例的基本条件
在开展法律基础知识教学的过程中，教师应根据学生对法律的了解以及教材的安排，确定具体案例的选择。总的来说，案例不可随便从电视栏目或是新闻中选取，而应按照教学要求进行法律知识的普及。案例教学法中所选择的案例需要满足以下几个条件：第一，符合教学大纲要求。法律基础知识课程是按照教学要求开展的，所有的教学内容都应符合教学大纲的要求，对于参考价值不高的案例应及时摒弃，以免耽误时间。第二，内容较为单一，针对性强。教师选择的案例内容不能过于复杂，以免给学生的学习带来压力，应将一些难度适中、易于分析并且涉及知识点较为单一的案例选进来，保证教学的质量。第三，具有启发意义。教师选择的案例应具备启发性，有利于学生的自主学习。学生在课堂上学习的不仅仅是案例本身，还需要根据案例进行独立自主的思考。因此，对案例的选择需要格外重视，要减少由于选择不当而造成的教学效果下降。
三、 案例教学法的具体运用
案例教学法是教师讲授法律基础知识的关键 方法 ，也是直接影响教学效果的教学活动。教师和学生应重视案例教学在整个教学活动中的作用，从案例中积极学习、快速掌握法律知识的具体运用。在教学活动中，可以采用以下教学形式开展案例教学活动。
(一)在课堂教学中加入案例视频分析
有关法律知识的课堂教学占据了学生学习法律知识的绝大部分时间，同时也占据着学生的精力。案例教学应充分利用课堂时间，将理论知识的教学与案例分析结合起来。这样不仅可以使学生更加充分的理解法律知识，还可以增强课堂的趣味性，丰富课堂内容，调动学生的积极性。在课堂上播放案例视频的方式简单、迅速、省时，优势十分明显。教师在对视频案例进行分析的时候，学生可以放开思路，积极思考，进行多维层面的知识拓宽。这个过程对学生的学习有着极大帮助。
(二)采用适当的方式接入案例
每一个案例与教材知识都存在着差异，没有为教学活动而特地发生的案例。因此，教师应采用适当的方式将案例接入课堂，否则，将起不到运用案例教学法开展教学的目的。教师可以采用课前导入的方式或是课堂讨论的方式，带动学生的听课兴趣，诱发学生积极思考，为法律知识的传授打下良好的基础。案例导入的方式不同所起到的作用也不同，由此，教师应重视自己对案例使用时间和时机的把握，争取将案例的作用发挥到最大，使学生在案例学习中可以充分理解法律基础知识并形成完整的系统，以帮助其顺利解决现实问题。
(三)组织室外活动，深入 社会实践
案例的来源比较宽泛，可以是电视栏目中的内容，也可以是开庭审理的实录。除此之外，教师还应开展室外活动，带领学生进入社会实践，比如法庭旁听和模拟法庭。从这些活动中，学生会体会到法律制度的完善性，增强法律意识，做一名合格的守法公民。室外活动增加了学生的学习乐趣，使他们认识到了法律对实际生活的意义。
(四)多种教学形式并用，发挥各自长处
案例教学法并不是唯一的教学方式。这种方式也存在着一定的缺点，需要用其他的方式进行弥补。教师应充分运用不同的方法，发挥出不同方式的优势，进行优势互补，以达到良好的教学效果。案例教学法与其他的教学方式并不是对立的，教师在开展教学活动的过程中，不能认为案例教学法是最重要的教学形式，而应正确地看待其作用，从课堂教学的需要出发，避免造成课堂时间的浪费，从而影响最终的教学效果。
四、结语
案例教学可以快速提高学生对法律基础知识的理解能力和运用能力。学生从案例教学活动中可以认识到法律基础知识运用与理论之间的差别，认识到法律基础知识的具体利用方式。同时，案例教学法也存在着一定的弊端，教师和学生应认识到这种方式的短处，利用其他教学方式进行补充，以便达到教学大纲要求。
参考文献：
[1]王山林.案例教学法在政治课教学中的运用[J].中学政治教学参考，2003(Z2).
[2]郑金洲编著.案例教学指南[M].上海：华东师范大学出版社，2000.
[3]高其才编著.法律基础[M].北京：清华大学出版社，2007.
摘要：知识产权专业教学中，由于需要突出知识产权专业知识、知识产权 管理知识 等知识的教学，因而压缩了普通法律知识的教学的课时，造成学生法律知识学习缺乏系统性。在对法律知识进行类型化的基础上，区分不同的法律知识，突出教学重点，可以有效地解决这一难题。
关键词：知识类型化;法律思维;知识产权;教学
中图分类号：G4
文献标识码：A
文章 编号：16723198(2015)17016302
1问题的提出
在知识产权专业的课程设置中，法律类的课程无疑占了较大的比例;并且，在我国的学科分类体系中，知识产权本身也被分在了法学项下。然而，现实中知识产权专业却与法学专业有着一定的不同：通常知识产权专业招生的对象为理科生，就业方向偏重于专利代理人等方向，学生除了法学知识以外，还要开始一些非法学课程，如管理学、机械制图等;而就法学课程的开设本身而言，知识产权专业因其专业特性，通常要突出“知识产权”的学科属性，因而会增加知识产权相关专业的比重，对于专利、商标、著作权等往往单独开设课程。这种情况会使得知识产权专业法学课程的比重相对降低，有些专业的法律核心课程不再开设：如《宪法》、《国际法》、《国际经济法》、《国际私法》、《中国法制史》，有些法律课程会某种程度上“缩水”，如《经济法》仅开设《竞争法》等等。开设课程与课时量的有限，在一定程度上使知识产权专业的学生，在法律知识学习方面不如其他法律专业学生那么系统化。但就现实需求而言，社会作为需求方，需要的仍然是受过系统法律训练的知识产权专业学生，并不会考虑知识产权专业开课时课时量的有限性。这就对于知识产权专业的法律课程教学提出了新的要求，如何在有限的时间内使学生受到更为专业、系统而有效的法律专业培训?
结合笔者多年来作为学生参与法律课程学习，作为编辑参与法律教材编辑、参与法律教材编写，以及作为教师进行法律专业课程讲授的 经验 ，笔者认为，在有限的时间内做到更为有效地传达法律知识，需要对现有的法学 教育 体系进行更为深入的研究与剖析，提炼其更为有效的部分，删除或者简略讲述一些冗余部分，方能达到事半功倍的效果。
目前法学教材的编写，多着眼于一种学科的整体叙事，例如，一个学科是如何产生、如何发展，等等，有哪些整体叙事所需要的原则，有哪些基础概念，哪些基础规则，等等。事实上，各学科的教材之间一定程度上缺乏必要的勾连，如“法律关系”“法律行为”这种基础概念，在法理、民法课上讲授，但不一定能贯穿到行政法等课程中去。同一套教材中，有时甚至会出现不同分册基于不同的学科立场，出现编排知识的重叠、冲突，以及一些知识的遗漏等等。而现在高校的教学又往往是某一学科由专门的老师负责，一个教师通常不会去深入了解其他学科的课堂给学生讲授了些什么，不同的学科之间呈现各自为战的情况。如果每个教师仅着眼于本课程的教材对学生进行讲授，则两种情况难以避免：不同课程之间的知识缺乏配合与衔接，知识出现重叠或冲突;各学科基于本学科立场的知识过多，加大了教学负担。
2现代法学教材中的三种知识
基于这种现实，笔者以为，需要对于各学科的法律知识进行一种整体上的评估，在此基础上对相关的法学知识进行通盘的考虑，以培育学生准入法律共同体以及掌握相关法律实务技巧为目标，重新考量不同课程中哪些知识需要向学生讲授、不同的知识如何向学生讲授，以及不同的课程如何相互配合形成一个整体的法学知识体系。
在这种背景下，笔者以为首先要区分法学教材里的三种不同的知识：法律知识、法史知识与比较法知识、法哲学知识。上述三种不同的法学知识往往被参杂在一起共同构成了法学教材的内容，但这三种知识其实是不同的知识，并且对于培养学生的法律实务能力有着不同的意义。
法哲学方面的知识主要是一种对于法律整体性理解的知识，如法律到底是什么?法律在本土维度如何界定?我们应该如何看待法律?法律现象要体认哪些价值完成哪些社会功能?等等，上述知识其实并不仅仅体现在法理学中，其他部门法多少也会有些涉及，如民法如何自我定位，等等。这类知识严格意义上都属于法哲学方面的知识。这种知识对于学生整体上认知法律现象会有一定的帮助，但需注意：这些知识往往存在着很多分歧，如关于法律的概念，不同的法理学派认知差异很大;对于什么是知识产权，学界其实也不存在完整意义上的通说。因此，法哲学知识本身存在很大的不确定性。并且，法哲学知识本身与法律实务之间的关系不大，因而陈卫东等教授甚至曾经建议在司法考试中取消法理学的部分。而对于普通的本科生教学而言，法哲学的知识产权对于进行法律研究意义非常重大，但对于培养学生的法律实务能力意义有限，因而在教学体系中，教师应该有所区分，对于多数学生，可以缩减法哲学的授课内容，并且保证法哲学方面的授课保证在相关知识已有共识的基础上。当然，对于培养学生最基础的法律认知、法律方法等方面的法哲学知识，依然需要重点向学生讲授，当然这种讲授不是帮助学生提升对法现象更为深刻的认知，而是帮助学生学习其他部门法知识做有益的铺垫。目前有的高校法理学被划分为法学导论、法理学两门课程，事实上法学导论课程就担负着上述铺垫的功能。
法史以及比较法方面的知识通常出现在各部门法的教材中。一般的部门法学科都会对自己的学科史进行一个回顾，建构本学科的一个延续的叙事。同时会将其与该部门法相关他国家的对应法律制度纳入进来。法学教材的这种书写方式其实是为了建构独立的部门法叙事，使一个部门法形成内在的特有的知识谱系。但是，需注意，法史的知识以及比较法知识，都不是现行有效的国家实定法，如果学生不能有效地从部门法叙事中区分出这两种知识，误以为这两种知识本身是有效的本国实定法知识，反而无助于学生实务能力的培育，甚至会潜在地削弱法治所必须的法律人尊重本国现行实定法的伦理要求。因此，首先需明确，法史知识与比较法知识对于法学学科建设有意义，但对于法律实践意义不大，并且在中国现实语境中，这些知识都只是描述性的，而不具备法律上的规范性;因而可缩减这类知识的讲授比例;同时，在讲授时，需要教师着重提醒学生这类知识并不是我国生效的实定法知识，本身不能作为生效的法律规则而援引，以免给学生不必要的误导。 相比上述法哲学知识、法史与比较法知识，真正的法律知识应是基于国家实定法的一天阐释体系。这种知识是面向实践的，是学生应该重点学习的。下文将对这类知识进行进一步的剖析。
3对于法律知识的类型化
如笔者上文所言，相对于法哲学知识、法史与比较法知识而言，法律知识的传授才是我们本科法学教学的重点。而如果跨过学科的藩篱对于法律知识进行具体剖析，则可以发现事实上存在三种不同层面的法律知识。
第一个层面是经验描述层面。这个层面的法律知识是最基础的，包括实定法文本知识，以及法教义学所提炼的概念、规则、原则等法律三要素，同时还包括由规则组成的制度。这些知识是法科学生学习法律的基础。对于这种知识的学习，主要靠的是学生的记忆。而教师则需要从实践运用的需要出发，对众多的实定法文本知识进行鉴别分类。对于最基础最重要在实践中最常用的知识，应该要求学生准确记忆;对于一些在实践中有可能用到，但运用频率相对较低的知识，则需要学生熟悉、了解，避免可能的错误理解即可;而对于那些在实践中运用频率较少的知识，则需要学生大致了解一下知识的基本脉络，例如什么样的法律文本在做相应的规定，碰到类似问题应该到按照什么样的方向检索知识，即可。而不必一味地强求学生记忆所有的实定法文本。
第二个层面的知识是实践运用层面的知识。单一的经验描述层面的知识，还不足以使一个学生具备运用法律知识解决法律问题的能力。这种情况下，实践运用层面的知识就显得非常必要，只有具备了这种知识，学生才能够说真正具备了法律实务方面的“技能”。在具体而言，在法律的实践运作中，三种技能非常重要。其一是事实认定方面的技能，具体而言又包括两种技能：阅读事实材料，从中发现相关的法律意义;寻找相关的证据，为自己的法律主张辩护。只有具备了上述两种技能，一个法务工作人员才能有效地将生活事实与法律规范勾连起来，从而使法律适用于相关事实。其二是以法解释学为基础的法律方法。法律文本通常本身并不一定具有确定的规范意义，尤其是对个案的规范意义，这就需要解释技巧、推理技巧，从客观的文本中去发现有关于个案的意义，从分散的条文中去 总结 完整的法律规整。因此，几种主要的解释技巧以及基础的逻辑推理方式的培训，对于法科学生同样不可或缺。其三是查找法律的方法。如上所述，法科学生无法也没必要机械记忆所有的条文知识，在这种情况下，遇到具体个案时，去查找检索法律的能力就非常重要了。只要学生能够有效运用各种工具查找到相应的法律条文，即便他不能准确记忆这些条文，他仍旧能够较好地运用相关法律知识处理问题。
第三个层面的知识是思辨层面的。这种知识往往伴随着一些法律学科的主流的价值观念。这种知识虽不直接面向实践，但却往往作为法律共同体理解法律条文的共同前见而在场，因而学生也有必要学习一些这方面的知识。另外，思辨层面的知识对于培育学生的自主思维能力，养成独立思考、批判性思维等作为大学生乃至作为研究者非常重要的思维习惯，从而实现学生素质上的提升，也是非常必要的。
4以知识类型化为基础的知识产权教学
结合到具体的知识产权专业法学教学，上述三个层面的知识，对于学生而言，第一个层面的知识显然是基础，也是目前教学的重点，但笔者以为，对于这种记忆性的知识，没有必要投入过多的教学时间，尤其是现代检索手段已经非常发达，没必要让学生死记硬背所有的文本知识。更多的应是了解即可。第二个层面的知识其实对于学生的学习非常必要，但却恰恰是教学中容易忽视的。笔者认为，可在法理、民法等相应课程中有意识地加入一些法律技能培养方面的能力，对学生进行更多法律技能方面的训练。至于第三个层面，对于以研究为学习目标的学生非常重要，但对一般学生，其意义限于培养法律人共同的思维前见。因而对于这类知识的传授可针对不同的学生分别进行，做到因材施教。
参考文献
[1]葛云松.法学教育的理想[J].中外法学，2014，(2).
法律是一种不断完善的实践，虽然可能因其缺陷而失效，甚至根本失效，但它绝不是一种荒.唐的玩笑。下文是我为大家搜集整理的关于法律论文 范文 精选的内容，欢迎大家阅读参考!
浅析法律 文化 对新型法制化建设的影响
摘要:
我国自改革开放以来，法制建设越来越为学界与社会所重视。在探索如何在中国法制建设的道路存在多方面的观点与争论。法律具有民族特性，是民族的共同意识。发掘传统法律文化在现代法制建设中的意义，能有效地促进法制的完善与发展，形成具有特色的、完善的中华法系。
关键词:
传统;法律文化;法制建设
在发展社会主义市场经济的大背景和“依法治国”方针国策的指导下，中国的法制建设的重要性日益显现。但是，依法治国，从这个源于西方的治国理念传入我国并且应用到实践当中的成效来看，比起西方来说，我们不得不承认在此落后于西方的尴尬局面。著名的德国历史法学派法学家弗里德里希•卡尔•冯•萨维尼认为法律就像语言、风俗一样，具有“民族特性”，是“民族的共同意识”，“世世代代不可分割的有机联系”，它“随着民族的成长而成长”。中国新型法制建设面对着越加开放的社会主义市场经济环境下西 方法 律文化的冲击和中国传统法律文化的影响，面对这些问题，我们应当如何取舍，何去何从?对此，我们不得不承认一个亊实，中国今天正在使用的一整套法律制度以及法律职业群体的分类，是几乎全部从西方发达国家借鉴和移植过来的。所以，它们基本上不属于我们传统法律文化的组成部分。法制从一定程度上来说是源于西方的“舶来品”，而这与以封闭的小农经济、政治的专制统治和以家庭为中心的宗法关系为基础的的中国传统法律文化在某种程度上来说甚至是格格不入的。
一、从法律的起源和用途来看
在我国的传统法制文化中，法只是一种统治和刑罚的工具。自奴隶社会时期便有“天讨”、“天罚”的神权法思想出现;而司法也主要依靠于“鬼神”、“神兽”等，并且主要应用于宗教和政治、军事活动。我国古代法的基础是“礼”和“刑”，追求的是维护血缘统治关系和等级制度。①而这却令人民对法产生畏惧和排斥，甚至是厌恶。而并不像西方法律文化中的古希腊法和古罗马法，是奴隶制的商品经济关系下，契约式的人权和民主。
二、从法律的发展来看
在我国的传统法制文化中，儒家学派逐渐成为被统治者推崇、主导社会的思想体系，中华民族精神在本质上是“儒”的体现。②首先是受儒家推崇的“人治”传统。儒家主张具有贤德礼义理想主义下的人来统治整个国家，这在中国传统法律文化体现的便是权力大于法律和专制统治的长期延续。法律的正当性来自于统治者手中权力的赋予，权力凌驾于法律之上，把法视为政治的一部分。而这种思想至今仍有深刻的影响，正是由于这种根深蒂固的潜在意识，把法看成是统治者手中的政治工具或者是打击报复的惩罚手段。从近现代中国的历史实践中我们可以看到，小到一个刑亊案件的法官因为民众的舆论和关注便匆匆给一个案件下结论，大到对权力、特定人物的盲目崇拜和对民主、宪政与分权排斥的思想。而在西方法律文化中，早在古希腊、古罗马时期就形成了早期的民主制度，出现了以亚里士多德、柏拉图为代表的主张民主与法治的学者;到近代，洛克、孟德斯鸠、卢梭等对现代世界法制建设影响巨大的“鼻祖”级的人物，均来自于西方。
其次是受儒家文化推崇的“礼”与“德”。
在西方法律文化中，官僚政治受法律调节，但在中国法律并不独立，法律从属于道德，为行政服务，也成为稳定社会秩序，巩固统治的制度。所谓“德礼为政教之本”③，法只是一种辅助的手段和教条式的工具，这导致长期以来法律不能得到人们的有效重视和信仰。中国传统法律文化中，强调对礼义的追求，提倡纲常伦理。正如费正清先生在《美国与中国》所言，在以家庭为单位的重农主义的社会中，“人的价值并不像西方所认为的那样是每个人所固有的品质，而是需要从外界获得的。一个人的行为好坏主要应看它对社会福利、安定与是否有贡献来判断，个人本身也是不受赞扬的，因此中国所存在的一种政治传统即为家长式的控制。”④这种影响是巨大的。一方面，这导致“人情”、“等级”和“面子”成为中国传统法律文化中的重要因子。
而这对我国当今法制建设的影响，是极其不利的。近年来“打官司就是打关系”、“一纸司考不如有个叫李刚的爹”等一些言论从侧面体现出，我们的社会建立在一种错综复杂的关系网上，而在此当中，作为一个独立个体的地位和尊严所体现出的价值越发的小，心甘情愿也好被迫无奈也好，只有屈从和扎入这一张张类似等级制度的大网才能实现利益的最大化，从而进一步的导致在某些司法当中“以亊实为依据，以法律为准绳”这一原则的陷落和法律本身公信力的下降。另一方面，在此基础上一旦少了等级和家庭的一定程度的约束，对社会规则的漠视就很可能导致侵权行为的发生，受侵害的客体既可能是公共利益也可能是私利，而这与法制建设中，人们对法律这种社会公共规则的敬畏和自觉的遵守的目标是截然相反的。
崇尚“以和为贵”、“天人合一”的儒家思想，这种基础下，造就了不管是在统治者还是人民，还是立法、司法中都存在的“无讼”的价值取向。再加上“重狱轻讼”的诉讼制度，这使得自古以来人民的权利意识淡薄。人民没有用法律来保护自己的权利的意愿和倾向，当权利受到侵害时却向权力寻求救济(而这通常是非法的)，或是干脆选择忍气吞声。目前我国当下“主流”的观点类似于“先中体西用，再逐步过渡到西体中用”的文化价值取向。但是新型法制建设的要求与中国传统法律文化的要求显然是冲突激烈的，在“中体”思想的引领下依然是无法摆脱人治和人情关系的窠臼的，而这将是法制建设的致命伤。那么这是否意味着我们要全盘否定抛弃中国传统法律文化呢?这显然是不行的。那么在新型法制化建设的浪潮中我们应当如何取舍，中国传统法律文化实现自己的“华丽转身?”一是坚决破除中国传统法律文化中不利于进步的部分，弘扬吸收西方的先进法律精神。可以大胆的说，中国传统法律文化中大部分是不利于法制建设的，而造成这种问题的原因当然有方方面面，但在当今世界市场经济的大势下，这不仅是我国发展的要求，更是一种不可逆的趋势。
二是制度改革和完善。
制度的不完善更是为权力的滥用和腐败煽风点火。不能让“党”的头衔成为某些不法分子的“免罪金牌”和特权标志。对于作为执政党队伍，对其违法行为更应当透明的依法处置。”减少权对立法、司法的干预，重视宪法的地位，逐步建立违宪审查机制(宪法虽然是充满政治意识形态的产物，但是对于违反宪法的必须采取得到法律的制裁和追究，否则宪法将沦为一种形式主义的文字)，加强对权力的监督，使得立法、司法、行政三者相互独立又互相牵制。不仅是立法、司法制度面，作为行政的执政党，也应当加强自身的建设。这是破除等级和特权势力风气的关键，使得法治得到真正保障的关键。三是文化大环境的建设和 教育 的改革。我国没有西方深厚的__宗教的传统，这正是一个很好的基础;所以，要培养大众对法律的信仰，把法律作为自己的“宗教信仰”，减少政治和意识形态在文化和教育中的影响，提高公民的权利意识，提倡多样化的文化，同时又要适当的运用中国传统法律道德的教化作用，把“无讼”最为发展的最终目标而不是过程。从文化教育入手，加强法制的教育，是一种广泛的必要的保障。
培根说过，“对于一切亊物，尤其是艰难的亊物，人们不应期望播种与收获同时进行，为了使它们逐渐成熟，必须有一个培育的过程。”中国传统法律文化的影响是不可能消失的，中国的法制化建设必然是一个漫长而复杂的过程，但在这个过程中，我们需要的不仅是眼光和视野，更需要的是决心和毅力。我们必须站在整个人类发展的历史 经验 和当今时代发展的趋势下，既要大胆的吸收和借鉴西方先进的法律文明，又要理性的对中国传统法律文化进行取舍，真正从权力社会走向文明的法治社会。
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