charcoal论文范文

wooden spoon A wooden spoon is a long-handled spoon usually used in food preparation.Today, wooden spoons in western cultures are generally large spoons used for mixing ingredients for cooking or baking.Before electric mixers became common, wooden spoons were often used to cream butter and sugar in recipes such as shortbread or Victoria sponge cake. They are still used for stirring many different kinds of food and beverages especially soups and casseroles during preparation, although they tend to absorb strong smells such as onion and garlic. Some cooks prefer to use wooden spoons when preparing risotto because they do not transfer heat as much as metal spoons. Unlike metal spoons, they can be safely used without scratching the bottom of the saucepan.knifeA knife is a sharp-edged (single or double edged) instrument consisting of a thin blade used for cutting and fitted with a handle. The knife can be used as a tool or a weapon. Considered by some to be one of the most useful tools of all time, its origins date as far back as two-and-a-half million years ago, as evidenced by the Olduwan tools.Materials and constructionToday, knives come in many forms but can be categorized between two different types: fixed blade knives and folding, or pocket, knives. Although each has inherent advantages, the two have many similar characteristics.Modern knives consist of a blade and handle. The blade can be fine or serrated. The handle, used to grip and manipulate the blade safely, may include the tang, a portion of the blade that extends into the handle. The blade consists of the point, the end of the knife used for piercing, the edge, the cutting surface of the knife extending from the point to the heel, the grind, the cross-section shape of the blade, the spine, the top, thicker portion of the blade, the fuller, the groove added to lighten the blade, and the bolster, the thick portion of the blade joining the blade and the handle. The guard is a barrier between the blade and the handle which protects the hand from an opponent, or the blade of the knife itself. A choil, where the blade is unsharpened and possibly indented as it meets the handle, may be used to prevent scratches to the handle when sharpening or as a forward-finger grip. The end of the handle, or butt, may allow a lanyard, used to secure the knife to the wrist.GrillingThere are multiple varieties of grills, with most falling into one of two categories: gas-fueled and charcoal. There is a great debate over the merits of charcoal or gas for use as the cooking method between grillers.Grilling is a pervasive tradition in the United States. There are many cook-offs for steak grilling and barbecue (midwestern and southern style) around the United States with serious cash prizes involved in most. Almost all competition grillers use charcoal, most often in large, custom designed brick or steel grills. They can range from a few 55 gallon oil drums sawed lengthwise on their sides to make a lid and grill base, to large, vehicle sized grills made of brick, weighing nearly a ton.不可能的，在侍一遍

英汉翻译中的选词技巧摘要:选词正确与否直接决定着翻译作品的好坏。选词,即选取意义择取单词,既关系到原文理解中词义的辨识和确定,也包括翻译表达中的词语的选择。相对而言,原文词语的理解更为重要。关键词:翻译技巧;选词;翻译技巧,即翻译方法,能使具有概括性、指导性、基础性的翻译原理具体化、条理化、实施化,利用各种翻译转换法准确、完整传达话语信息。它着重解决的是具体翻译转换上技术、技艺、艺术上的问题。翻译理论专着或教材中对技巧的处理一般按两条线索分别或结合进行归纳:一是按原语的词类、句型等语法范畴及惯用法系列等,梳理翻译表达的技巧、方法;另一是按对原文信息、形式进行翻译表达的方法,而在分合、增减、反正、顺逆、去留存变、直译形神等辨证关系上,对翻译手法进行分类。翻译是科学又是艺术,对于技巧,理论着作、教材不能囊括翻译实践中的所有情况,具体问题还须具体分析,翻译者不但要灵活运用已有的技巧,而且要善于创造新的技巧,以使译文传意达旨,形神兼备。选词,即选义择词,贯穿于整个翻译的实际操作过程之中。这里的“词”指表达某一实体或整体性概念的单词、词组和短语。“选义”是由人类语言的一词多义现象决定的。任何一种发展完备的人类语言,其中的大部分词汇都是一词多义。例如单词charge: 动词含义有两个,在科技英语的环境下是“充电”,而在日常生活中是“索取(费用)”。名词通常是“电流”的含义。该如何措辞则要看具体语境了。此外,英语中有一些名词,同时有两个形容词,比如名词sun,它的形容词可以是sunny,也可以是solar,这里就有个辨义和确定词义的问题。另外,语言使用中还普遍存在着多词一义的现象,即同一意思对应不同的词语。在英语里,一词多义是非常常见的,这与英语的多源生有关。现代英语中不仅有许多词汇是从古英语演变而来,还有约80%的词汇从外国输入的,经过历史变迁,这些词汇并存和融合,使英语一词多义,一义多词的现象特别普遍。因此译者除了具有辨义这项本领外,还要具备“择词”这方面的技巧。无论是“选义”,还是“择词”,都离不开具体的语境。英国翻译理论家纽马克说,没有词是完全孤立的(No word is an island entire to itself.),词的意义必然受到前后相邻词句的影响。我国学者王佐良先生也说,上下文不只是语言问题,说话是一种社会行为,上下文实际上是提供了一个社会场合或情境,正是它决定了词义。他还指出,一个词不仅有直接的、表面的、字典上的意义,还有内涵的、情感的、牵涉许多联想的意义;一个词的意义有时不是从本身看得很清楚的,而要通过整篇整段--亦即通过这个词在不同情境下的多次再现--才能确定。香港译界有句名言:词无定译,说的就是同一个词在不同的语境中可能有不同的翻译。从词语与语境的关系看,有些词基本不受语境影响(context-free),如意义相对固定单一的专有名词、科技术语、数量词等;有些词则受语境制约(context-bound),如那些含有感情色彩、价值判断且意义极为丰富的普通名词、形容词、动词、副词等。对于这些词语,先利用各种手段确定其意,然后恰当措辞表达。下面介绍几种确定词义的方法。一.根据上下文和汉语习惯搭配来确定词义长句、难句、复杂句,句句难懂,这是大家都非常清楚的一点。如何看懂句子,而又不失精准的把译文写出来成了迫在眉睫的任务。 首先,我们都知道:在动手翻译之前,必须要把英语原文看懂。理解原文是整个翻译过程的第一步。这是最关键、也是最容易出问题的一步。以下我们通过考研英语翻译实例来具体讲解在理解原文的前提下如何根据上下文确定词义:A.意群拆分确定词义:e.g. “In short”, a leader of the new school contends, “the scientific revolution, as we call it, was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in innumerable directions.” (1994-72) 本句可以分四个意群来确定词义:第一个意群:in short简言之school学派contend 坚持认为,争辩,讨论第二个意群:the scientific revolution 科学革命(不可译为“科技革命”)as we call it所谓的第三个意群:largely 在很大程度上a series of一系列instruments器具、仪器第四个意群:expand拓展reach影响范围innumerable无数的、数不清的direction方面e.g. Social science is that branch of intellectual enquiry which seeks to study humans and their endeavors in the same reasoned, orderly, systematic, and dispassionate manner that natural scientists use for the study of natural phenomena.(2003-62)本句可以分三个意群来确定词义。第一个意群:social science社会科学 branch分支intellectual enquiry知识探索第二个意群:seek力图reasoned理性的dispassionate冷静的,客观的in…manner以…方式第三个意群:natural scientist自然科学家在英译汉部分,确定词义可以说是最难的。前面所说的agree,很多人只会翻译成“同意”,而不知道根据上下文翻译成“认为”,这就是一个教训。B.词语搭配构成词组小语境,可以藉此确定相互间的意义:1) express the idea:表达e.g. He cannot express his ideas clearly in speaking.2) advocate the idea:鼓吹、维护e.g. This organization advocated Hitler’s Nazi ideas.3) borrow the idea:借用、抄袭e.g. This idea was borrowed from the West.4) spread the idea:传播e.g. Democratic ideas are being spread throughout the world.5) deepen the impression:(加深)e.g. He did that to deepen the impression that he was generous.6) exercise/use the influence:使用e.g. He promised to use his influence to get me a job.7) have the influence:具有e.g. This movie has an adverse influence on teenagers.8) exert the influence:施加e.g.…you are expected to exert positive influence on your fellow schoolmates.二、通过语篇语境确定词义翻译过程中,语篇不论是对原文的理解还是对译文的构建都起着非常重要的作用。由于语篇是最基本的翻译单位,译者应该予以足够的重视。合格的译者不仅要具备语篇分析的能力,还必须首先具备语篇意识。所谓语篇意识就是要求译者将语篇看作一个整体,而不局限于词、短语、句子,从语篇整体把握原文、理解原文、再现译文。e.g. The man, who, in old age, can see his life in this way, will not suffer from the fear of death, since the things he cares for will continue. And if, with the decay of vitality, weariness increases, the thought of rest will be not unwelcome. I should wish to die while still at work, knowing that others will carry on what I can no longer do (B. Russell).译文:上了年纪而能这样看待生活的人就不会遭受怕死的痛苦,因为他所关怀的事物将继续下去。同时,如果精力衰竭了,疲乏增加了,休息的思想并非是要不得的。我倒愿意工作不息,死而后已,因为我知道别人会继续我未完成的事业(《新概念英语》第4册)。如果只看到划线的这一句话,译文似乎没什么可挑剔。但是,如果考虑一下上下文,将整个句群看作一个整体,我们会发现译文与前文与后文都不相呼应。因为原文第一句“The man who, in old age, can see his life in this way, will not suffer from the fear of death”与最后一句“I should wish to die while still at work”都表明整篇的主题是死亡问题,“rest”的含义是“长眠”而非“休息”,但划线部分的译文却与“死亡”无关。而且,这里的“rest”是一种委婉的说法,表示死亡的这类委婉语还有很多,如“silence”、“sleep”、“quietus”等,如果原文用的是“silence”,难道应该将其译为“沉默的思想并非是要不得的”?显然,产生这一问题的根本原因就是不顾文章的整体性,孤立地“理解”部分语句,忽略了篇章整体信息的参与。划线部分的合理译文应该是:而且,如果随着精力的衰竭,疲倦之感日渐增加,长眠并非是不受欢迎的念头。 杨绛先生在她的文章《记钱钟书与〈围城〉》中,多处用到了“痴气”及与“痴”相关的词组,来描绘钱种书先生异于常人的脾性,在不同语境下其意多有不同。凌原先生,根据具体情况选用不同的英语词汇来翻译“痴气”及相关词组,请看以下诸例:1) 钟书写完《围城》,“痴气”依然旺盛,但是没有体现为第二部小说。After Chung-shu finished writing Fortress Besieged, his “eccentric” bent was still going strong, but it failed to take form in a second novel.2) 我觉得《围城》里的人物和情节,都凭他那股子痴气,呵成了真人真事。It was those charming mischievous quirks of his that made it possible for him to create the characters and plots for the novel and pass them off as real people and real deeds.3) “高兴”也正是钱家所谓“痴气”的表现。“Being funny” was another manifestation of his puckish bent in the eyes of the Ch’iens.4) 钟书的“痴气”也怪别致的。Chung-shu’s sweet quirkiness is peculiarly his own.5) 沦陷在上海的时候,他多余的“痴气”往往发泄在叔父的小儿小女、孙儿孙女和自己的女儿阿圆身上。When he was stranded in Shanghai, he would take out his pent-up eccentric energy on Younger Uncle’s small children, grand children and Ah Yuan, his own daughter…三、通过常识判断确定词义常识(common sense / general knowledge about the world around us)人人有,而且常识愈丰富对翻译理解愈有用。很多老翻译家如吕淑湘、傅雷、杨宪益都强调翻译需要“杂学”。我想,这“杂学”可以看作是比较“高级”的常识吧。请看下面一段关于铜质保温瓶结构的描述:---Another type is a double-walled copper vessel with the corresponding surface scrupulously cleaned to achieve the high intrinsic reflectivity of copper. A body of charcoal absorbent may be affixed to the outer wall of the fluid container, where it is kept cold and helps to condense any gases remaining in the vacuum space after it is evacuated and sealed off.某译文:另一种类型是有双壁的铜容器,其相应表面洁净无疵以获得铜所固有的高反射率。在流体容器的外壁可以粘着一层木炭吸附剂,它保持着低温并在容器抽空和密封后帮助冷凝残留在真空空间的气味。此句的翻译关键在于两个it的意思。根据上面的译文,两个it都指fluid container。这显然不对。从原文看,fluid container明显指铜质保温瓶盛装液体的内胆,而内胆怎么能抽空呢?根据生活常识,保温瓶中要抽空的是内外夹层之间的夹套,即原文中的the vacuum space,因此第二个it应指the vacuum space。再举一个简单一点的例子:She could knit when she was seven.。句中的knit,其基本意思是“编织”,但译文不能只说“织”或“编织”,必须把动词的宾语补上,因为汉语里说“她七岁时就会(编)织”显得不够自然。那么“织”什么呢?根据我们的生活经历,一般是织毛衣,而不是织麻袋什么的,因此原句可译为“她七岁时就会织毛衣”。常识也包括一些很简单的科普知识。如果科技知识为大众所共有,那就是利用科学背景知识来确定词义。四、利用背景知识确定词义理解一个词有时需要从文本以外去寻找相关信息,如上面的常识判断。在科学翻译中,时常需要运用自然科学或社会科学或其他领域的背景知识来确定词义。如: ---Velocity changes if either the speed or direction changes.velocity 和speed都可表示“速度”,前者具专技色彩,一般用于科技文献,后者语域较宽,可用于科技或日常生活领域。如果将velocity 和speed都理解为“速度”,原文表述将失去意义,因此这里velocity 和speed中必有一个词表示其他意义。物理学告诉我们,速率是矢量,有大小又有方向,而速度是标量,有大小而没有方向。据此,velocity是速度,因为原文语境信息暗示它有方向(direction),speed是速率。这样确定词义后原句可译为:”如果(物体运动的)速率和方向有一个发生变化,则物体的运动速度也随之发生变化。”五、利用逻辑判断和推理确定词义在翻译实践中我们还可以利用逻辑学的有关知识,如矛盾律等来确定词义。如:---Automobiles and trucks would be powered by quickly replaceable electric batteries.某译文:汽车和卡车则可以迅速替换的电池组作动力……译文乍一看似乎没有问题,可是从逻辑的角度仔细思考,我们会发现,“汽车”和“卡车”两个概念是蕴涵与被蕴涵的从属关系,即“卡车”包含在“汽车”之中。“汽车”是属概念,“卡车”是种概念。译文犯了种属概念并列的逻辑错误。因此,必有一词的理解出了问题。查词典,Automobiles除了作“汽车”讲外,还可作“轿车”解。“轿车”与“卡车”是对立概念,可以并列。再看一类似的例子:---It caused devastation by burrowing and by devouring the herbage which might have maintained millions of sheep and cattle.它们在地下打洞,吞食掉本来可以维持数百万只牛羊的牧草,从而造成了破坏。原文中的cattle有“牲畜”和“牛”二义,这里因与“羊”(sheep)对置,根据种属概念不能并列的逻辑规则,cattle只能作“牛”解。王宗炎先生说,辨义为翻译之本。只有正确地理解原文的每一个字词,才能保证翻译的准确性。当然,正确的理解只是正确翻译的前提,要做到表达的贴切与自然,还需要较高的译入语水平。参考文献[1]王泉水,1991,科技英语翻译技巧[M],天津科学技术出版社.[2]吴景荣、程镇球,2000,新时代汉英大词典[M],北京:商务印书馆.[3]赵振才,1986(3),科技英语翻译与逻辑[J],中国翻译.[4] Newmark, Peter, 1993, About Translation, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

This experiment take asparagus off icinalis Linn the flower bud as a material, uses theparaffin wax 切片法 movie-making, observedasparagus off icinalis Linn the floweredmedicine dissection structure, the comparative analysis asparagus off icinalis Linn flower bud exterior shape characteristic as well as the paraffinsection observation, obtains between the two to correspond therelations; Take asparagus off icinalis Linn the flowered medicine as the material,carries on the flowered medicine raise to obtain suits asparagus off icinalis Linn theflowered medicine raise induction culture medium, the split up culturemedium and the raise condition and obtains the pollen adult plant;Carry on the peroxide enzyme same labor enzyme electricity byasparagus off icinalis Linn the regeneration adult plant and the cultivation adult plantto swim the distinction regeneration adult plant's sex, its resultindicated. 1.asparagus off icinalis Linn the flower bud transverse cutting delivers in person thebutterfly the shape, separates, the constitution by themedicine. including , flowered medicine wall twoparts. The colored medicine wall initial period often stores themassive matter. When the colored medicine is mature, the cell radialdirection expands, stores the matter to vanish, besides to thewall, has the multi- strip slanting longitudinal stripe shapecellulose the center fabric cell isbigger, the initial period but starts for the single nucleus in thepollen mother cell to reduce time the fission, forms orpolynuclear. struggles generation surprised toadmirefresh emperor S slanting postscript Song respectfully? 2. different growth times asparagus off icinalis Linn flower bud material exterior shapecharacteristic as well as between the flowered medicine interiorcytology characteristic, obtains between the two to correspond therelations. When flower bud length 1.5-2mm the flowered medicine is inthe single nucleus to keep to the side the time. 3. Most suits asparagus off icinalis Linn the flowered medicine raise hormonecombination is 1.0 mg/L 6-BA coordinates 2.0 mg/LNAA is56.0%. The split up culture medium is as the basic culture mediumattaches 6-BA1.0 mg/L, NAA0.2 mg/L take MS, the most high score rateis 60%. 4. The sucrose for suitablly took asparagus off icinalis Linn in the flowered medicineraise , it is suitable the density is 3%. In the culture mediumsuitably joins the activated charcoal, is advantageous to thedifferentiation rate induction and the differentiation. Most issuitable the density is: 0.5%. 5. asparagus off icinalis Linn in the flowered medicine raise, best sends the rootsquaring method is straight receives 0.3mm the stem point tovaccinate, 6-BA, NAA, IBA, and in KT coordination use culture medium.Most is suitable asparagus off icinalis Linn regenerates Miao Fagen the culture mediumis: MS+ 6-BA 0.05 mg/L +NAA 0.04 mg/L+IBA1 mg/L+KT 0.4mg/L. 6. asparagus off icinalis Linn the peroxide enzyme same labor enzyme electricity swimsthe result, the is more corresponding than female few enzymebelt. Through swims the enzyme belt with the cultivation adult plantperoxide enzyme same labor enzyme electricity to compare, may displaytemper fromasparagus off icinalis Linn the regeneration adult plant's peroxide enzymeenzyme belt distinction leaves.