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A 160-YEAR TRADITIONSince 1857, The Atlantic has been challenging assumptions and pursuing  WHO WE AREAs we reflect on our past and look toward the future—in a world where ideologically narrow or simple answers are less adequate, and can even be more destructive, than ever—we decided to put to words a handful of ideas we thought represented authentic guiding commitments for us and to our Look for the truth above looking for a We know great storytelling is part of great But honest reporting and analysis, and the integrity they represent, are what matter most to us, even if their pursuit requires giving up on an alluring Continue to explore rather than imagining we’ve Certainty can be comforting, but it can also get in the way of For us, the end of every story or argument should be the beginning of a conversation, and the end of every conversation the beginning of another—or even another story or Go beyond what happens to what We see it as part of our job to help keep our audience up-to-date on the most important news and current events across the United States and around the But the bigger part of our job is to work out—through reporting, argument, and debate—what that news means now, and what it could mean for the Embrace a diversity of No story is ever complete, no argument is ever perfect, and debates worth having tend to shift and turn more than they So we can never rely on a single point of view, or even on a “balance” of Important ideas, observations, points, and counterpoints can come from anywhere—from across the political spectrum—so we have to look everywhere for Immerse ourselves, and our audience, in the world—instead of escaping from People are connected today in ways they’ve never been before, through established media, new media, social media, or But these kinds of connection have also balkanized, filtered, alienated, and inspired retreat—into private concerns, into entertainment, into ideological comfort zones, and so We want to connect with the world by fully engaging with it, and with people who see it differently from how others see Our hope is that these commitments orient us in a way that not only is genuine for The Atlantic, but that helps us be as meaningful as possible to you in your life, and as good a force as possible for the world around WHERE WE COME FROMWhen the founders of The Atlantic gathered in Boston in the spring of 1857, they wanted to create a magazine that would be indispensable for the kind of reader who was deeply engaged with the most consequential issues of the The men and women who created this magazine had an overarching, prophetic vision—they were fierce opponents of slavery—but they were also moved to overcome what they saw as the limits of partisanship, believing that the free exchange of ideas across ideological lines was crucial to the great American Their goal was to publish the most urgent essays, the most vital literature; they wanted to pursue truth and disrupt consensus without regard for party or  Here is the mission statement published in the very first issue of The Atlantic, in November 1857, and signed by many of the greats of American letters, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Nathaniel Hawthorne:First: In Literature, to leave no province unrepresented, so that while each number will contain articles of an abstract and permanent value, it will also be found that the healthy appetite of the mind for entertainment in its various forms of Narrative, Wit, and Humor, will not go uncared The publishers wish to say, also, that while native writers will receive the most solid encouragement, and will be mainly relied on to fill the pages of The Atlantic, they will not hesitate to draw from the foreign sources at their command, as occasion may require, relying rather on the competency of an author to treat a particular subject, than on any other claim In this way they hope to make their Periodical welcome wherever the English tongue is spoken or Second: In the term Art they intend to include the whole domain of aesthetics, and hope gradually to make this critical department a true and fearless representative of Art, in all its various branches, without any regard to prejudice, whether personal or national, or to private considerations of what kind Third: In Politics, The Atlantic will be the organ of no party or clique, but will honestly endeavor to be the exponent of what its conductors believe to be the American It will deal frankly with persons and with parties, endeavoring always to keep in view that moral element which transcends all persons and parties, and which alone makes the basis of a true and lasting national It will not rank itself with any sect of anties, but with that body of men which is in favor of Freedom, National Progress, and Honor, whether public or In studying this original mission statement, we came to understand that its themes are The core principles of the founders are core principles for us: reason should always guide opinion; ideas have consequences, sometimes world-historical consequences; the knowledge we have about the world is partial and provisional, and subject to analysis, scrutiny, and MILESTONESFEBRUARY 1862Julia Ward Howe’s “Battle Hymn of the Republic” makes its first public appearance, on the front page of The AAPRIL 1862Ralph Waldo Emerson, in “American Civilization,” calls for the emancipation of slaves, and praises President Abraham Lincoln for his principled moves in that APRIL 1870Anna Harriette Leonowens publishes “English Governess at the Siamese Court,” her memoir of her time in Siam, which is later fictionalized by Margaret Landon as Anna and the King of Siam—and, in 1951, turned into the hit musical The King and IAUGUST 1897W E B Du Bois, in “The Strivings of the Negro People,” introduces his idea of the African American's experience of “double consciousness,” setting in motion a conversation on race and identity that continues AUGUST 1897In the same issue, John Muir argues passionately, in “The American Forests,”  for the central role federal government must play in the preservation of nature, later inspiring President Theodore Roosevelt to establish the National Park SAUGUST 1915The magazine publishes “The Road Not Taken,” which Robert Frost had given to then-editor Ellery Sedgwick as a handwritten AUGUST 1932Far ahead of her time, Helen Keller, in the form of humorous Depression-era business advice-giving, encourages more men to do housework in “Put Your Husband in the K”JULY 1945In “As We May Think,” Vannevar Bush writes one of the most influential think pieces in modern technological history, offering the first vision of what would decades later become hypertext—a building block of email and the World Wide WAPRIL 1963The Atlantic publishes Martin Luther King J’s “Letter From Birmingham Jail,” then titled “The Negro Is Your Brother,” for the first time nationally, a document that would serve as one of the defining texts of the civil-rights MARCH 1982James Q Wilson and George L Kelling publish “Broken Windows,” which would go on to—for better and for worse, some might argue—define the next three decades of criminology, and continues to remain influential, and hotly debated, SEPTEMBER 1990Bernard Lewis writes his hallmark essay, “The Roots of Muslim Rage,” presaging the rise of Islamic NOVEMBER 2002With uncanny prescience, and against the tide of much popular opinion, James Fallows projects, in “The Fifty-First State?”—published six months before the start of the Iraq War—that “the day after a war ended, Iraq would become America’s ”JULY/AUGUST 2013Anne-Marie Slaughter reframes the gender-and-work debate with “Why Women Still Can’t Have It All,” arguing that true equality entails sweeping policy JUNE 2014In “The Case for Reparations,” Ta-Nehisi Coates argues that America must “reckon” with its “compounding moral debts,” sparking international debate on how governments and citizens should confront systemic injustice, both past and MARCH 2015Graeme Wood, in “What ISIS Really Wants,” offers a sweeping, in-depth analysis of the terrorist organization’s motivations and worldview, and his arguments find their way into both the White House and popular

Landscape Architecture是国际通用的学科代名词，国内对它已经不再陌生。但是，从一些英汉词典、城规和建筑与园林等专业期刊和译著、国家发布的科技名词等出版物中出现的Landscape Architecture一词来看，对该名词术语的理解与翻译却存在较大差异与分歧，译名就有造园学、景观建筑学、风景建筑学、景园建筑学、园林建筑学、风景园林学、园林学等，有的词典甚至列出了“造园林建筑艺术”这样令人困惑的译名。Landscape Architecture作为该学科国际通用的名词术语，在刚进入国内时出现众多的不同译法是可以理解的，但是，如果长期处于这种混乱之中，则对该学科的发展和交流是毫无益处的。实际上，关于科技名词术语的统一问题早己引起了重视。国家1985年成立了全国自然科学名词审定委员会，该委员会的林学名词审定委员会已于1989年颁布了《林学名词》(1989)作为行业规范名词，其中园林学词条的英文名称就多为Landscape Architecture。尽管颁布已近十年，这种规定性与权威性并没有显现出来，混乱仍然存在。 关于科技名词术语的翻译，大多数情况下可以按字面含义来理解，例如Park Design就可以译为“公园设计”。但是，有些词不能仅从字面上去理解，还要看所指的对象与所含的内容，翻译上还应注意通俗性以及与国内相应学科术语的对等性。就象Naval Architecture(造船学)一样，如果按字面直译为海洋或航海建筑学，就会让人丈二和尚摸不头脑。为了较好地理解与翻译Landscape Architecture，本文将对该词的产生、专业渊源、专业内容和学科位等方面做些初步的探讨。 1 Landscape Architecture一词的形成 Landscape Architecture作为学科名词术语，其产生可以追溯到十九世纪中叶美国的早期园林实践活动，尤其是城市公园运动对该专业的形成起到了推波助澜的作用。尽管此时整个园林的中心仍在欧洲，特别是十八至十九世纪的英国自然风景园(Landscape garden)对美国园林界的影响很大，传统专业术语Landscape Gardening和Landscape gardener仍然广泛应用。但是，由于面向市民的城市公园较之传统的庭园或庄园，通常用地规模大、环境条件复杂、对城市意义重大，这就促使在社会、政策、环境及技术等众多方面更为综合的规划理论的形成，同时欧洲传统的名称术语受到了挑战。在Landscape Architecture成为学科名词之前，首先出现的是职业称谓Landscape architect。该名称的出现与被称为美国园林之父的园林设计师奥姆斯特德(Frederick L．Olmsted)及其合作的建筑师弗克斯(Calvert Yaux)有关。约1860年，当时的纽约市街委会委员爱立奥特(Henry H．Elliot)在给纽约市议会的一封信中提到了纽约中央公园(Central Park)的设计师奥姆斯特德和弗克斯被委任为“landscape architects and designers”。根据研究奥氏的学者贝弗里奇(C．E．Beveridge)和舒勒(D．Schuyler)的研究，这是最早用“Landscape architects”来称呼奥姆斯特德和弗克斯所从事的设计工作。由于在纽约中央公园设计与建设过程中遇到了种种压力和障碍，奥姆斯特德和弗克斯于1863年5月联名给纽约公园委员会写了一封信，信中落款使用的“Landscape architects”据称是该职业名称首次正式出现在官方文档之中。奥姆斯特德本人对该称谓并不十分满意，希望能有更合适的名称来代替，相反，到是身为建筑师的弗克斯(C．Vaux)对此兴趣很浓。同时代的很多园林设计师并不是很乐意接受这种称呼，有一部分仍然称其为Landsape gardener，例如科恩(M．Kem)、斯塔其(A．Strauch)等。克里夫兰(H．W．C1eveland)也主要沿用旧称，偶尔用landscape architect。法兰德(B。J．FaITand)尽管做为美国园林师协会(ASLA)开创者之一，但也一直称自己为landscape gardener。直到二十世纪仍有相当一部分设计师使用landscape gardenero另外一部分设计师则更倾向于landscape designer或landscape engineer。 关于Landscape Architecture一词的出处，也有“一些争议。《牛津英语词典》(增补卷)中引例最早的是《瑞布顿造园艺术》中的一段文字(1840)。美国学者普雷基尔与沃克曼(P．Pregill and N．Volkmao)则在《园林史》中认为Landscape Architecture一词最早出现在1828年一本关于风景画的书名中，不过该书指的是风景环境中的建筑，主要与绘画题材有关。实际上在园林文献中最早较正式使用Landscape Architecture作为行业术语的当推当时著名设计师克里夫兰(Horace W．Cleveland)的著作《Landscape Architecture as Applied to the Wants of the west》(1870)。 关于用Landscape Architecture作为学科名词，伴随着该词的产生就充满着争议。奥姆斯特德对用Landscape Architecture作为学科名词既感到不满意，也感到十分困惑。他在给弗克斯的一封信中认为：Landscape不很恰当，Architecture也不合适，两者组合在一起同样不恰当，而Gardening却更糟。由于当时没有人面对新的环境与实践提出更恰当的名称，虽然Landscape Gardening当时仍然是较盛行的术语，但是Landscape Architecture一词也逐渐使用与流行起来。1899年美国园林师协会(ASLA，American Society of landscape Architecture)成立，1900年哈佛大学率先开设了Landscape Architecture专业方向，随后马塞诸塞大学(1902)、康耐尔大学(1904)、伊利诺意斯大学(1907)，20年代又有加州伯克莱分校(1913)、依屋华州立大学(1914)、俄亥俄州立大学(1915)、威斯康星大学(1915)、剑桥学院(1916)等也相继成立了园林专业。这些较早设立的专业通常放在农学院中(college of agriculture)，仍然沿用传统的“Landscape Gardening”或“landscape Design”为专业名称。由此可见，Landscape Architecture和Landscape Architect被业内人士普遍接受是经过了相当长的一段时间的。1948年国际园林师联盟(IFLA，International Federation of Landscape Architects)成立，Landscape Architecture和landscape architect成为本学科通用的名称与术语也逐渐为世人所接受。2 Landscape Architecture与Landscape Gardening的渊源关系 在近年美国园林师协会(ASLA)介绍美国Landscape Architecture专业的小册子中，英国自然风景园的代表布朗(L Brown)和法国凡尔赛宫苑的设计师勒·诺特尔(AL Notre)被认为是在奥姆斯特德(F．L．Olmsted)之前该职业最伟大的设计师；巴比伦的悬空园被认为是最早的例子。尽管美国Landscape Architecture在学科上有了长足发展，但是，追寻其根源，发现其仍然深深留着庭园的胎印，是西欧园林在美国新大陆的延续和拓展。 十九世纪的美国仍然与欧洲文化有着千丝万缕的联系，美国园林界仍然主要以学习西欧，特别是学习在自然风景园方面已形成独特风格的英国为主。作为对文艺复兴以后英国与欧洲大陆盛行的规则对称庭园风格的反叛，以自然风景与风景绘画为蓝本的自然风景园首先在英国兴起。早期的设计师布里奇曼(C．Bridgeman)和肯特(W．Kent)的庭园设计已出现自然曲折的倾向，布朗(LBrown)和瑞布顿(H．RePton)将 自然风景园推向了高潮。这种园林形式后来传人美国，唐宁(Andrew J．Downing)、奥姆斯特德(F．L．Olmsted)、强生(JJensen)等在美国掀起了学习热潮。作为美国园林发展史上的重要人物之一，唐宁将英国重要园林师瑞布顿等人的设计思想应用到美国乡村庄园园林设计之中。根据瑞布顿的设计原则，他用树木、灌木与花草将园地规戈lj分成不同的空间，这一做法对美国早期园林实践产生了很大影响。奥姆斯特德通过拉斯金(JRMslin)的著述了解了英国的风景绘画艺术，并仔细地研究了英国一些著名风景画家和园林设计师的作品与设计。同时。他也造访过英国，对英国公园十分熟悉。从他设计的纽约中央公园等一大批作品中都不难发现英国自然风景园的精神。因此，无论是称为landscape gardener的唐宁(A．J．Downing)，还是称为Landscape architect的奥姆斯特德(F．L．Olmsted)及其后继者，都深受英国自然风景园林的影响。他们开创的业绩在美国园林发展史中占据着重要位置，特别是被誉为美国园林之父的奥姆斯特德对整个美国园林的影响是持久而深远的；他们留给后代的遗产，既是美国园林发展的基础，又是美国园林与西欧园林传统的纽带。英国园林学者普雷斯(R．A．Preece)在谈到Landscape Architecture定义时认为，从一个专业所主要关心的内容中就能够了解到一个专业的范围性质及发展方向，他认为Landscape Architecture是唯一将主要职责放在改善室外空间(outdoor space)质量之中的专业。美国园林设计大师海尔普林早在60年代就对Landscape Architecture的专业性质与方向做过精辟的论述：园林学主要的兴趣在开放空间(open space)及其相关的领域，并且强调这些空间设计的意义、重要性和可用性。在不同专业对于空间的态度上做了进一步论述，他认为：建筑师常将开放空间仅仅视为建筑的前后院、市政工程师多将开放空间与排水或道路线型联系在一起，城市规划师往往将开放空间看做复杂的城市织体中毫无区别的一块块绿地(Green swatches)，对他们而言，开放空间本身并不重要。言辞也许有些过激，但是从总体上讲，只有园林设计师才会真正因为开放空间本身而关注开放空间。 由美国威斯康星大学堤谢尔(William H．Tishler)教授任主编，40多位著名专家学者合力编著的《American Landscape Architecture：Designers and Places》(1989)一书介绍了美国园林发展史上有代表性的设计师和所涉及的主要专业活动领域，这些领域基本覆盖了美国园林实践的范围，包括： 1．Campuses 校园环境 2．Cemeteries 公墓地 3．City Planning 城市规划 4．Country Estates 乡村庄园 5．Gardens 庭园 6．Historic Landscapes 传统园林 7．Housing Environments 居住环境 8．Institutional and Corporate Landscape 企事业单位园林 9．Landscape Planning 景观规划 10．Landscape 自然风景 11．MetroPolitan 0pen Space 大城市开放空间 12．National Forests 国家森林 13．National Parks 国家公园 14．New Towns and Planned Communities 新城与规划社区 15．Parkways 风景车道 16．Recreational Areas 娱乐区 17．Restored Natural landscape 自然景观恢复 18．State Parks 州立公园 19．Streetscapes，Squares and Plazas 街景与广场 20．Urban Parks 城市公园 21．Water fronts 滨水 从以上所列内容不难看出，绝大部分内容与国内园林专业从事的实践工作相同或性质相似。另外，再从近些年美国园林师协会(ASLA)年度奖项来看，获奖作品虽然涉及面广，但核心内容仍然与国内园林专业相同。例如颁布给建成25年以上设计的经典奖(Classic Award)近年有：韦雅海色公司总部外部环境设计(1998)、洛山基市墨弗雕塑园(1997)、福特黑尔学院校园环境设计(1993)、多耐尔住宅庭园(1992)等；颁给当今实践的优秀奖(Award of Excellence)有1998年度的墨西哥工业城阿圭斯林特斯城柴达座公园(Parque El Cedazo)、1996年度的加拿大多伦多市约克村公园和1995年度美国国家公园局保护助理处的历史园林保护计划等。而自1990年以来该协会颁布的荣誉设计奖(Design Honor)包括各类公园、各种单位的外部环境设计、道路环境设计等，其中公园设计和企事业、公共建筑、俱乐部等单位外部环境设计占了所有奖项的80％。

Global Environment Change，影响因子9，很高吧，可以一试，