Genetic engineering is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Genes may be removed, or "knocked out", using a nuclease. Gene targeting is a different technique that uses homologous recombination to change an endogenous gene, and can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce point engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured in GM cells, experimental GM cell lines and GM animals such as mice or zebrafish are being used for research purposes, and genetically modified crops have been commercialized.
Synthesis of optically pure ethyl (S)-4-chloro-3-hydroxybutanoateby Escherichia coli transformant cells coexpressingthe carbonyl reductase and glucose dehydrogenase genes由共表达碳酰还原酶和葡萄糖脱氢酶的大肠杆菌转化细胞合成纯光学(S)-4-氯-3-羟基丁酸乙酯Abstract The asymmetric reduction of ethyl 4-chloro-3-oxobutanoate (COBE) to ethyl (S)-4-chloro-3-hydroxybutanoate((S)-CHBE) was investigated. Escherichia coli cells expressing both the carbonyl reductase (S1) gene from Candida magnoliae and the glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) gene from Bacillus megaterium were used as thecatalyst. In an organic-solvent-water two-phase system,(S)-CHBE formed in the organic phase amounted to M (430 g/l), the molar yield being 85%. E. coli transformant cells coproducing S1 and GDH accumulated M (208 g/l) (S)-CHBE in an aqueous monophase system by continuously feeding on COBE, which is unstable in an aqueous solution. In this case, the calculated turnover of NADP+ (the oxidized form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) to CHBE was 21,600 mol/mol. The optical purity of the (S)-CHBE formed was 100% enantiomeric excess in both systems. The aqueous system used for the reduction reaction involving E. coli HB101 cells carrying a plasmid containing the S1 and GDH genes as a catalyst is simple. Furthermore, the system does not require the addition of commercially available GDH or an organic solvent. Therefore this system is highly advantageous for the practical synthesis of optically pure (S)-CHBE.本本篇文献研究了利用COBE不对称合成(S)-4-氯-3-羟基丁酸乙酯(CHBE)。大肠杆菌细胞作为催化剂同时表达了来自念珠菌属magnoliae的碳酰还原酶和来自巨大芽孢杆菌的葡萄糖脱氢酶基因。在水/有机溶剂两相体系中,(S)-CHBE在有机相中的浓度可以达到(430g/l),摩尔产率达到85%。大肠杆菌的副产物S1和GDH也达到了(208g/l),COBE在水相中不稳定,所以(S)-CHBE可以在水单相中不停的生成。在这种情况下,适当的从NADP+到CHBE的转变达到了21,600 mol/mol。所形成的CHBE的旋光度在这种体系中100%对映体过量。在水相中用携带含有S1和GDH基因质粒的E. coli HB101作为催化剂不对称还原是比较简单的。并且,这种体系并不额外需要商业GDH或者有机溶剂。因此,这种体系对于实际合成纯光学活性的(S)-CHBE是非常方便的。Optically active 4-chloro-3-hydroxybutanoic acid esters are useful chiral building blocks for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals. The (R)-enantiomer is a precursor of L-carnitine (Zhou et al. 1983), and (S)-enantiomer is an important starting material for hydroxymethylglutaryl- CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors (Karanewsky et al. 1990). Many studies have described the microbial or enzymatic asymmetric reduction of 4-chloro-3-oxobutanoic acid esters (Aragozzini and Valenti 1992; Bare et ; Hallinan et al. 1995; Patel et al. 1992; Shimizu et al. 1990; Wong et al. 1985) based on the reduction by baker’s yeast (Zhou et al. 1983).We have previously showed that Candida magnoliae AKU4643 cells reduced ethyl 4-chloro-3-oxobutanoate (COBE) to (S)-CHBE with an optical purity of 96% enantiomeric excess (.) (Yasohara et al. 1999). As this yeast has at least three different stereoselective reductases (Wada et al. 1998, 1999a, b), the (S)-CHBE produced by this yeast was not optically pure. From among these three enzymes, an NADPH-dependent carbonyl reductase, designated as S1, was purified and characterized in some detail (Wada et al. 1998). We cloned and sequenced the gene encoding S1 and overexpressed it in Escherichia coli cells. This E. coli transformant reduced COBE to optically pure (S)-CHBE in the presence of glucose, NADP+, and commercially available glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) as a cofactor generator (Yasoharaet al. 2000). Here, we describe the construction of three E. coli transformants coexpressing the S1 from C. magnoliae and GDH from Bacillus megaterium genes and analyze the reduction of COBE catalyzed by these strains. Previous reports on the enzymatic reduction of COBE to (R)-CHBE with an optical purity of 92% . (Kataoka et al. 1999; Shimizu et al. 1990) recommended an organic- solvent two-phase system reaction for an enzymatic or microbial reduction, because the substrate (COBE) is unstable in an aqueous solvent and inactivates enzymes. We examined the reduction of COBE to optically pure (S)-CHBE by E. coli transformants in a water monophase system reaction and discuss the possible use of this type of reaction system in industrial applications。具有旋光性的(S)-4-氯-3-羟基丁酸乙酯在药物制剂的合成中是重要的手性化合物。其右旋体是L-卡尼汀的前体,其左旋体是羟甲基戊二酰辅酶A还原酶抑制剂的起始材料。许多研究描述了以面包酵母为基础微生物或者酶的COBE的不对称还原。我们先前已经知道利用来自念珠菌属magnoliae AKU4643 细胞催化COBE生成光学纯度96%的CHBE。这种酵母至少有三种立体选择性的还原酶,这种酵母产生的CHBE并非纯光学的,在这三种酶之中,NADPH-依赖碳酰还原酶,我们克隆并测序编码S1的基因,并在大肠杆菌中过表达。大肠杆菌转化细胞在葡萄糖,NADP+和商业化的葡萄糖脱氢酶作为辅酶因子的启动子催化COBE生成纯光学的CHBE。我们构建这三种大肠杆菌转化细胞共表达来自的S1和来自巨大芽孢杆菌的GDH,并分析COBE被这几种菌株催化还原的反应机理。先前的报道表明,利用酶催化还原COBE生成CHBE光学纯度可达92%,也提到了因为底物(COBE)在水相中不稳定,并且酶容易钝化,所以利用酶或者微生物在有机溶剂/水两相体系中催化反应。我们研究了在水单相体系中由COBE还原生成纯光学的CHBE,还讨论了这种反应体系在工业应用中可能的用途。Materials and methodsBacterial strain and plasmids The E. coli strains used in this study were JM109 and pGDA2, in which the GDH gene from B. megaterium is inserted into pKK223-3, was kindly provided by Professor I. Urabe, Osaka University (Makino et al. 1989). Plasmids pSL301 and pTrc99A were purchased from Invitrogen (USA), and Amersham Pharmacia Biotech (UK), respectively. Plasmids pUC19 and pSTV28 (Homma et al. 1995; Takahashi et al. 1995) were purchased from Takara Shuzo (Japan).材料和方法菌株和质粒本次实验中使用的大肠杆菌是JM109 and HB101。来自B. megaterium的GDH基因插入到Pkk233-3质粒中,而带有GDH基因片段的pGDA2质粒由到由大阪大学的urabe教授提供。质粒pSL301和 pTrc99A是由美国的Invitrogen公司和英国的公司分别购买的。质粒pUC19和pST28是由日本takara公司购买的。The recombinant plasmid used in this study was constructed as follows (Fig. 1): Plasmid pGDA2 was double-digested with EcoRI and PstI to isolate a DNA fragment of about kilobase pairs (kb) including the GDH gene. This fragment was inserted into the EcoRI-PstI site of plasmid pSL301 to construct plasmid pSLG. Plasmid pSLG was double-digested with EcoRI and XhoI to isolate a DNA fragment of about kb including the GDH gene.这次实验使用的重组质粒构建如下:质粒pGDA2 被EcoRI 和 PstI双酶切从而分离出一个大小约为的包含有GDH基因的DNA片段。这个片段被插入到质粒Psl301的EcoRI-PstI酶切位点从而构建出质粒pSLG。质粒pSLG被EcoRI和XhoI To construct plasmid pNTS1G, this fragment was inserted into the EcoRI-SalI site of pNTS1, which was constructed to overproduce S1 as described previously (Yasohara et al. 2000). To construct plasmid pNTGS1, plasmid pNTG was first generated. Two synthetic primers (primer 1, TAGTCCATATGTATAAAGATTTAG,and primer 2 TCTGAGAATTCTTATCCGCGTCCT) were prepared for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using pGDA2 as the template. The PCR-generated fragment was double- digested with NdeI and EcoRI and then inserted into the NdeI EcoRI site of plasmid pUCNT, which was constructed from pUC19 and pTrc99A, as reported (Nanba et al. 1999), to obtain pNTG. To construct plasmid pNTGS1, two synthetic primers (primer 3, GCCGAATTCTAAGGAGGTTAATAATGGCTAAGAACTTCTCCAACG, and primer 4, GCGGTCGACTTAGGGAAGCGTGTAGCCACCGTC) were prepared using pUCHE, which contains the S1 gene as the template. The PCR-generated fragment was double-digested with EcoRI and SalI and then inserted into the EcoRI-SalI site of pNTG to obtain pNTGS1. Plasmid pNTS1G, pNTGS1 or pNTG was transformed into E. coli HB101.构建pNTS1是为了过表达前文所提到的S1,这个大小的片段被插入到pNTS1的EcoRI-SalI酶切位点从而构建pNTS1G。为了构建质粒pNTGS1,首先需要构建pNTG。两个合成引物(引物1,TAGTCCATATGTATAAAGATTTAG和引物2,TCTGAGAATTCTTATCCGCGTCCT)和作为模板的pGDA2是PCR反应需要的。PCR得到的片段是由NdeI 和EcoRI双酶切和并插入到质粒pUCNT的NdeI EcoRI酶切位点来得到pNTG。根据报道,pUCNT是由pUC19和 pTrc99A构建而来。为了构建质粒pNTGS1,两个合成引物(引物 3, GCCGAATTCTAAGGAGGTTAATAATGGCTAAGAACTTCTCCAACG, and 引物 4, GCGGTCGACTTAGGGAAGCGTGTAGCCACCGTC),包括了S1基因作为模板。Pcr产物片段被EcoRI和SalI双酶切然后被插入到pntg的EcoRI-SalI酶切位点得到pntg1.质粒pNTS1G, pNTGS1或者 pNTG都是导入大肠杆菌 pGDA2 was double-digested with EcoRI and PstI to isolate a DNA fragment of about kb including the GDH gene. To construct plasmid pSTVG, this fragment was inserted into the EcoRI-PstI site of plasmid pSTV28. Plasmid pSTVG was transformed into E. coli HB101. 质粒pGDA2被EcoRI 和 PstI双酶切得到包含GDH基因的大小的DNA片段。为了构建pSTVG质粒,这个片段被插入到pSTV28质粒的EcoRI-PstI的酶切位点。pSTVG质粒被导入到E. coli HB101。Medium and cultivationThe 2×YT medium comprised Bacto-tryptone, yeastextract, and NaCl, pH . E. coli HB 101 carrying pNTS1,pNTG, pNTS1G, or pNTGS1 was inoculated into a test tube containing2 ml 2×YT medium supplemented with mg/ml ampicillin,followed by incubation at 37 °C for 15 h with reciprocal preculture ( ml) was transferred to a 500-ml shakingflask containing 100 ml 2×YT medium. The cells were cultivatedat 37 °C for 13 h with reciprocal shaking. E. coli HB101 carryingpNTS1 and pSTVG was similarly cultivated in 2×YT mediumsupplemented with mg/ml ampicillin and mg/ml chloramphenicol.培养基和培菌2*YT培养基 包含有细菌用胰蛋白胨,酵母提取物, NaCl,.携带有pNTS1,pNTG, pNTS1G, 或 pNTGS1的大肠杆菌HB101被接种到有氨苄青霉素的2ml的2*YT培养基,37°C摇床15小时。将菌液接种到100ml2*YT培养基的500ml烧瓶中。在37°C摇床培养13小时。携带有pNTS1 和 pSTVG质粒的大肠杆菌HB101在2*YT培养基中培养方法相似,只是培养基中要加入 mg/ml的氨苄青霉素和 mg/ml的氯霉素。Preparation of cell-free extracts and the enzyme assay Cells were harvested from 100 ml of culture broth by centrifugation, suspended in 50 ml of 100 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH ), and then disrupted by ultrasonication. The cell debris was removed by centrifugation; the supernatant was recovered as the cell-free extract. Carbonyl reductase S1 activity (COBE-reducing activity) was determined spectrophotometically as follows: The assay mixture consisted of 100 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH ), mM NADPH, and 1 mM COBE. The reactions were incubated at 30 °C and monitored for the decrease in absorbance at 340 nm. The assay mixture for GDH activity consisted of 1 M Tris-HCl buffer (pH ), 100 mM glucose, and 2 mM NADP+. The reactions were incubated at 25 °C and monitored for the increase in absorbance at 340 nm. One unit of S1 or GDH was defined as the amount catalyzing the reduction of 1 μmol NADP+ or oxidation of 1 μmol NADPH per minute, respectively. Protein concentrations were measured with a proteinassay kit containing Coomassie brilliant blue (Nacalai Tesque, Japan),using bovine serum albumin as the standard (Bradford 1976).无细胞抽提液和酶鉴定将100ml培养液离心收获菌体,用为的磷酸缓冲液悬浮,然后超声粉碎。细胞碎片通过离心可以去除,收集上层清液就是无细胞抽提物。碳酰还原酶S1的活性由分光光度计测量如下:测定的混合物包括:的磷酸二氢钾缓冲液,和1mMCOBE。反应在30°C条件下反应,并且随时监测其在340nm处的吸光值。测GDH混合物包括:1M pH 的Tris-HCl的缓冲液,100mM的葡萄糖,2mM的NADP+。反应在25°C下进行,监测其在340nm处的吸光值。一个单位S1或GDH被定义为每分钟催化还原1μmol NADP+或氧化1 μmol NADPH的量。蛋白质的测定通过含有考马斯亮蓝的蛋白质测定试剂利用牛血清白蛋白作为标准进行测定。Study of enzyme stabilityOne milliliter of 100 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH ) containing the cell-free extracts of E. coli HB101 carrying pNTS1 (S1: 20 U/ml) was mixed with an equal volume of each test organic solvent in a closed vessel. After the mixture was shaken at 30 °C for 48 h, the remaining enzyme activities in an aqueous phase were assayed as described above. The mixture, containing 100 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH ), S1 (20 U/ml), and various concentrations of CHBE, was incubated at 30 °C for 24 h in order to study the enzyme’s stability in the presence of remaining enzyme activities were assayed as described above.酶稳定性的研究一毫升含有含有pNTS1质粒的E. coli HB101的无细胞抽提液的100mM磷酸氢二钾缓冲液()与等体积的有机溶剂混合。混合物在30 °C震摇48小时后,水相中残留的酶活力即是上述的酶活力。COBE reduction with E. coli cells expressing the S1 gene and E. coli cells expressing GDH genes in a two-phase system reaction The reaction mixture comprised 15 ml culture broth of E. coli HB101 carrying pNTG, 17 ml culture broth of E. coli HB101 carrying pNTS1, mg NADP+, 4 g glucose, g COBE, 25 ml n-butyl acetate, and about 25 mg Triton X-100. The pH of the reaction mixture was controlled at with 5 M sodium hydroxide. At 2 h, g COBE and g glucose were added to the reaction mixture. To compare the reaction by E. coli transformant coexpressing the GDH and S1 genes, 30 ml culture broth of E. coliHB101 carrying pNTS1G was used instead of culture broth of E. coli HB101 carrying pNTG and E. coli HB101 carrying pNTS1. Other components and the procedure were the same as described above.表达S1基因和GDH基因的大肠杆菌细胞在两相反应体系中的还原反应混合物包含有带有pNTG质粒的大肠杆菌HB101的菌液15ml,pNTS1质粒的大肠杆菌HB101的菌液17ml, mg NADP+,4 g葡萄糖,的COBE,25ml的n-butyl acetate丁酰醋酸盐和大约25mg的聚乙二醇辛基苯基醚Triton X-100。用5M的NaOH溶液将pH控制在。在反应两小时后,加入和葡萄糖到该混合物中。比较大肠杆菌转化细胞共表达GDH和S1基因,携带有pNTS1G质粒的大肠杆菌HB10130ml菌液取代了携带有pNTG和pNTS1质粒的大肠杆菌HB101菌液。其他的成分和步骤和上述的方法相似。 COBE reduction to (S)-CHBE in a two-phase system reaction The reaction mixture contained 50 ml of culture broth of an E. coli HB101 transformant, mg NADP+, 11 g glucose, 10 g COBE, 50 ml n-butyl acetate, and about 50 mg Triton X-100. The reaction mixture was stirred at 30 °C, and the pH was controlled at with 5 M sodium hydroxide. Five grams of COBE/ g glucose and 10 g COBE/11 g glucose were added to the reaction mixture at 3 h and 7 h, respectively; mg NADP+ was added at 26 在两相系统中还原生成(S)-CHBE反应混合物包含50ml E. coli HB101转化细胞的培养液,葡萄糖,10gCOBE,50ml丁酰醋酸,和大概50mg聚乙二醇辛基苯基醚Triton X-100.在30°C温度下将其混合均匀,并用5M的NaOH溶液将pH控制在。在第3小时加入5gCOBE和葡萄糖或者在第7小时加入10gCOBE和11g葡萄糖,分别在第26小时加入。 COBE reduction to (S)-CHBE in an aqueous system reaction The reaction mixture was made up of 50 ml of culture broth of an E. coli HB101 transformant, mg NADP+, 11 g glucose, and about 50 mg Triton X-100. The reaction mixture was stirred at 30 °C. Fifteen grams of COBE was fed continuously by means of a micro-feeding machine at a rate of about g/min for about 12 h. The pH of the reaction mixture was controlled at with 5 M sodium hydroxide. The reaction mixture was extracted with 100 ml ethyl acetate. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and then evaporated in vacuo. COBE在水相中还原成(S)-CHBE的反应反应的体系是由50ml大肠杆菌HB101转化细胞的菌液,,11g葡萄糖和大约50mg聚乙二醇辛基苯基醚Triton X-100。反应混合物在30°C15mg的COBE通过微量添加机器以 g/min的速率连续12小时恒定的加入到体系中。用5M的NaOH溶液将pH控制在。反应混合物用100ml乙酸乙酯萃取。有机层用无水硫酸钠吸干,并在真空中脱水。Analysis The organic layer was obtained on centrifugation of the reaction mixture and was assayed for CHBE and COBE by gas chromatography. Optical purity of CHBE was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), as described previously (Yasohara et al. 1999).Enzymes and chemicals Restriction enzymes and DNA polymerase were purchased fromTakara Shuzo (Japan). COBE (molecular weight: ) was purchasedfrom Tokyo Kasei Kogyo (Japan). Racemic CHBE (molecularweight: ) was synthesized by reduction of COBE withNaBH4. All other chemicals used were of analytical grade andcommercially available.分析离心反应混合物得到的有机层通过气相色谱法测定其CHBE和COBE。COBE的光学纯度如前所述通过高效液相色谱法进行分析。酶和化学试剂限制性内切酶和DNA聚合酶由takara公司购得,COBE(分子量:)由东京Tokyo Kasei Kogyo公司购得,消旋体CHBE(分子量)通过COBE及NaBH4合成。所有其他化学试剂都是分析等级和商业化的试剂。Construction of E. coli transformants overproducing S1 and GDHTo express the carbonyl reductase S1 and GDH genes in the same E. coli cells, four expression vectors were constructed (Fig. 1). Plasmids pNTS1G and pNTGS1 contain the S1 gene from C. magnoliae, the GDH gene from B. megaterium, the lac promoter derived from pUC19, and the terminator derived from pTrc99A. Plasmid pNTS1 contains the S1 gene, the lac promoter derived from pUC19, and the terminator derived from pTrc99A. The enzyme activities in cell-free extracts of the E. coli transformants are shown in Table 1. E. coli HB101 cells carrying the vector plasmid pUCNT had no detectable S1 or GDH activity. E. coli HB101 carrying either pNTS1G or pNTGS1 showed S1 and GDH activity without isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) induction. The S1 activities of these two transformants were lower than the GDH activities. To obtain a transformant whose S1 activity was equal to or greater than the level of GDH activity, we used a lower copy vector, pSTV28 (Homma et al. 1995; Takahashi et al. 1995), to express the GDH gene. It may be possible to raise the S1 activity by lowering the GDH activity. Plasmid pSTVG contains the GDH gene, the lac promoter, the chloramphenicol resistance gene, and the replicative origin derived from pACYC184 for compatibility with the plasmid pNTS1. In E. coli HB101 carrying pNTS1 and pSTVG, the S1 activity was higher than the GDH activity, but this GDHlevel may be too low to regenerate in a COBE reduction reaction as described below.过产生S1和GDH的大肠杆菌转化细胞的构建为了在同一大肠杆菌细胞中表达碳酰还原酶S1和GDH基因,要构建四个表达型载体。质粒pNTS1G 和 pNTGS1包含有来自C. magnoliae的S1基因,来自B. megaterium的GDH基因,来自pUC19的LAC启动子,从pTrc99A的来的终止子,质粒pNTS1包含有S1基因,来自pUC19的LAC启动子,从pTrc99A的来的终止子。在大肠杆菌转化细胞的无细胞抽提物的酶活力如表一所示。携带有运输质粒pUCNT的大肠杆菌细胞无法检测到其S1和GDH活性。携带有pNTS1G 或 pNTGS1质粒在没有IPTG的诱导下有S1和GDH的活性。在这两个转化菌种中,S1的活力小于GDH的活力。为了得到S1活性等于或者大于GDH的大肠杆菌转化菌株,我们使用低拷贝的载体pSTV28,来表达GDH基因。它可能可以通过降低GDH的活性从而提高S1的活性。质粒pSTVG包含有GDH基因,lac启动子,和氯霉素抗性基因,以及与pNTS1具有相容性的从pACYC184得来的复制起始位点。在携带有pNTS1和pSTVG的大肠杆菌转化细胞中,S1的活性要高于GDH的活性,但是GDH的活性可能会太低而在COBE还原反应中不能再生。 太长了,字数有限制,所以不能发完。分数我无所谓啦,我很少登录的。这应该算是基因工程的吧,是我以前自己翻的,不是很好。如果你要的话可以联系我的邮箱。
基因工程是在分子生物学和分子遗传学综合发展基础上于 20 世纪 70 年代诞生的一门崭新的生物技术科学。下面是由我整理的基因工程学术论文,谢谢你的阅读。 基因工程学术论文篇一 摘 要:基因工程是在分子生物学和分子遗传学综合发展基础上于 20 世纪 70 年代诞生的一门崭新的生物技术科学。基因工程是一项很精密的尖端生物技术。可以把某一生物的基因转殖送入另一种细胞中,甚至可把细菌、动植物的基因互换。当某一基因进入另一种细胞,就会改变这个细胞的某种功能。这项工程创造出原本自然界不存在的重组基因。它不仅为医药界带来新希望,在农业上提高产量改良作物,并且对环境污染、能源危机提供解决之道,甚至可用在犯罪案件的侦查。基因工程的发展现状和前景是怎么样呢,而又有哪些利弊? 关键词:基因工程;发展现状;发展前景;基因工程利弊 一、基因工程 (一)基因工程的概念及发展 1.概念 基因工程又称基因拼接技术和DNA重组技术,是以分子遗传学为理论基础,以分子生物学和微生物学的现代方法为手段,将不同来源的基因按预先设计的蓝图,在体外构建杂种DNA分子,然后导入活细胞,以改变生物原有的遗传特性、获得新品种、生产新产品。 2.发展 生物学家于20 世纪50 年代发现了DNA 的双螺旋结构,从微观层面更进一步认识了人类及其他生物遗传的物质载体,这是人类在生物研究方面的一次重大突破。60 年代以后,科学家开始破译生物遗传基因的遗传密码,简单地说,就是将控制生物遗传特征的每一种基因的核苷酸排列顺序弄清楚。在搞清楚某些单个基因的核苷酸排列顺序基础上,进而进行有计划、大规模地对人类、水稻等重要生物体的全部基因图谱进行测序和诠释。 (二)基因工程的发展现状及前景 1.发展现状 (1)基因工程应用于农业方面。运用基因工程方法,把负责特定的基因转入农作物中去,构建转基因植物,有抗病虫害,抗逆,保鲜,高产,高质的优点。 下面列举几个代表性方法。 ①增加农作物产品营养价值如:增加种子、块茎蛋白质含量,改变植物蛋白必需氨基酸比例等。 ②提高农作物抗逆性能如:抗病虫害、抗旱、抗涝、抗除草剂等性能。 ③生物固氮的基因工程。若能把禾谷等非豆科植物转变为能同根瘤菌共生,或具固氮能力,将代替无数个氮肥厂。④增加植物次生代谢产物产率。植物次生代谢产物构成全世界药物原料的 25% ,如治疗疟疾的奎宁、治疗白血病的长春新碱、治疗高血压的东莨菪碱、作为麻醉剂的吗啡等。 ⑤运用转基因动物技术,可培育畜牧业新品种。 二、基因工程应用于医药方面 目前,以基因工程药物为主导的基因工程应用产业已成为全球发展最快产业之一,前景广阔。基因工程药物主要包括细胞因子、抗体、疫苗、激素和寡核甘酸药物等。对预防人类肿瘤、心血管疾病、遗传病、糖尿病、包括艾滋病在内的各种传染病、类风湿疾病等有重要作用。我们最为熟悉的干扰素(IFN)就是一类利用基因工程技术研制成的多功能细胞因子,在临床上已用于治疗白血病、乙肝、丙肝、多发性硬化症和类风湿关节炎等多种疾病。 并且应用基因工程研制的艾滋病疫苗已完成中试,并进入临床验证阶段;专门用于治疗肿瘤的“肿瘤基因导弹”也将在不久完成研制,它可有目的地寻找并杀死肿瘤,将使癌症的治愈成为可能。 三、基因工程应用于环保方面 工业发展以及其它人为因素造成的环境污染已远远超出了自然界微生物的净化能力,基因工程技术可提高微生物净化环境的能力。美国利用DNA 重组技术把降解芳烃、萜烃、多环芳烃、脂肪烃的4 种菌体基因链接,转移到某一菌体中构建出可同时降解4 种有机物的“超级细菌”,用之清除石油污染,在数小时内可将水上浮油中的2/3 烃类降解完,而天然菌株需 1 年之久。90 年代后期问世的DNA 改组技术可以创新基因,并赋予表达产物以新的功能,创造出全新的微生物,如可将降解某一污染物的不同细菌的基因通过PCR 技术全部克隆出来,再利用基因重组技术在体外加工重组,最后导入合适的载体,就有可能产生一种或几种具有非凡降解能力的超级菌株,从而大大地提高降解效率。 (一)发展前景 基因工程应用重组DNA 技术培育具有改良性状的粮食作物的工作已初见成效。重组DNA 技术的一个显著特点是,它注往可以使一个生物获得与之固有性状完全无关的新功能,从而引起生物技术学发生革命性的变革,使人们可以在大量扩增的细胞中生产哺乳动物的蛋白质,其意义无疑是相当重大的。将控制这些药物合成的目的基因克隆出来,转移到大肠杆菌或其它生物体内进行有效的表达,于是就可以方便地提取到大量的有用药物。目前在这个领域中已经取得了许多成功的事例,其中最突出的要数重组胰岛素的生产。 重组DNA 技术还有力地促进了医学科学研究的发展。它的影响所及有疾病的临床诊断、遗传病的基因治疗、新型疫苗的研制以及癌症和艾滋病的研究等诸多科学,并且均已取得了相当的成就。 (二)基因工程的利与弊 1.基因工程的利 遗传疾病乃是由于父或母带有错误的基因。基因筛检法可以快速诊断基因密码的错误;基因治疗法则是用基因工程技术来治疗这类疾病。产前基因筛检可以诊断胎儿是否带有遗传疾病,这种筛检法甚至可以诊断试管内受精的胚胎,早至只有两天大,尚在八个细胞阶段的试管胚胎。做法是将其中之一个细胞取出,抽取DNA,侦测其基因是否正常,再决定是否把此胚胎植入母亲的子宫发育。胎儿性别同时也可测知。 基因筛检并不改变人的遗传组成,但基因治疗则会。目前全世界正重视发展永续性农业,希望农业除了具有经济效益,还要生生不息,不破坏生态环境。基因工程正可帮忙解决这类问题。基因工程可以改良农粮作物的营养成分或增强抗病抗虫特性。可以增加畜禽类的生长速率、牛羊的泌乳量、改良肉质及脂肪含量等。 2.基因工程的弊 广泛的基因筛检将会引起一连串的社会问题。虽然基因筛检可帮助医生更早期更有效地治疗病人,但可能妨碍他的未来生活就业。基因工程会产生“杀虫剂”的作物,也可能对大环境有害,它们或许会杀死不可预期的益虫,影响昆虫生态的平衡。转基因食品不同于相同生物来源之传统食品,遗传性状的改变,将可能影响细胞内之蛋白质组成,进而造成成份浓度变化或新的代谢物生成,其结果可能导致有毒物质产生或引起人的过敏症状,甚至有人怀疑基因会在人体内发生转移,造成难以想象的后果。转基因食品潜在危害包括:食物内所产生的新毒素和过敏原;不自然食物所引起其它损害健康的影响;应用在农作物上的化学药品增加水和食物的污染;抗除草剂的杂草会产生;疾病的散播跨越物种障碍;农作物的生物多样化的损失;生态平衡的干扰。 四、结束语 随着社会科技的进步,基因工程的发展将成为必然。尽管它会给我们带来一些危害但是仍然为我们带来了很多好处。不仅为我们提供了新的能源而且促进了各国的经济的发展,所以在我们发展基因工程的同时应该尽力避免一些危害,而让有利的方面尽可能应用。 参考文献: [1]陈宏.2004.基因工程原理与应用.北京:中国农业 出版社 [2]胡银岗.2006.植物基因工程.杨凌.西北农林科技大学出版社 [3]刘祥林.聂刘旺.2005.基因工程.北京:科学出版社 [4]陆德如.陈永青.2002.基因工程.北京:化学工业出版社 [5]王关林.方宏筠.2002.植物基因工程.北京:科学出版社 基因工程学术论文篇二 基因工程蛋白药物发展概况 【摘要】近些年,随着生物技术的发展,基因工程制药产业突飞猛进,本文就一些相关的重要蛋白药物的市场概况和研究进展作一概述。 【关键词】基因工程 蛋白药物 发展概况 中图分类号:R97 文献标识码:B 文章编号:1005-0515(2011)6-255-03 基因工程制药是随着生物技术革命而发展起来的。1980 年,美国通过Bayh-Dole 法案,授予科学家 Herbert Boyer 和 Stanley Cohen 基因克隆专利,这是现代生物制药产业发展的里程碑。1982 年,第一个生物医药产品在美国上市销售,标志着生物制药业从此走入市场[1]。 生物制药业有不同于传统制药业的特点:首先,生物制药具有“靶向治疗”作用;其次,生物制药有利于突破传统医药的专利保护到期等困境;再次,生物制药具有高技术、高投入、高风险、高收益特性;此外,生物制药具有较长的产业链[1]。生物制药业这一系列的特点决定了其在21世纪国民经济中的重要地位,历版中国药典收录的生物药物品种也是逐渐增多[2](图一)。 当前生物制药业的发展趋势在于不断地改进、完善和创新生物技术,在基因工程药物研发投入逐年增加的基础上,我国生物制药的产值及利润增长迅猛, 2006-2008年三年就实现了利润翻番[2](表一)。随着研究的深入,当前生物药的热点逐渐聚焦到通过新技术大量生产一些对医疗有重要意义且成分确定的蛋白上。研究表明,在我国的基因工程药物中,蛋白质类药物超过50%[3]。而这些源自基因工程菌表达的蛋白,如疫苗、激素、诊断工具、细胞因子等在生物医学领域的应用主要包括4个方面:即疾病或感染的预防;临床疾病的治疗;抗体存在的诊断和新疗法的发现。利用基因工程技术(重组DNA技术)生产蛋白主要有三方面的理由:1.需求性,天然蛋白的供应受限制,随需求的不断增加,数量上难以满足,使它得不到广泛应用;2.安全性,一些天然蛋白质的原料可能受到致病性病毒的污染,且难以消除或钝化;3.特异性,来自天然原料的蛋白往往残留污染,会引起诊断试验所不应有的背景[4]。 以下将介绍一些基因工程产物的市场概况和研究发展。 1 促红细胞生成素 是细胞因子的一种,在骨髓造血微环境下促进红细胞的生成。1985年科学家应用基因重组技术,在实验室获得重组人EPO(rhEPO),1989年安进(Amgen)公司的第一个基因重组药物Epogen获得FDA的批准,适应症为慢性肾功能衰竭导致的贫血、恶性肿瘤或化疗导致的贫血、失血后贫血等[5,6]。 2001年,EPO的全球销售额达亿美元,2002年达亿美元,2003年全世界EPO的年销售额超过50亿美元。创下生物工程药品单个品种之最,是当今最成功的基因工程药物。用过EPO的大多数病人感觉良好,在治疗期间无明显毒副作用或功能失调。重组体CHO细胞可以放大到生产规模以满足对EPO的需求。 2 胰岛素 自1921 年胰岛素被Banting 等人成功提取并应用于临床以来,已经挽救了无数糖尿病患者的生命。仅2000年,胰岛素在全球范围内就大约延长了5100万名I型糖尿病病人的寿命。20世纪80年代初,人胰岛素又成为了商业现实;80 年代末利用基因重组技术成功生物合成人胰岛素,大肠杆菌和酵母都被用作胰岛素表达的寄主细胞[7]。 国内外可工业化生产人胰岛素的企业只有美国的礼来公司、丹麦的诺和诺德公司、法国的安万特公司和中国北京甘李生物技术有限公司等,胰岛素类似物也仅在上述4个国家生产,且每个公司只能生产艮效或速效类似物巾的个品种,主要原因是要达到生物合成人胰岛素产业化的技术难度特别大,若无高精尖的高密度发酵技术、纯化技术和工业化生产经验是无法实现的[8]。 3 疫苗 在人类历史上,曾经出现过多种造成巨大生命和财产所示的疫症,而在预防和消除这些疫症的过程中疫苗发挥了十分关键的作用。所以疫苗被评为人类历史上最重大的发现之一。 疫苗可分为传统疫苗(t raditional vaccine) 和新型疫苗(new generation vaccine)或高技术疫苗( high2tech vaccine)两类,传统疫苗主要包括减毒活疫苗、灭活疫苗和亚单位疫苗,新型疫苗主要是基因工程疫苗。疫苗的作用也从单纯的预防传染病发展到预防或治疗疾病(包括传染病) 以及防、治兼具[2]。 随着科技的发展,对付艾滋病、癌症、肝炎等多种严重威胁人类生命安全的疫苗开发取得巨大进展,这其中也孕育着巨大的商业机会[9], 2007年全球疫苗销售额就已达到163亿美元,据美林证券公布的一份研究报告显示,全球疫苗市场正以超过13%的符合增长率增长。而我国是疫苗的新兴市场,国内疫苗市场发展潜力巨大,年增长率超过15%。 在以细胞培养为基础的疫苗、抗体药物生产中,Vero细胞、BHK21细胞、CHO细胞和Marc145细胞是最常用的细胞,这些细胞的反应器大规模培养技术支撑着行业的技术水平[4]。建立细胞培养和蛋白表达技术平台,进一步完善生物反应器背景下的疫苗生产支撑技术是当前国际疫苗产业研究的重点。 4 抗体 从功能上划分,抗体可分为治疗性抗体和诊断性抗体;从结构特点上划分,抗体可分为单克隆抗体和多克隆抗体。抗体可有效地治疗各种疾病,比如自身免疫性疾病、心血管病、传染病、癌症和炎症等[10,11]。抗体药物的一大特点在于其较低甚至几乎可以忽略的毒性。另外一个优势是,抗体本身也许既可被当作一种治疗武器,也可被用作传递药物的一种工具。除了全人源化抗体以外,与小分子药物、毒素或放射性有效载荷有关的结合性抗体也已经在理论上显示出了强大的潜力,尤其是在癌症治疗方面[12]。 治疗性抗体是世界销售额最高的一类生物技术药物,2008 年治疗性抗体销售额超过了300 亿美元,占了整个生物制药市场40%。在美国批准的99 种生物技术药物中,抗体类药物就占了30 种;在633 种处于临床研究的生物技术药物中, 有192 种为抗体药物,而在抗癌及自身免疫性疾病的治疗研究中,治疗性抗体占了一半[2]。截止2007年,美国FDA批准上市的抗体药物见表二[13]。 参考文献 [1] 章江益, 孙瑜, 王康力. 美国生物制药产业发展及启示[J]. 江苏科技信息. 2011, 1(5): 11-14. [2] 王友同, 吴梧桐, 吴文俊. 我国生物制药产业的过去、现在和将来. 药物生物技术[J]. 2010, 17(1): 1-14. [3] 吴梧桐, 王友同, 吴文俊. 21世纪生物工程药物的发展与展望[J]. 药物生物技术. 2000, 7(2): 65-70. [4] 储炬, 李友荣. 现代工业发酵调控学(第二版)[M]. 化学工业出版社. [5] Koury MJ, Bondurant MC. Maintenance by erythropoietin of viability and maturation of murine erythroid precursor cell[J]. Cell Physiol, 1988, 137(1):65. [6] Cuzzole M, Mercurial F, Brugnara C. Use of recombinant human Erthro-poietin outside the setting of uremia[J]. Blood, 1997, 89(12): 4248-4267. [7] 李萍, 刘国良. 最新胰岛素制剂的研究进展概述[J]. 中国实用内科杂志. 2003, 23(1): 19-20. [8] 张石革, 梁建华. 胰岛素及胰岛素类似物的进展与应用[J]. 药学专论. 2005, 14(11): 21-23. [9] 徐卫良. 生物制品供应链优化与供货提前期缩短问题研究――基于葛兰素史克(中国)疫苗部的实例分析(硕士学位论文). 上海交通大学, 2005. [10] Presta LG. Molecular engineering and design of therapentic antilodies[J]. Curr Opin Immunol, 2008, 20(4): 460. [11] Liu XY, Pop LM, Vitetta ES. Engineering therapeutic monoclonal antibodies[J]. Immunol Rev, 2008, 222: 9. [12] 陈志南. 基于抗体的中国生物制药产业化前景. 中国医药生物技术[J]. 2007, 1(1): 2. [13] 于建荣, 陈大明, 江洪波. 抗体药物研发现状与发展态势[J]. 生物产业技术. 2009, 1(3): 49.看了"基因工程学术论文"的人还看: 1. 高中生物选修三基因工程知识点总结 2. 高二生物基因工程知识点梳理 3. 浅谈基因工程在农业生产中的应用 4. 植物叶绿体基因工程发展探析 5. 关于蔬菜种植的学术论文
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