中西方对美食研究论文

中俄饮食文化差异论文

随着历史的发展,人类的进步,每一个民族都形成了自己独特的语言与文化。不同的民族之间在很多方面都存在着差异，下面为大家来探讨一下中俄饮食文化差异，欢迎阅读！

摘要 中国人常说：“民以食为天”，可见饮食在人们心中占据多么重要的位置。饮食文化是民族文化的重要组成部分，随着中俄两国在政治、经济、文化等领域交流的不断加强，饮食自然而然成为交流的重要环节。了解、尊重彼此的饮食文化能够减少交际过程中的摩擦与障碍使交流更加顺利的进行。

关键词饮食中俄文化

中国的饮食文化历史悠久、博大精深。中国人注重菜品的精致和丰富，注重菜的色、香、形、味，追求感观享受和审美价值。在中国一道菜便可诠释出一种文化理念和内涵。中国的鲁、川、粤、淮四大菜系正是凭借着高超的烹任艺术和地域特色而闻名于世。俄罗斯在饮食理念上，则较注重理性的观念，同中国相比他们不注重菜肴的色、香、形、味，而是注重健康与搭配的合理性。看似粗犷的俄罗斯饮食背后极好的诠释了俄罗斯人朴实的生活方式与豪爽的民族性格。

一、中俄两国“饮文化”对比

1、中俄酒文化对比

我国的酒文化源远流长，在中国人看来很多无法通过语言表达的东西比如亲情、友情、爱情等等都可以用酒来代替。白酒在我国的酒文化中占据重要的地位，在世界上也是独树一帜的。我们中国人在喝酒的时候很喜欢劝酒，比如“感情深，一口闷”、“感情浅，舔一舔”。适度的劝酒被看做是一种对待客人的礼貌行为也是显示我们热情好客的一种方式。俄罗斯的伏特加一词起源于水，因此人们赋予伏特加“生命之水”一说。俄罗斯大部分地区处于高纬度，气候寒冷，环境恶劣。俄罗斯人用酒来取暖，抵抗严寒。伏特加在俄罗斯已不单单是一种酒类而是俄罗斯民族品格象征，俄罗斯人喝酒豪迈、大方，他们喝酒时尊重对方的想法从不劝酒。伏特加就如同俄罗斯人一般具有水一样的外形，火一样的内心。

2、中俄茶文化对比

中国是茶文化的故乡，中国人自古以来便有饮茶的习惯。在中国人看来茶既有健身、治疾之疗效又富欣赏情趣，可陶冶情操。品茶、待客是中国人高雅的娱乐和社交活动，中国茶艺在世界享有盛誉。中国茶文化的历史及其发展，不仅仅是一种简单的饮食文化更是映射出一个具有上下五千年历史的民族的精神特质。俄罗斯的茶文化历史并不长，直到十八世纪茶叶才在普通百姓中传播开来，在此之前只有皇宫贵族才有幸饮用这种饮品。俄罗斯人喜爱喝茶并逐步创造出属于自己的独特茶文化。俄罗斯人喝茶喜欢味道相对较重的红茶，再配以砂糖、方糖、巧克力、牛奶等用茶炊引用，糖和茶在俄罗斯人看来是密不可分的，用以饮茶的茶炊也是匠心独具，精美绝伦的。

二、中俄两国“食文化”对比

1、食具的异同

在饮食的`餐具方面，俄语论文，中俄两国异同很多，众所周知，中国人用筷子夹菜，用汤匙喝汤、用碗盛饭。筷子的下方为圆形，上方为方形这其中蕴含着中国人天圆地方的理念显示出来中国人极高的智慧，而俄罗斯人用盘子装菜，用刀叉吃牛排、喝汤则用专门的汤匙。他们使用的是刀叉，其正确的摆放位置为叉子放在盘碟的左边，刀和羹匙放在右边酒杯要放在盘碟的前边。在进餐的时候应该是左叉右刀。除了刀叉之外，也有碟、盘、杯等等，但是较之我们的要单一得多。筷子和刀叉作为中俄两国最具特点的两种餐具反映出中俄两国不同的价值观，审美情趣，民族心理。

2、菜肴的异同

有人将俄罗斯的菜肴概括为"五大领袖、四大金刚、三剑客"。五大领袖为：面包、牛奶、奶酪、土豆、香肠。四大金刚为：圆白菜、胡萝卜、甜菜、圆葱。三剑客为：鱼子酱、伏特加、黑面包。这些几乎囊括了俄罗斯烹饪文化中所有主要食材，虽然单一，但贵在俄罗斯人民将这些仅有的平常单一的食材创造出无数美味的佳肴。俄罗斯的汤类非常之多有鱼汤、清鸡汤、肉杂拌汤以及红菜汤、蘑菇汤、奶汤和水果汤等等。其中，俄罗斯人非常爱喝红菜汤，它也被称之为罗宋汤。俄罗斯面包甚至早在解放前就已传入中国，中国人将其称为"大列巴"，并对麦香充裕的大列巴情有独钟。俄罗斯人还喜欢味道浓重的食物。他们以面食为主，鱼子酱、酸牛奶、咖啡等是俄罗斯人餐桌上必不可少的。这种简单却又不失变化的饮食折射出了俄罗斯人的简单豪爽的真性情。

中国人的饮食历来以食材之广泛、烹饪技术之精致闻名于世。南北朝时，梁武帝的厨师，一个瓜能变出十种式样，一个菜能做出几十种味道，烹饪技术的高超令人惊奇。鲁、川、苏、粤四大菜系形成的历史较早，后来浙、闽、湘、徽等地方菜也逐渐出名，就形成了我国的八大菜系。饮食在中国不仅仅是为了解渴充饥，这其中更蕴含着中国人认识世界的哲理。比如过年时吃饺子、鱼、年糕等，其实都是“醉翁之意不在酒”，饮食文化早已超越饮食本身，中国人是借助吃这种形式表达一种丰富的心里内涵与深刻的社会意义。

3、餐桌礼仪的异同

在中国博大的饮食文化发展历史进程中同样有无数的规矩与礼节，中国为礼仪之邦，阶级明确，等级分明。甚至饮食礼节都是世界上最为繁琐的国家，从座次到著名的中国酒文化，在中国的餐桌礼仪中都有淋漓尽致的体现。中国人喜欢聚食，中国餐桌上的热闹与西方餐桌上的安静形成鲜明对比，这也是中国人重视血缘关系和家庭观念在饮食方式上的反映。中国人在餐桌上会频频给客人布菜夹菜，这也是中国人热情好客的一种表现形式。俄罗斯人进餐时不能说笑，不能发出很难听的声音，要注意保持自己的绅士风度，不可失去礼节。俄罗斯崇尚自由，对自我十分尊重，俄语论文范文，因此人们不会做强人所难的事情，在吃饭的时候可以自己随意选择喜欢的菜肴，他们不会硬往你的碗里夹菜，如果你吃饱了，你可以示意一下，他们也不会劝你再吃。

关于任何一个国家和民族来说，饮食文化都是其文化不可或缺的组成部分。中俄饮食文化的异同不单单是饮食的不同，而是从历史、文化、性格、地理位置甚至气候条件等各个不同的方面从而产生的或复杂或单一的饮食习惯。随着两国跨文化交流的不断增强，两国的饮食文化也在不断地互补与兼容。了解彼此的餐饮文化对促进两国的交流与友谊很有必要。

摘要：随着时代的发展，世界各国的文化交流越来越频繁，了解和掌握不同地区、不同民族的文化，正确把握与各民族的人际交往尺度，克服因文化差异和礼仪差异带来的障碍，熟悉和掌握不同文化背景下的餐桌礼仪，就可以做到待人接物恰到好处，与他们的交流更加深入，否则就会在交往中感到手足无措，乃至失礼于人，闹出笑话。本文将从饮食、餐具使用、就餐氛围及餐桌话语等方面对俄汉民族餐桌礼仪进行比较，以便在跨文化交际中能恰当地、得体地进行交际。

关键词：中国;俄罗斯;饮食;民族传统;俄汉民族

俄罗斯的饮食习惯，是在人们长期劳动和社会生活积淀中形成的。俄罗斯民族是在保留本民族传统的基础上，吸引外国饮食文化的精华，在融合和借鉴中不断完善自己的饮食结构，并把自己的优势发扬光大。俄罗斯对过去有着“光明的”记忆，同时又注意向西方学习，或许正是这种扬弃的态度才使俄罗斯的古老美食流传至今吧。

以汉族为代表中国饮食文化拥有万千余年的悠久历史，具有鲜明的民族特色。不同国家不同民族由于地域差异的原因，其餐桌礼仪和风俗习惯也千差万别。了解和尊重不同民族文化，掌握不同文化背景下人们的餐桌礼仪，对我们进行文化交际有很大帮助。

一、中俄饮食文化的相同点

（一）茶文化

俄罗斯人和中国人一样都喜欢喝茶，俄罗斯的饮茶，可以追溯到17世纪中叶，它见证了中俄文化交流的源远流长。中国是茶的故乡，也是茶文化的发祥地，俄罗斯的茶就是从中国传入的。[来自印度、格鲁吉亚等国家的红茶（чёрныйчай），也有来自中国昂贵的绿茶（зелёныйчай），俄罗斯人更偏重饮花茶（цветочныйчай）如茉莉花茶（жасминныйчай）。根据俄罗斯人的饮食习惯，喝茶一定要配一些食物，特别是甜食，如果酱（варенье）、蜂蜜（мёд）饼干（печенье）、糖果（конфеты）或蛋糕（торт）。中国是茶的故乡，也是茶文化的发祥地，俄罗斯的茶就是从中国传入的。

（二）酒文化

中国有句俗话“无酒不成席”，在俄罗斯也一样。俄罗斯人嗜酒，众所周知。俄罗斯人喝伏特加要豪放得多，哪怕是满满一大杯也“一口闷”。与俄罗斯人喝酒谈话，要坦诚相见，不能在背后谈论第三者，更不能说他们小气之类的言语。俄罗斯人的整个进餐过程都可有伏特加（водка）佐餐，饭后有时还喝香槟酒。伏特加和克瓦斯（квас）在俄罗斯人的饮食习俗中占有特殊的地位。可以认为，它们分别是俄罗斯“国饮”酒和饮料的代名词。饮伏特加酒，对俄罗斯人来说恐怕是生活中最大的乐趣之一。婚丧嫁娶、生日喜庆、家人团聚、朋友相约等，都少不了伏特加。俄罗斯的一般家庭比较体面的待客方式是先倒一杯伏特加，在端上一小盘鱼子酱、黄瓜与番茄，然后是一道熏鱼与灌装豌豆，在端上一块自烤的蛋糕，自始至终以伏特加为佐餐。除了喝酒以外，俄罗斯人也特别爱饮一种叫“克瓦斯”的清凉饮料。克瓦斯是俄罗斯民间最古老的发酵饮料，多以麦芽、面包屑或果汁为原料制作而成。俄式克瓦斯一般分为面包克瓦斯（хлебныйквас）和果汁克瓦斯（квасизфруктовогосока）两大类。

二、中俄饮食文化的差异

（一）饮茶习惯

从饮茶习惯看，中国人喜欢喝绿茶，俄罗斯人则喜爱红茶。[

俄罗斯人喝茶与中国人喝茶大有不同，中国人喝茶喜欢慢饮，而俄罗斯人喜欢一饮而尽。

（二）饮食区别

俄罗斯人的祖先是游牧民族，他们吃肉喝奶，没有主、副食之分。面包是俄罗斯人最钟爱的主食，尤其是蒜味面包更是他们至爱。面包分为白面包和黑面包，俄罗斯人偏爱黑面包（燕麦面包）。面包和盐是俄罗斯人迎接客人的最尊贵的礼物。往往是主人双手托着盘子，上面铺着一块漂亮的绣花巾，正中放一个大圆面包，面包上是一个盐罐（солонка）。这象征着主人的殷勤好客。中国人的祖先是农耕民族，很早就以粮食及其制品为一日三餐必不可少的主要食品，以蔬菜、肉、鱼为辅助食品，中国人的主食分为麦类、米类和杂粮类，米类包括糯米、及以它为原料的米制品和米分制品，麦类包括小麦、大麦、燕麦及其制品如馒头、面条和烧饼，杂粮类包括玉米、高粱、豆类及其制品这些主食是中国人体力活动必需热量主要来源。俄罗斯人的正餐有三道菜，即汤（суп）和冷盘（холодныеблюда）、热菜（горячиеблюда）和甜食，汤的种类有菜汤（щи）、红菜汤（борщ）、鱼汤（уха）、清汤（бульон）等。

中国人的副食有调剂口味、引发食欲，补充营养成分的作用。中国人的副食十分丰富，除了常见的鸡鸭鱼肉等荤菜外，形形色色的新鲜蔬菜、豆制品、泡菜、咸菜也是菜桌上常见的菜肴，搭配的方式多种多样。

三、中俄饮食特点所反映出的文化差异

俄罗斯人一开始就分吃，由此衍生出俄罗斯人讲究独立。子女长大后就有独立闯世界的想法和习惯。而筷子带来的合餐制，突出了老老少少坐在一起的家庭单元。从而让中国人拥有了比较牢固的家庭观念。这种差异还反映了中国人和俄罗斯人的行为主义哲学，凸显了民族思维习惯及认知世界的方法。

中国饭桌上的“闹”能从某种程度上折射中国人家庭温馨、邻里和睦、国人团结的“一团和气”。这大概源于“饮食所以合欢也”的集体主义思想，强调突出的是一个“合”字。

从俄汉民族餐桌话语中我们可以看出，中国人遵循了“贬己尊人”的原则，而俄罗斯人则强调了效率和实用主义价值观。在宴席上俄罗斯人从不议论令人作呕之事，但他们会千方百计采用含蓄文雅的词和赞美的词，向主任，尤其是向女主人说些道谢和赞美的话。由于文化差异，俄汉民族表达好客的方式是截然不同的。在这样的情况下，如果我们能彼此了解各自的差异，就会消除餐桌上的尴尬，双方的好客之情也都会自然流露了。

结语：

饮食文化在人的生活秩序中占有非常重要的地位。不同的地域，不同的国家，孕育着不同的餐桌文化。其餐桌礼仪和风俗习惯也千差万别。“入境而问禁，入国而问俗，入门而问讳”是当今国际交往的一条原则。在跨文化交际中，我们不仅要遵循国际礼仪，同时也要了解与尊重有关国家的礼俗，做到因人施礼，这样才能更好地学习和交流。

摘要] 由于自然环境和物产不同,形成了东西方不同的文化,中西饮食便沿着各自的道路发展起来.传统的西方文化是一种畜牧文化和海洋文化,中国文化则是一种农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生产生活空间和方式的差异,其中饮食是具有代表性的一个方面,从菜单命名使用的词汇即可略见一斑.一、由于自然环境和物产不同,形成了东西方不同的文化,中西饮食便沿着各自的道路发展起来.传统的西方文化是一种畜牧文化和海洋文化,中国文化则是一种农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生产生活空间和方式的差异,其中饮食是具有代表性的一个方面,从文化命名使用的词汇即可略见一斑.两种饮食文化的差别主要表现在原料种类、烹饪方法、进餐方式、菜式命名等四个方面.(一)原料种类.西餐原料主要是动物类和海洋鱼类,辅以植物类,中餐原料主要是植物类和淡水鱼类,辅以动物类.随着社会发展和中西方交流的增加,两种饮食体系所使用的原料有趋同的趋势,但差别仍然比较明显.中国人视为珍馐美味的猫、狗、鸽子西方人是不会尝试的,而西方人习以为常的海洋鱼类、贝壳类可能为多数内地中国人见所未见,中国人的"食谱"范围比西方人的丰富得多.(二)烹饪方式.这是中西餐饮的一大差别,也是饮食文化差异的隐性因素.烹饪方法的差异又表现在三个方面:首先是原料的粗加工,所谓"食不厌精、脍不厌细",基础就是原料的粗加工,中餐对此十分讲究,加工后的原料形状多种多样,有整体(Whole)、块(Cubes)、片(Slices)、卷(Rolls)、条(Strips)、段(Segments)、丝(Shreds)、丁(Dice)、粒(Grains)、末(Mince)、蓉(泥)(Mash)、浆(Thickliq 2uid)、汁(Juice)等,西餐原料的处理则较为简单,一般有整体、块、片、丁、泥等几种形状;其次是火候,中式烹调讲究用火,三十多种加工方法许多是西餐中没有的,西餐烹调加工时间较短、火温适中;三是调味,中餐的复合味型多,要求原料入味,西餐则强调原料本味及调料的独立使用.(三)进餐方式.这是中西饮食文化差异的显性因素,也是中西方文化中的社会心理、价值观、民族习俗方面的差异在饮食上的表现.刀叉与筷子、圆桌与条桌等各不相同,在菜式和道数上双方虽然都有程式,但一分一合,互相对立,由此产生的宴请礼仪、饮酒方式、席间气氛也大不相同.(四)菜式命名.中餐讲究"作",西餐注重"吃",中菜命名讲究文雅、含蓄和吉利,注重表情、联想功能,寓情、寓意,便使用了多种修辞手法,除少量大众化菜肴以原料直接命名外,相当一部分菜是以创始人、景物、典故和传闻来命名的,这种命名方法的缺点是菜名与原料无明显关联,往往不知所云,如"八仙过海""、佛跳墙"等.西菜命名则直截了当,突出原料,极少使用类似中菜命名的修辞手段,虽少了艺术性,但多了实用性.当然,西菜命名也讲究高雅,但表现方法则是以法文命名."WhenwetalkofmeatonourtableweuseFrenchwords,(porc)(boeuf).Chickensbecomepoultry(poulet),andacalfbecomesveal(veau).EvenifourmenuswerenotwritteninFrenchoutofsnobbery,theEnglishweusedinthemwouldstillbeNormanEnglish."《(高级英语》P28)这是由于罗曼人曾经征服英国,英国农民在牧养牲畜时,讲的是盎格鲁-撒克逊英语,而这些牲畜被端到餐桌上给法国统治者享用时,就有了法语名称,相沿成习,它变成了一种高雅.另外,由于菜单源于法国以及法国饮食文化对西方饮食文化的深远影响,许多西餐菜肴自然用了法语名称,如:胡萝卜蓉汤(Pureealacrecy)、罗宋汤(Bor2schalaRusse)、芝士左口鱼(Fletanalamornay)等.二、中餐菜单英译的基本原则中餐曾有"食单"而无菜单,它和"番茄"、"洋芋"一样来自于西方,并很快融入中国饮食文化,形成了自己的特色,成为餐饮业不可或缺的一项"硬件".随着东西方文化交流的更加深入和广泛,来到中国的外宾越来越多,一张好的菜单就是一份高明的宣传单,一份本土化的菜单将使他们的中国之行更加完满.菜单最初只是厨师备忘的单子,但今非昔比,当今菜单有了更多功能:11向客人说明食品饮料的种类和价格,便于顾客挑选;21反映餐厅的经营方针,标志着餐厅商品的特色和标准;31是客人和接待者之间的沟通渠道;41是菜品研究的资料;51加强宣传,促进销售.小小菜单,作用多多.由于东西方文化和食物原料、制作方法存在诸多差异,菜单的翻译远不象想象的那么简单.影响菜单翻译的最重要因素是烹饪方法和菜式命名,翻译时应把握好二者的特点,既要符合西餐菜肴命名习惯,又要体现中餐特色,切忌望文生义或按字面含义直译.翻译过程中必须把握以下六个原则:第一,注重菜单的信息功能,保证菜名提供准确、足够的信息,而不能简单地按照中菜名称的修饰词而直译,以便外宾选择.如"麻婆豆腐"译成"Pockmarkedwoman'sbeancurd"、"八仙过海"译为"EightImmortalscrossingthesea"",鱼香肉丝"译为"Fish-flavorshreddedpork"就会使外宾茫然或误解.第二,要发挥菜单的促销作用.应借鉴中菜命名的艺术手法,尽量反映中餐烹饪特色,尤其对一些历史悠久、流传广泛的菜肴在翻译后还可以附加说明.这样既保留菜名信息,又引人兴趣,以达到吸引食客的目的.第三,把握中餐烹调方法的类别.为反映中餐对火候的讲究和其艺术性,可进行适当修饰.中餐烹调方法分类如下:烧、烧、烩、 、焖Braise炖、煨Stew煎、炸、酥Deep-fry爆、炒、熘、滑Stir-fry、Quick-fry干炒、干煸、焙Sauté煮、汆、涮、白灼Boil烧、烤、烘、 Roast、Barbecue、Broil、Bake蒸、腌、卤、酱、熏、酿、扒、烫、糟等有对等词,可一对一翻译,较特殊的做法如"油淋"可归入"煎炸"类,西餐没有拔丝方法,类似方法有Candy、Toffee.第四,尽量译出原料加工后的形状.原料形状在西餐中并不重要,但在中餐中却能反映出烹调的技艺水平,译文应予保留,确实累赘的,则可省略.第五,把握原料这一核心,无论中菜如何命名,均须翻译出原料,再加上烹调方法和味型等辅助因素.第六,避免文化冲突.中菜命名为了吉祥,借用了一些不能食用的物品或西方人忌讳食用的动物名,翻译时应按原料名直译,如果原料本身是西方人忌食的,这道菜可省略不译.如"翡翠鱼翅"、"红烧狮子头",真正的翡翠当然不能食用的,其实它就是蔬菜,而狮子西方人更不会食用,我们也是以其威武来形容"肉圆"罢了,直译会引起"血腥"的感觉.又如"脆皮乳鸽",将象征着和平的鸽子烹而食之,也是西方人不能接受的,所以最好把它略过.三、中餐菜名英译的具体探讨上面提出了中餐菜单英译的六原则,下面就一些中餐菜名英译进行具体探讨.11以原料命名的菜不加修辞,直译最为简便,烹饪方法不必译出.中菜汤类命名一般按此方法,翻译的处理就是"原料加汤".如:双冬牛肉-Beefwithmushroomandbambooshouts口蘑菜心-Mushroomswithcabbageheart青椒肉丝-Shreddedporkandgreenchili豆腐汤-Beancurdwithmushroomsoup21以烹调方法加原料命名.因为烹调方法是饮食文化的核心组成部分,翻译时必须译出烹调方法.中菜的一些烹调方法是西餐所没有的,有些则相近,翻译时用近义词亦可.如"干煸"在西餐中没有,其操作过程是:先用油炸原料,然后以少许油翻炒,迅速将油炒干后起锅,并不是加油直接炒.英语中有两个字与之意义相近,一是sauté--friedquicklyinapanwithalittlehotbutterorotherfat.意识是"快炸、煎";一是torrefy--todryuporparchwithheat(.)意识是"烘干、烤干、焙干",从制作过程看,sauté更合适些.如:炸蛋卷-Deep-friedeggrolls回锅肉-Slicedporkdoublysautéedinsoysauce干煸牛肉丝-Sautéedbeefshreds31烹调方式加原料和作料命名.作料是决定味型的最重要因素,翻译时也不能省略.如豉汁蒸带子,省略作料就成了清蒸,味道完全不同.酱爆肉去掉"soypaste",成了无任何特点的"煎肉",二者有天渊之别.其它如:豉汁蒸带子-Steamedscallopswithcuredsoybean酱爆肉-Quick-friedporkwithsoypaste茄汁石斑鱼-Deepfriedgaroupawithtomatosauce41风味菜肴.风味菜主要因其味型特点而得以广泛流传,所以除原料外,应译出风味,一些有确切起源地的菜,还应该加上地名.鱼香肉丝的确切译名应为"Stir-friedporkshredsSichuanstyle"或"Stir-friedporkshredsingarlicsauce",不能译为"Fish-flavorshreddedpork",是因为"鱼香"作为川菜的一种风味,使用了固定搭配的作料,与真正的鱼没有任何关系,译为"Fish-flavor",菜中并无"Fish",给人以误导之嫌.其他风味菜还有:湘味牛肉丝-SlicedbeefHunanstyle糖醋排骨-Friedporkchopinsweet-soursauce荷叶粉蒸肉-Steamedporkcoatedgroundriceonlotusleaf51以人名、地名命名的菜肴,一般全部译出,人名前最好加上头衔或职业,对那些知之甚少或译出后外宾不能理解的,则去人名加味型.东坡肉-PoetDongpo'sbraisedpork毛氏红烧肉-ChairmanMao'sstewedporkwithsoysauce北京烤鸭-Beijingroastedduck东江酿豆腐-BeancurdstuffedwithporkminceDongjiangstyle61用象形手法或借用典故、传说命名.这是中菜命名的一个特点,它集中反映了中国饮食文化的特色,具有很深的社会内涵,也是翻译的难点,处理方法是还其本原,译出主料、作料或做法,能兼顾修辞含义时则兼顾,切不可拘泥于原名而直译.翡翠鱼翅-Double-boiledshark'sfinwithve 2getable翡翠不能食用,仅是一个代称,指绿色的蔬菜,翻译时不能按字面译为"Jadeshark'sfin",否则外宾会莫名其妙.蚂蚁上树-Sautéedbeanvermicelliwithspicymeatsauce蚂蚁在中餐中虽可以入菜,但此蚂蚁非彼蚂蚁,而是用酱油和淀粉和过的肉末.直译可能引起外宾的惊诧.桔瓣鱼汆-Quick-boiledfishballsorangepet 2alshaped这道菜是指鱼汆外形似桔瓣,其实菜中无桔瓣,也无桔味,翻译时不可将之作为原料,译名中加"orangepetalshaped",是为了增加美感,增强促销功能.叫化鸡-Bakedchickenvagabondstyle或Bakedchickenwrappedwithmud此菜相传为乞丐创制,取名时以"叫化"代"乞丐",是一种美化,翻译时,以"vagabond"代"beg2gar",也是一种美化.后一译名比较实在,但少了前者的浪漫味道.麻婆豆腐-Beancurdwithmincedporkinhotsauce这道菜在我国广为流传",麻婆"成了一个特殊的称谓,外宾没有它的文化背景,翻译时只能取味型.如将之译为"Pockmarkswoman'sbeancurd",即使外宾理解,也失去了美感.霸王别姬-Steamedturtleandchickeninwhitesauce寿比南山-Steamedchickeninpumpkin连生贵子-Lotusnutsinsyrup这些纯为吉利的象征名称,不仅不能直译,也无法直译,所以只能还原处理.如为了促销,可对这些菜附加说明.71菜名含器具的可译出器具,也可直译原料,作为一种特殊的做法,以译出器具为佳.有加工作用的器具在西餐中是不会搬上桌子的,这也是中餐的一个特点,它表现了中餐的艺术性.器具一般有火锅、锅仔、铁板、沙锅、煲等.八珍火锅-Eightdelicacieshotpot锅仔甲鱼-Braisedturtleinminipot铁板牛柳-Vealslicesfriedonironplate汆圆粉丝煲-Stewedmeatballsandbeanver 2micelliincasserole以上探讨了中菜英译的一些基本方法.由于中国菜种系繁多,原料区别大,烹饪方法各具特色,菜名千差万别,翻译时还需具体研究,否则不能把握其特点,准确翻译也就无从谈起.四、菜单的编排除命名方面的差异外,在菜的分类和编排方式上二者也不相同,这是由于用餐方式和上菜顺序不同所引起的.中餐菜单按原料分类,呈纵向序列,西餐菜单按一次食用菜的道数编排,呈平行并列.中餐菜单菜肴的排列一般是按冷菜凉碟类、肉类、鱼类、海鲜类、禽类、蔬菜类、汤类、点心水果类、主食类的顺序进行,饮料酒类单列.西餐菜单菜肴的排列则按进食顺序安排,分为开胃菜类(APPETIZERS)、汤类(SOUPS)、色拉类(SAL2ADS)、主菜类(ENTREES)(包括肉类、鱼类、海鲜

only found one. hope that works~American table manners[edit] Table Layout * Bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right. * Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.[edit] General Behavior * Chew with your mouth closed. * Do not talk at an excessively loud volume. * Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table. * Never tilt back your chair while at the table, or at any other time. * Do not make unbecoming noises while eating. * Do not play with food or table utensils. * Do not single out or chastise someone who has shown poor table manners. * Do not put your elbows on the table or slouch. * Always ask the host or hostess to be excused before leaving the table. * Do not stare at anyone while he or she is eating. * Never talk on your phone at the table. If urgent, ask host or hostess to be excused, and go outside. Apologize when returned.[edit] Utensils * Do not eat food with your fingers unless you are eating foods customarily eaten with fingers, such as bread, french fries, chicken wings, pizza, etc. * The fork may be used either in the American (use the fork in your left hand while cutting; switch to right hand to pick up and eat a piece) or the Continental (fork remains in the left hand) fashion -- either is now acceptable. (See Fork etiquette) * The fork is used to convey any solid food to the mouth. * The knife blade should be placed on the edge of your plate when not in use. The blade should always face inward. * When you have finished eating soup, the spoon should be placed to the side of the saucer, not left in the bowl. * Keep your napkin on your lap. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to place their napkins on their laps until the host or hostess places his or her napkin on his or her lap * When eating barbecue or some other messy foods such as cracked crab, a 'bib' napkin may be provided for and used by adults. Usually these foods are also eaten by hand, and wet wipes or paper napkins should be used to clean the hands. * When using paper napkins, never ball them up or allow stains to show. * Use your silverware from the outside moving inward toward the main plate. (Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.)[edit] Dining * A prayer or 'blessing' may be customary in some families, and the guests should join in even if they are not religious or do not follow the same religion. Most prayers are made by the host before the meal is eaten. Instead or in addition, a 'toast' may be offered [1]. * Do not start eating until (a) every person is served or (b) those who have not been served request that you begin without waiting. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to begin until the hostess or host lifts a fork or spoon. * When a dish is presented 'family style', the food is served to one's plate and then passed on to the next person. put the food on your left, take some and pass to the person next to you. * When serving, serve from the left and pick up the dish from the right. Beverages are both served and removed from the right. * Eat soup noiselessly and with the side of the spoon. * Tea or coffee should never be poured into the saucer to cool but should be sipped from the cup. Alternatively, ice may be used to cool either. * Seasoning ones meal prior to tasting can be considered rude and may insult the chef.[edit] At the end of the meal * It is acceptable in most places to not finish all of the food on your plate. * When finished with your meal, place your knife and fork with handles at the 4 o'clock position and the tines of the fork down to signal to the server you are done. * Except in a public restaurant, do not ask to take some of your uneaten food away from the meal after it ends, especially when having a formal dinner.[edit] British table manners * The fork is held in your left hand and the knife is held in your right. * You should hold your knife with the handle in your palm and your fork in the other hand with the prongs pointing downwards. * If you’re eating a dessert, your fork (if you have one) should be held in the left hand and the spoon in the right. * When eating soup, you should hold your spoon in your right hand and tip the bowl away from you, scooping the soup in movements away from yourself. * It is not acceptable to use your fingers at the table to eat or push food onto your fork. You may, however, eat some foods such as fruit, sandwiches, hamburgers, crisps, chips or pizza with your fingers. * If there are a number of knives or forks, then you should start from the outside set working your way in as each course is served. * Drinks should always be to the right of your plate with the bread roll to the left. * When eating bread rolls, break off a piece before buttering. Use your knife only to butter the bread, not to cut it. * You should not start eating before your host does or instructs you to do so. At larger meals, it is considered okay to start eating once others have been served. * When you’re finished, place your knife and fork together at five o’clock with your fork on the left (tines facing up) and knife on the right, with the knife blade facing in. This signals that you are finished. * Your napkin should never be screwed up. Nor should it be folded neatly as that would suggest that your host might plan to use it again without washing it - just leave is neatly but loosely. * Never blow your nose on your napkin. Place it on your lap and use it to dab your mouth if you make a mess. * It is considered rude to answer the telephone at the table. If you need to take an urgent call, excuse yourself and go outside. * Always ask for permission from the host and excuse yourself if you need to leave the table. You should place your napkin on your seat until you return. * If you must leave the table or are resting, your fork should be at eight o’clock and your knife at four o’clock (with the blade inwards). Once an item of cutlery has been used, it should not touch the table again. * The food should be brought to your mouth on the fork; you should sit straight and not lean towards your plate. * Dishes should be served from the right, and taken away from the right. Unless the food is placed on your plate at the table, then it should arrive from the left. * Drinks should be served from the right. * Never lean across somebody else’s plate. If you need something to be passed, ask the person closest to it. If you have to pass something, only pass it if you are closest to it and pass it directly to them if you can. * Salt & pepper should be passed together. * Do not take food from a neighbour’s plate and don’t ask to do so. * You must not put your elbows on the table. * If pouring a drink for yourself, offer to pour a drink for your neighbours before serving yourself. * If extra food is on the table, ask others first if they would like it before taking it yourself. * When chewing food, close your mouth and only talk when you have swallowed it. * Swallow all food before eating more or having a drink. * Do not slurp your food or eat loudly. Burping or sneezing at the table should be avoided, too. * Never pick food out of your teeth with your fingernails. * Try to eat all the food you are served. * Glasses served in a wine glass or other stemmed-glass should be held at the stem. * Always remember “regular” manners. Remember to say "please" and "thank you".[edit] Chinese table mannersThese are mostly concerned with the use of chopsticks. Otherwise generally Chinese table manners are rather more informal, what would be considered rude in other cultures such as talking with the mouth full may be acceptable but better not to do so. * Chopsticks must always be held in the correct manner. It should be held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, * Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use improper etiquette. One explanation for the treatment of such usage as improper is that this can symbolise argument, as the chopsticks may collide between the left-handed and right-handed user. * When communal chopsticks are supplied with shared plates of food, it is considered impolite to use your own chopsticks to pick up the food from the shared plate or eat using the communal chopsticks. An exception to this rule is made in intimate family dinners where family members may not mind the use of one's own chopsticks to transfer food. * It is considered impolite to use the blunt end of the chopsticks to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl. Use the communal chopsticks instead. * Never wave your chopsticks around as if they were an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like drumsticks, or use them to move bowls or plates. * Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks. Do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients. After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish. * When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables. In informal use, small, difficult to pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists. * Chopsticks can be rested horizontally on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely. A chopstick rest can also be used to keep the points off the table. * Never stab chopsticks into a bowl of rice, leaving them standing upwards. Any stick-like object facing upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members. This is considered the ultimate faux pas on the dining table. * Chinese traditionally eat rice from a small bowl held in the left hand. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. Some Chinese find it offensive to scoop rice from the bowl using a spoon. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a fork or spoon. The thumb must always be above the edge of the bowl. * It is acceptable to transfer food to people who have a close relation with you (. parents, grandparents, children or significant others) if you notice they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts (part of the Confucian tradition of respecting seniors). * Traditionally, it is polite for the youngest members of the table to address each and everyone of the elderly members of the table before a meal starts and literally tell them to "eat rice", which means "go ahead and start the meal", to show respect. * The host should always make sure the guests drinks are sufficiently full. One should not pour for ones self, but should (if thirsty) offer to pour for a neighbor. When your drink is being poured, you should say "thank you" and/or tap your fingers on the table to show appreciation. * When people wish to clink drinks together in the form of a cheer, it is important to observe that younger members should clink the edge of their drink below the edge of an elder to show respect. * When eating food that contains bones, it is customary that the bones be spit out onto the table to the right of the dining plate in a neat pile.