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论英语语法与修辞语法和修辞既是相通的，又是有区别的。语法是语言的组织规律，讲的是语言的结构形式；因此语法学家研究的对象是语言本身规律的一部分，是研究如何造出合乎语法的句子。因为只有合乎语法规则的句子才具有可理解的性质，才有可能被用作表达思想的基本语言单位。修辞不同于语法，它是研究语言使用的规律，是和语言的使用目的和使用场合密切相关的。因此，修辞学研究的对象是如何在具体交际场合中取得最好的语言表达效果，即如何根据不同的对象和场合把话说好，把文章做好，以便更好地达到交际目的。但是，修辞和语法又密切相关，可以说，修辞知识是语法知识的延伸，前者是建筑在后者基础上。因为语法告诉我们，同一个意思可以有不同的合乎语法的表达方式，而修辞则告诉我们如何恰当地选用语法形式，以达到最好的语言表达效果。语法结构形式的选用，关系到使用领域（即语体）的问题。比如在学术论文中，不可用适合于口头的表达方式；在法律文书中，不可用形象生动的文学语言；对上级或者长辈讲话，用语不可太随便；跟朋友谈心，用语又不可太庄重。因此，一本好的语法书必然要涉及修辞问题。我们学习语法不能只重视分析语言的能力；更重要的是要培养自觉、恰当地运用语言的能力。从这个角度来看，语法必须结合修辞，语法书的编写不能局限于词法和句法而必须超越句法的范围，讲一点如何恰当地使用语法知识的规律。恰当地使用语法知识规律可以简单地归纳为以下内容：表达思想，分清主次；关系明确，避免歧义；言语简练，用词经济；句式多样，灵活交替。一、表达思想，分清主次 这是修辞的第一条要求。在使用语言进行交际时，总是要把主要的住处突出起来，以便引起对方的注意，能为对方所理解并把握住意义的重心。这就涉及语法中一系列强调手段的运用问题。这些强调手段包括后置和前置、主从句、分裂句、层进法等，只要用之得当，便可在组词成句中突出主要的信息，分清主要次要的意思。1、后置后置，作为一种突出主要思想的手段，是现代英语的词序特征。众所周知，英语在其长期发展中形成一种相对固定的词序。根据这种词序，句子的意义重心往往落在句子的尾部分，从而句尾成为一种受到强调的部位。根据这条原则，说话人要强调什么意思，便可让它出现在句尾，从而传递信息便主次分明了。在前面提到的句尾信息焦点和尾重原则就是采用的这一原理。对比下面两句话：The patient was taken good care of, and began to recover immediately.The patient was taken good care of, and immediately began to recover.这两个句子的意思都是病人受到很好的照顾，很快开始康复。但第一句的意义重心是immediately, 强调了康复之快，而第二句的意义重心则在于“康复”而不强调“马上”。再如：Though we started off early, we were late for the last bus.We were late for the last bus, though we started off early.We were late for the last bus. We started off early, though.以上三个句子所表达的意思是一致的，但所强调的重点是不一样的。第一句强调我们晚了，第二句强调我们的确出发不晚，第三句突出强调了出发得早然而却晚了这一惊讶。We had a long enough holiday on the beach.We had a holiday, long enough, on the beach.两个句子的意义差别不大，但第一句只是普通的句子，而第二句强调了long enough。2、主从结构在主从结构中（这里主要指主句与从句），主句通常携带主要的信息，从句表达次要的信息。因此，人们在交流思想时，可以把主要意思放在主句中表达，而把次要意思放在从句中。这也可以成为表达思想分清主次的手段。如：After I had visited this country, I was even more struck by its beauty.Having visited this country, I was even more struck by its beauty.After my visit to this country, I was even more struck by its beauty.I was even more struck by its beauty, after I had visited this country.以上四个句子意思上的差别是不大的，但所要表达的具体内涵和感情就有些差异了。第一句after从句是个时间状语从句，为了更加突出主要的意思，通常它放于主句的前面，从而突出主句的信息。第二句把时间状语从句改为了非限定分句，那就加重了它的从属地位，从而主句的意思也就更加突出。如果再把非限定分句改为介词词组，那末，主句的意思进一步得到突出。第四句把从句置于句末，根据末端中心的原则，从句的意义比在句首是加重了，它相当于一种补叙，为主句表达的思想内容提供某种比较重要的条件，意思相当于“只有当我参观了这个国家之后，才被这个国家的美更加深深地打动了。”在这样的结构中，有两条语法规则在交叉地起作用：主从结构的表意作用和词序的作用。正由于从属的意思能以各种方式增加其分量，使之能够对主句所表达的意思起一定的平衡作用，有时甚至起到修改和对抗作用，这种“主句＋从句”的结构往往可在修辞上取得幽默、讽刺或戏剧性等特殊效果，在阅读时您不妨仔细体味。如：We don’t bother much about dress and manners in England, because as a nation we don’t dress well and we’ve no manners.这句话是主句在前，从句在后。主句的意思是：在英国，我们不为衣着和礼貌而烦神，为什么不烦神呢？都穿得很好吗？都很讲礼貌吗？不是的。请看下文：因为，作为一个民族，我们穿得不好，而且不讲礼貌。这样一来，后置的原因状语分句便对主句的意思起抵消的作用，从而带有辛辣的讽刺味道。再如：Even though men may deny it, women may soon be able to compete with men in most sporting events.Women may soon be able to compete with men in most sporting events, though men may not deny(否定)it.Women may soon be able to compete with men in most sporting events, but men may deny it.第一句，主句位于从句之后，突出了主句的意思，对妇女在体育运动中不断提高的地位持肯定态度；第二句，从句位于主句之后，抵消了或削弱了主句的意思，但是主要意思还是认为妇女即将在大多数体育运动项目中与男子进行竞争，只是这种意思被后面的从句削弱了一；第三句是个并列句，其意义主要受着分句顺序的支配。这句话的主要意思是妈妇女能否在大多数体育运动项目中与男了相抗衡表示一种怀疑的态度。3、前置除采用后置和主从结构来突出主要思想外，语法还提供了第三种方法，这就是前置。由于句首也是一种引人注目的位置，如果把一个通常不出现在句首的成分前移至句首，这也会起强调作用，产生特殊的修辞效果。例如句子的宾语和补足语通常出现在谓语动词之后，如果由于某种原因，比如为了与上文相衔接，而把宾语或补语移至句首，这时，前置的宾语或补语就会特别引人注目。如：Mr White fried two small pieces of fish. One of these he fed to his cat. The other he ate himself. 怀特先生煎了两条鱼，一条喂了狗，另一条他自己吃了。It is important to prevent pollution. Equally important is to take measures to check the rise in prices. 阻止污染是非常重要的。同时同等重要的是采取措施核实价格是不能提高。有时状语的前置也能起强调作用。比如在否定结构中，否定词及其强调词通常是比较贴近谓语动词的。如：The manager will not in any case stand rudeness from his employees. 在这里，not in any case 是“决不”之意，位于句子当中，这是不受强调的位置。如果把这个结构移至句首并引起倒装：In no case will the manager stand rudeness from his employees.这时，状语in no case便处于突出的地位，受到了强调。当然，在这种结构中，句尾仍然起着信息中心的作用。4、分裂句语法向我们提供的另一强调手段是一种特殊的、专门突出主要意思的句子结构――分裂句（又称强调句型）。分裂句的基本结构是：It is/was＋中心成分＋that-分句在这种句式中，中心成分是最受强调的部位，它可以是一个句子中主语、宾语、状语和宾语补足语等。（本部分详细请参阅本章《强调部分》）During the summer vacation I worked in a hotel as a part-time job to make some money for education. 在暑假里，为了嫌点钱上学，我在一家旅馆找了份业余工作。这个句子可以改用分裂句式强调除谓语动词以外的任何成分。如：It was during the summer vacation that I worked in a hotel as a part-time job to make some money for education.It was I that/who during the summer vacation worked in a hotel as a part-time job to make some money for education.It was in a hotel during the summer vacation I worked as a part-time job to make some money for education.It was as a part-time job that During the summer vacation I worked in a hotel to make some money for education.对于谓语及其后续成分突出出来就得采用另外一种分裂句：What-分句＋is＋不定式结构。如：What I did during the summer vacation was to work in a hotel as a part-time job to make some money for education.由此可见分裂句It is/was＋中心成分＋that-分句的主要强调重心不在句尾而在句中；分裂句What-分句＋is＋不定式结构的主要强调重心仍然在句尾。5、层进法还有一种强调的方法就是采用“层进法”，即在排列两个以上并列成分时，采取由次要到重要到最重要的排列方式，从而突出位于句尾的成分。如：Einstein was a fair violinist, a great mathematician, and a deeply philosophical (哲理的)man.爱因斯坦三重身份：他既是伟大的数学家，又是个懂得精深哲理的人，同时还是个业余小提琴手。在这三重身份中，哪一种最重要呢？当然，精通哲理最重要，数学家次之，会演奏小提琴又次之，所以按照a vilionist, a great mathematician, and a deeply philosophical man 这样的排列，是符合一般修辞原则的，即要求由次要到重要至最重要的排列。这是故意违反一般修辞原则，而把不太重要的意思放在最后最重要的位置上，从而达到讽刺、幽默的修效果。He referred his success to hard work, his parents and his teachers.一个人事业的成功，最重要因素本应为“埋头苦干”，可是现在却把“父母、老师”放在最重要的位置，这无疑就是一种人际交流的需要。层进法不仅适用于句子成分之间，而且适用于句子和句子、语段和语段、段落和段落之间。二、关系明确，避免歧义 修辞的另一条重要原则是要求表意明确，而不是模棱两可。一句话如果既可作这样解释，又可作那样解释，这就叫做歧义。引起歧义的原因是多种多样。其中重要的一种是句子成分之间的关系不明确，特别是照应关系、修饰关系、比较关系不明确往往引起歧义。照应必须有被照应的对象，修饰也必有被修饰的对象，如果这些关系搞不清，意思就含糊不明。因此，关系明确是避免歧义的重要方法。1、要处理好照应关系英语中代词照应是照应关系中最重要的。处理好照应关系是理解篇章的最基本的前提。如：? Since my grandfather was a doctor, it is not surprising that I have chosen that for a job.在这里that所指不明，不论是指doctor, 还是指my grandfather was doctor, 在本句中都讲不能。因此在这个句中，have chosen 的宾语以不用代词为宜：Since my grandfather was a doctor, it is not surprising that I have chosen medicine for my job.再如：? The players and umpires (裁判)know one another well and sometimes they call them by their first names.这个并列句后半部的they, them, their含义不明。如果是运动员对他们认识的裁判员有时直呼其名，可以说：Players who know umpires well sometimes call them by their first names.如果是裁判员对他们认识的运动员有时直呼其名，那就说：Knowing the players well, the umpires sometimes call them by their first names.2、要处理好修饰关系关于名词修饰语和状语(特别是副词)的位置问题分别相关章节，这里再从修辞角度作一些补充。状语的位置如果处理不当往往会引起歧义。如：? I have followed the advice sincerely given by the teacher.? The woman scolded the boy for playing with fire bitterly.上述诸句中，sincerely, bitterly 叫“偏斜修饰语”，因为它们在句中位置不正，以致sincerely既可理解为修饰follow, 也可理解为修饰given；bitterly 本应修饰scolded，但在句中却好象在修饰playing，从而产生了歧义。这些修饰语的位置应作如下调整：I have sincerely followed the advice given by the teacher.The woman bitterly scolded the boy for playing with matches.再如：He sent us the full story of his rescue from Lake of the Ozarks(美国奥沙克湖).在这里from Lake of the Ozarks既可理解为修饰sent，也可理解修饰his rescue。根据“靠近”的原则，可将该句调整如下：He sent us from the Ozarks the full story of his rescue.3、要避免中途改变语态或主语在主动结构和被动结构的使用上，一般修辞原则是要保持前后一致。如果中途改变语态，则往往意义不明。如：? He left the examination after his answer had been checked.这句话，主句用了主动结构，从句忽然改为被动结构，这样一来，到底是谁“核对子答案”便不明确了。要改进这个句子，最好把前后的动词语态一致起来，从而主语也一致了：He left the exmination after he had checked his answer.再如：As the guests entered the church, proper seats were arranged by the ushers leading them.(迎客的人).这句话的毛病是中途改变主语，以致“座位指定给谁”，含义不明。应将前后主语一致起来，尽管语态有变，但不影响意义：As the guests entered the church, they were led to the proper seats by the ushers.4、要处理好比较关系比较关系也是一种修饰关系。比较结构如果不完整或不确切也会引出歧义。请观察：? He is as tall, if not taller, than his brother.在这句话中，比较结构不完全，因为不可能说He is as tall than his brother, 而只能说as tall as his brother。 所以这句话应该调整为：He is as tall as his brother, if not taller.或调整为：He is as tall as, if not taller than his brother.再如：Leonardo had one of the greatest, if not the greatest minds of all times.这个最高级结构也是不完全的，从而非常费解，因为在这里有两个名词词组“one of the greatest minds”和“the greatest mind”。应补足为：Leonardo had one of the greatest minds, if not the greatest mind, of all times.有时，比较结构不完全，导致表意不合逻辑。如：?Her salary was lower than a typist.怎么会一个人的薪水比打字员低呢？应该说成：Her salary was lower than that of a typist.或者：Her salary was lower than a typist’s.再如：?The food here costs no more than any other resaurant.这句话从字面上看可以理解为The food here costs no more than any other restaurant costs, 这样以来，就变成拿食品价格和其它饭店的相比了，显然不合逻辑。应该拿这里的食品价格和任何其它饭店的食品相比：The food here costs no more than (it does) at any other restaurant.由上述诸例可以看出，在使用比较结构时，必须把被比较的对象明确起来。如果被比较的对象不明确，那就意义含糊。如：?Claremont is farther from Los Angeles than Pomona.这句话的意思很含糊。到底是Claremont 距离Los Angeles 比Pomona 距离Los Angeles 远呢？还是Claremont距离Los Angeles 比Claremont距离Pomona远呢？如果是前一种意思，应该说成：Claremont is farther from Los Angeles than Pomona is.如果是后一种意思，则应该说：Claremont is farther from Los Angeles than it is from Pomona.有时，在比较结构中使用than any…不当，其表意不合逻辑。如：?For many years the Empire State building was taller than any building in New York.这句话不合逻辑，因为Empire State Building 坐落在纽约市。它怎能和包括它自己在内的纽约市建筑物相比呢？处理这类问题，只要在any之后加个other就可以了：From many years the Empire State Building was taller than any other building in New York.三、言语简练，用词经济 言语简练，用词经济是修辞的另一条重要原则。所谓“简练”就是不用多余的词，即在表情达意中每一个词都起到自己的表意作用，而没有冗长、累赘的现象。“简练”和“简短”是两个不同的概念。“简练”是修辞上的优点；“简短”有时是优点，但有时就不一定是优点。一个简短的句子或者一篇简短的文章有时铿锵有力，掷地有声，便有时也可能言之无物，读来无味；文章长而空固然不妙；而空也未尝足取。一个句子或者一篇文章可能比较长，但内容充实，组织严密，没有废话，没有败笔，照样可以算是“简练”。因此“简练”是修辞的一个努力方向，它和“简短”是有区别的。1、要避免冗赘尽管一个句子或者一篇文章并不一定是“越短越好”，但是小题而大作，短话而连篇，言之无物，总是要不得的。讲一句话，造一个句子，在能充分表达思想的前提下，用词应该十分经济，必须避免使用多余的词。如：Whenever anyone called for someone to help him do something, Jim was always the first to lend his help for the cause. 这个句子如果变为下面的句子就更加简练：Whenever anyone called for help, Jim was always the first to lend his help.这个句子即是“简练的”，又是“简短”的。在这里，这二者就一致起来了。2、要避免不必要的重复重复有时是修辞的需要，但是，不必要的重复往往会造成言语累赘，表达无力。语法为我们提供了避免重复的手段，这重要是省略和替代。一般原则是，在能充分表意的前提下，能省略的就应省略，能替代的就应替代。省略和替代不仅能够避免不必要的重复，而且可使主要的思想内容得到应有的突出。反之，如果该省略而不省略，该替代而不替代，反而会冲淡主要的内容，赞成烦冗无力的表达。如：My father planned (all these houses) and my brother built all these houses.Brian can (do the work well) and (he) should do the work well, but he won’t (do the work well).Mary is going to sweep the floor though Alice won’t (sweep the floor).以上各句中括号内为省略的部分。第一句中，省略了all these houses, 便突出了planned; 第二句省略了do the work well和he，突出了can, should和won’t; 同样地，第三句省略了sweep the floor, 便强调了Alice won’t。再如：Here is a white silk blouse and a pink one. (one替代silk blouse)He said he would tell me the news, but he didn’t do so. (do so替代tell me the news)We are told that he will come back tonight, and if so our meeting will be held tomorrow. (if so替代if he comes back tonight)在上述第一句中，用了名词替代词one, 不仅避免了silk blouse的重复，而且使pink的意义突出起来；第二句用do so替代tell me the news, 突出了didn’t 的意义；第三句用if so替代if he comes back tonight, 突出了其后主句的含义。 3、要避免拖沓现象句尾是传递最重要信息的位置。因此，通常不宜在句尾附加过多的补叙。如果在句尾加上长串的并不重要的细节，往往会出现拖沓现象。“拖沓句”也是累赘的一种表现。如：It was 7:15 on the morning of February 8, 2000, when I was walking along Park Road towards the east when an elderly amn came out of the park on the other side of the street. Then I saw a yellow car drive up Third Street and make a right turn into Park Road. The next moment the car hit the man while he was crossing the road. The man was badly hurt and he fell with a cry. The car didn’t stop but drove off at great speed which was heading west. I noticed the driver wa a young woman who pretended not to be noticing all of this and the plate number was AC 864. About two minutes later I stopped a car which was passing near here and took the old man to the nearest hospital where the old man could be taken good care of.在这篇短文中，似乎用了太多的定语从句，从而使读者的视线容易因为读这些长句子而转移对整个交通事故的描述。如若改成下面的短文，就会显得简洁明了。I was walking along Park Road towards the east on the morning of February 8, 2000 when an elderly man came out of the park on the other sde of the street. Then a yellow car drove up Third Street and made a right trun into Park Road. The next moment the car hit the man while he was crossing the road. He fell with a cry. The car didn’t stop but drove off at great speed heading west. I noticed the dirver was a young woman and the plate number was AC864. About two minutes later I stopped a passing car and took the old man to the nearest hospital where he was taken good care of.这样整篇短文中含有一个定语从句，两个并列句，一个时间状语从句，一个宾语从句，一个分词结构，四个并列谓语，调整了主要信息的位置，删除了多余的词，主句和从句的次序进行了调换，使句式错落有致、重点突出。四、句式多样，灵活交替 修辞的另一个要求是，言语要生动活泼，形式，最忌单调乏味，平淡无奇。避免单调可以通过各种不同的手段来实现。从语法角度看，多种句式的灵活交替是达到生动活泼，避免单调的重要方法。写一篇文，讲一段话，如果通篇用的都是简单句或者通篇都是很长很长的复杂句，往往会给人以句式单调的感觉。如下面一篇短文：My name is Li Hua. I was born in Dalian, Liaoning province in February 1977. I started school in 1984 at 7. I studied in Guangming Primary School from 1984 to 1990. After that I went to No. 62 Middle school of Dalian and graduated this summer. The main subjects I studied at school included Chinese, maths, English, physics, chemistry and computer.I like English and computer best. I am very good at them. Last year I won first prize in the school computer competition. In my spare time I enjoy listening to popular music and collecting stamps. My favourite sports are swimming in summer and skating in winter.上面的短文是对自己作的一个简介，内容很全面，但句式太单调，不活泼不生动，给人一种平淡之感。如果将这篇短文的句式进行调整，充分运用分词结构，使句式灵活多样，本短文将会变得活泼，读起来朗朗上口。修改如下：My name is Li Hua and I was born in Dalian, Liaoning province in February 1977. In 1984 when I was seven years old, I started school. From 1984 to 1990 I studied in Guangming Primary School. And after that I went to No. 62 Middle School of Dalian, where I graduated this summer. The main subjects I studied at school included Chinese, maths, English, physics, chemistry and computer. I like best English and compuer which I am very good at. Last year I won first prize in the school computer competition. In my spare time, what I enjoy doing is listening to music, collecting stamps, swimming and skakting, of which I love swimming and skating most.修改过的短文包括一个并列句，五个定语从句，一个分裂句，同时在上下文的衔接上注意了关联词的运用，从而使整个短文句式灵活多变，思路清晰，读起来朗朗上口。
英文摘要格式如下：
1、英文摘要是应用符合英文语法的文字语言，提供论文内容梗概为目的的短文（内容基本与中文摘要相同，但不用完全逐句对应）。
2、英文题目、摘要、关键词自成一页（1页即可），放在中文摘要页之后。
3、英文字体与行间距：统一使用“西文字体”中的“Times New Roman”，倍行间距。
4、英文题目：使用三号字加粗。
5、英文摘要：“Absract”顶格，使用四号字，并加粗。英文摘要具体内容使用四号字。
6、英文关键词：“Key Words”顶格，使用四号字并加粗。每个关键词使用四号字。
论文摘要应包含以下内容：
（1）从事这一研究的目的和重要性。
（2）研究的主要内容，指明完成了哪些工作。
（3）获得的基本结论和研究成果，突出论文的新见解。
（4）结论或结果的意义。
以上内容参考：百度百科-摘要
以上内容参考：百度百科-论文摘要
总纲毕业论文，是大学本科教学的最后一个环节。是对整个大学阶段学习的回顾与总结，是学生综合能力的体现，也是对学生的一次语言及相关科学研究的一次基本训练，因此，要求学生以高度认真负责的态度对待此项工作。做好毕业论文的指导工作是整个大学教学和教育的重要和必要内容，也是理论教学的重要组成部分。每一位教师都要以高度的社会责任感和敬业精神投入到此项工作中去，指导学生顺利完成毕业论文任务。二、毕业论文的阶段及要求论文工作主要分以下几个阶段：准备（资料的收集与整理、阅读文献）、撰写提纲、第一稿、第二稿、第三稿、定稿与答辩。（一）准备：学生可以自由选择研究范围（语言、文学、文化、社会问题、应用英语、经济、贸易、科技、社会生活等），但要在教师的指导下对研究对象进行资料的收集整理和分析来确定毕业论文题目。（二）撰写提纲：学生在指导教师的指导下分析和研究所采集的资料的基础上，撰写毕业论文提纲。同时也要求每一位指导教师在学生形成毕业论文提纲前一定要与每位被指导的学生进行讨论，毕业论文提纲应尽量做到全面缜密，理顺所要论述内容，避免以后反复修改。（三）第一稿：要求学生必须严格按照指导教师审定后的毕业论文提纲进行写作,不可自行其是，随意更换主题。第一稿完成以后，指导教师主要检查学生是否按照既定的提纲和思想在写作，及时发现问题及时纠正。如学生采取不认真的态度，指导教师应对其提出严肃的批评教育，拒不接受者，指导教师有权提出相应的处理意见，或交学院毕业论文工作小组处理。如果指导教师不认真指导，随意放学生过关，以后阶段出现的问题由该教师本人负责。（四）第二稿：要求学生不仅要继续补充第一稿之不足，同时要求在表达上要有所提高。在接到第二稿以后，指导教师阅读后应指出存在的问题，以便学生及时改正。（五）第三稿：要求学生在文风、文章格式、修辞等方面有所提高。指导教师要对第三稿进行全面的审阅，并提出修改意见，以保证定稿打印时所有的错误和疏漏都得到更正，错误率控制在规定范围内。同时，教师还要提醒学生在打印前再校对，以保证尽可能地将正确的版本打印出来。（六）毕业论文答辩：毕业论文的答辩是毕业论文工作的最后阶段，要求学生予以充分的准备和重视。论文答辩前，学生们必须充分熟悉论文，答辩时，要求学生能脱稿进行5~10分钟的毕业论文内容的陈述，并流利、准确地回答答辩委员提出的问题。在答辩过程中，参加答辩的教师要对答辩人的语言技能（语音、语法、词汇、语用）、口笔头能力、论文内容和答辩的表现进行认真纪录，客观公正地评分。二、毕业论文的内容：毕业论文的内容可以涉及语言知识、与语言有关的问题（如，语言教学、文化等）和相关专业的知识和内容（如经济、贸易、管理、市场营销等）。其他内容，须经论文审题小组集体审定。学生有选择的论文内容的自由，指导教师可以提出建议，但不能代替学生做出决定。论文内容要能反映社会和时代特征，具有理论价值或实践意义，有新颖性。论文可以对某个理论问题的探讨，也可以是实践问题的解决。论文不仅要反映学生的综合能力，而且要反映他们对相关问题的较为正确的论述，要有一定的独立见解。论文必须做到主题明确、论据清晰、内容具体而充实，切忌空谈。写翻译的论文，除实例分析外，还要提供原文的译文，以便弄清译论的依据。如果论文是实践性的，它必须提出一定的解决途径、方案。三、毕业论文的评审：指导教师在对论文评定成绩时，要参照学生的学习成绩、平时表现出的语言水平和专业八级考试的成绩，以正确衡量学生真实的语言和认识水平。指导教师对学生的毕业论文成绩提出异议，如不被采纳，可提交学院毕业论文工作小组商议和仲裁。指导教师如发现学生的毕业论文有抄袭现象，应及时向学生指出，学生若不接受批评，指导教师应提交到学院毕业论文工作小组处理，严重者取消论文资格。指导教师应杜绝送分的做法，也不可因个人原因影响对学生论文评价的客观性和公正性。四、论文的格式：论文的规格：正文长度5，500—8，500单词。使用的语言：英语论文分题目、引言、正文、参考文献、致谢等部分。引文要注明出处。直接引用要加引号，间接引文要以转述的方式出现。然后以括号把引文来源写清楚：（作者名，年份，引文所在页码）论文正文部分：1、题目大写，三号字，新时代罗马字，大写下面可写一个附标题，4号字；2、作者名，5号字，班级，学号3、指导教师名，5号字，职称4、摘要：用300词，5号字,英文一页,中文一页5、关键词：不能用专有名词，词与词之间空四格（或一个Tab键），不加标点符号6、正文：用5号字,大部分标题用5号字黑体、小部分、小小部分。大部分用罗马字，小不分用一般数字符号：言：引入正题，不超过2段I.II.III.IV.V.VI.VII.VIII.IX.X.II.1.1,1.2,1.3,1.4,1.5...III.1.1.1,1.1.2,1.1.3/2.1.1,2.1.2,2.1.3,/3.1.1.…
,TheapplicationoftheTheme-basedplusCommunication-basedinEnglishclass英语课堂中交际主题的应用2,中文：汉字“好”的语义功能研究英文：AStudyontheFunctionsofChineseCharacterHAO3,中文：浅析凯特·肖邦《觉醒》中的女性主题英文：ABriefAnalysisofFemaleConsciousnessinKateChopin'sTheAwakening4,中文：初中英语口语的错误类型及其对策英文：ErrortypesinJuniorstudents'oralenglishandtheircountermeasures5,中文：试论艾米莉?迪金森自然诗中的女性意识英文：OnFemaleConsciousnessinEmilyDickinson'sNaturePoetry
英语论文摘要
一篇合格的英语硕士论文不仅要按要求规范撰写，还必须是内容完整的，每一部分都不可或缺。论文摘要是英语硕士论文写作必不可少的写作环节，具有高度概括性，独立完整性，自明自含性等特点，起着重要的作用，我们必须加以重视。那么英语硕士论文摘要怎么写?有哪些写作要点?下面笔者具体来讲讲，大家继续往下看。
英语论文摘要写作内容须知
一般来说，英语论文对摘要主要包括了论文所研究的目的和范围、方法和过程、结果和结论三个方面。
就目的和范围而言，主要是简明扼要地陈述撰写论文的原因，常用名词短语前置的句型表示，把重点部分置于最显著的位置加以强调，但同时要兼顾平衡，避免头重脚轻。
就其方法和过程而言。主要源于实践性的论文摘要，能简约地叙述其基本原理、操作程序，使用了哪些新方法，采用了哪些新手段，如词汇手段、语法手段和逻辑承接语等，论文不宜繁琐、沉长。
就其结果和结论而言。是英语论文的核心和焦点，需要在摘要中清楚地表述出来，能直观地表达读者最为关注的问题，也同时反映论文所研究的价值、用途以及意义。
英语论文摘要写作文体要求
英语论文摘要与其他论文摘要在叙述方法上相同，能开门见山、直截了当，用词质朴无华，按照英语论文摘要的标准，一般在200——250个单词左右，要求用语准确，语法规范，句子完整，信息准确，文字精练，逻辑性强，通俗易懂，要避免带感情色彩或广告宣传的词语，不用口语体和非规范缩写词，语句中尽量使用动词靠近主语和重要事实开头，(不得用短语和从句开头)，要减少或取消不必要的背景信息，使之缩小摘要的篇幅。
英语硕士论文摘要写作疑问解答
1. 怎样写英文摘要?
可以按照论文的逻辑结构撰写摘要，如概述、目的、方法、结果、结论、展望的顺序。
概述(30词左右)：用最简洁的语言概括论文内容。例如：This paper is… 或 This study focuses on…
目的'(30词左右)：用To…就可以了，没有必要使用 in order to 或者 for the purpose of 等较长的表述。
方法(50词左右)：尽可能具体地说明操作的步骤，其中注意时态的使用。常用的词汇有：test, study, investigate, examine, analyze, measure, application 等。
结果(50词左右)：直入主题地摆出结果，如 This paper shows… 或 The results are…
结论(60词左右)：删去类似于“The result of the study showed that…” 的赘语，逐条罗列出结论。
展望(20词左右)：指出研究对未来的意义，如 This paper is of great significance in… 或指出不足。
2. 英文摘要有多长?
一般情况下用一段的篇幅完成英文摘要，特殊情况可以分成两到三段，但最好不要超过三段。长度一般为200字到300字之间。
3. 英文摘要用什么语态和人称?
规范的学术文章通常采用被动语态，突出信息。但由于主动语态的表述更为清楚，现在有些地方也要求采用主动语态。
4. 英文摘要用什么人称?
最好不要出现I，we等第一人称代词，而是使用第三人称，如the author等。
5. 英文摘要用什么时态?
摘要的时态以一般现在时为主，表示一种存在于自然界的客观规律。在特殊的情况下可以使用一般过去时或现在完成时，用来表明一定范围内的结论或是某一过程的延续性。描述具体的动作时通常用一般过去时，总结主要的结果时通常用一般现在时。
注意：用paper 做主语来描述论文概况时后面常用一般现在时：This paper aims to focus on… 而采用study 来描述相同的内容时则常用一般过去时：This study investigated…
英语论文摘要写作六大要点
1.要善于运用自己的语言来撰写。摘要是从论文中提炼而成，是一篇论文的骨干和核心，所以又高于论文，这是运用论文的新境界，让读者能一目了然地领会作者对问题的认识和见解，所以，不能在原文词语的基础上简单堆砌和重新编排，需要重新运用语言来写，形成文字上的再创造。
2.要遵循论文的写作顺序来写。对于摘要的撰写要结构严谨，表达简明，语义确切，先写什么，后写什么，应按照逻辑顺序来安排，句子之间上下连贯，互相呼应。只要不是特殊情况，比如倒序，就不得随意更改论文的内容顺序，这样更能体现论文条理清晰。
3.要突出撰写的全面性。一篇摘要应保证内容的完整，作者要慎重恰当地处理，合理加以吸收、集中做到没有大的遗漏，能让读者直观地获取信息。摘要不同于引言，引言往往可以是文章内容的一个方面。
4.要注重撰写的高度概括。摘要是论文的“眼睛”，具有画龙点睛的效果，所以要用全面的、理性的、辩证的分析提炼和升华总结出带有总概括性的观点，学会压缩文字，英语论文就要学会压缩词组词汇，只取要点，删去细枝末节，省去例子，简化描述，避免重复，慎用长句，努力压缩一些繁沉的句子，力争把短语改成字词。如下面的例子：
(1)将His courage; in battle might withoutexaggeration be called lion-like压缩为：
He Was very brave in battle.
(2)将They acted in a manner that rendered them liable toprosecution .压缩为：
They acted illegally.
(3)将John fell into the river and，beforehelp could reach him，he sank.压缩为：
John was drowned in the river.
(4)习惯用but，then，thus，yet，for等最简短的过渡词语，禁止用at，the，Same，time，on the other hand等。
5.要慎重摘要的架构选词。一方面，在针对同一个汉语词对应的英语单词可能会有几个的情况下，要选择专业领域的常用词汇，凸显论文的专业度，同时，对词汇的选择要与句型、语法对应;另一方面，在选择句型上，在不曲解汉语摘要的愿意的前提下，尽量使用复合句，这样，更符合母语使用的阅读习惯。
6.摘要需要反复修改。要对照论文再次疏理，在时态运用上也以简练为佳，常用一般现在时，一般过去时，少用现在完成时，过去完成时，进行时态和其他复合时态基本不用，做到该压缩的压缩，该删减的删减，该充实的充实，该补失的补失，使之形成一篇完整的短文。
综上所述，英语硕士论文摘要对于整篇论文起着不可替代的重要作用，可以毫不夸张的说，它就是论文的精华所在。因此，我们要认真对待该部分的撰写，笔者以上分享了英语硕士论文摘要的写作的相关内容和要点细节，希望对大家有所指导作用。
同学你好，毕业了就需要面临写论文，浅谈英语口语的学习方法，确定选题了接下来你需要根据选题去查阅前辈们的相关论文，看看人家是怎么规划论文整体框架的；其次就是需要自己动手收集资料了，进而整理和分析资料得出自己的论文框架；最后就是按照框架去组织论文了。需要参考资料我提供给你。还有什么不了解的可以直接问我，希望可以帮到你，祝写作过程顺利。一般说来，篇幅较长的毕业论文，都没有分标题。设置分标题的论文，因其内容的层次较多，整个理论体系较庞大、复杂，故通常设目录。 设置目录的目的主要是： 1．使读者能够在阅读该论文之前对全文的内容、结构有一个大致的了解，以便读者决定是读还是不读，是精读还是略读等。 2．为读者选读论文中的某个分论点时提供方便。长篇论文，除中心论点外，还有许多分论点。当读者需要进一步了解某个分论点时，就可以依靠目录而节省时间。 目录一般放置在论文正文的前面，因而是论文的导读图。要使目录真正起到导读图的作用，必须注意： 1．准确。目录必须与全文的纲目相一致。也就是说，本文的标题、分标题与目录存在着一一对应的关系。 2．清楚无误。目录应逐一标注该行目录在正文中的页码。标注页码必须清楚无误。 3．完整。目录既然是论文的导读图，因而必然要求具有完整性。也就是要求文章的各项内容，都应在目录中反映出来，不得遗漏。 目录有两种基本类型： 1．用文字表示的目录。 2．用数码表示的目录。这种目录较少见。但长篇大论，便于读者阅读，也有采用这种方式的。
中职学校英语口语教学现状与对策
论文关键词:中职学生英语口语能力培养学习兴趣
论文摘要:本文对目前中职学校英语口语教学的现状进行了分析，并提出了英语口语教学中的时策教学。
随着我国市场经济体制的逐步完善，国际交往日益增多，学习英语并运用英语进行口头交际己成为社会的需要，社会对于口语人才的需求也越来越大。英语是一种交际工具，英语教学的目的是培养学生使用这种交际工具的能力，英语口语作为听、读、写、译等基本语言技能之一，在英语教学中的重要性和紧迫性引起了业内外人士的高度重视。然而由于各种各样的原因，中职学校英语口语教学状况和收效不容乐观。因此，要想有效地提高学生的英语口语能力，教师就必须转变英语教学核心、营造课内外语言环境、培养学生学习英语的兴趣。对此，本文拟就作者自己在英语教学实践遇到教学现状进行分析，并提出解决策略。
1目前中职学校英语口语教学现状
1.1中职学校开设口语课偏少
在英语教学中存在着不重视口语现象，很多中职学校开设英语口语课较少，大约每周2节课，因此没有用足够的时间对学生进行口语训练。平时只教会学生说出很简单的日常用语，从而使学生接触讲英语时间较少，间隔长，学习口语得不到强化。
1.2教师在课堂上不注重学生口语训练
大部分的教师习惯在上课时不用英语组织教学，而用中文进行教学，只注重对学生读写能力的培养，消极被动地对待学生口语能力的培养。课堂上只讲词汇、语法，而不注意学生技能的培养，很少组织学生进行口语交际训练。据调查，85%的学生认识到在英语学习中口语练习做得少，95%的学生对目前课堂口语训练方法感到不满意，75%的学生对口语学习没有兴趣。这种现状直接影响到学生的口语水平提高。
1 .3学生英语基础差
绝大部分学生英语基础十分差，表现在阅读能力、听说能力差、语法薄弱，词汇量少，学习有一定的心理障碍。据调查，英语口语越差的学生越不喜欢开口说英语。因为他们有自卑心理，害怕说错，怕被人笑话，所以不敢开口说英语。因此训练英语的机会就很少，久而久之，形成一种恶性循环，最终造成英语口语水平的下降。
1.4班级学生多影响英语口语训练
一般来说，一个班级都有五、六十个学生，有的甚至更多。面对人数众多的班级，教师无法使每位学生有充足的时间和机会操练说英语，口语教学要求必须面向全体学生，课堂上组织全体学生操练口语十分困难，教师安排了全班朗读、分小组读、个人读和分角色读等，虽然是面对全体学生，但那仅仅是读书而已;分组操练之后的汇报和表演也只能选择几个小组，大部分学生只是观众，学生的表演积极性受到限制，口语训练收效甚微，这样，在一定程度上，影响了学习口语的提高。
1 .5教学方法单一，模式陈旧
目前，中职学校英语教学大多还是以老师讲、学生听的传统教学方法，满堂灌，忽视了学生能力的培养，限制了学生的思维，限制了学生学习潜能的发挥，教学活动中教师处于主导地位，学生处于被动、服从地位，学生几乎没有机会参与会话活动，在课堂上学生毫无选择地接受老师教授的一切，互动效果差。结果学生学得很疲劳，没有激情，教学效果很不理想。
1 .6缺乏必要的语言环境
真实、自然的语言环境是学习者语言学习获得成功的关键。学习语言离不开语言环境，语言掌握是在特定的语言环境中进行的。我国学生是在汉语单一语种的环境中学习英语的'，除了每周有限的几节英语课外，很少有接触英语的机会。课堂教学是英语教学与活动的主要场合。但是光靠课堂上的几十分钟来培养交际能力只不过是一种良好的愿望而已。无论教师怎样精心设计，学生怎样努力配合，没有课前课后的密切协调，都很难实现这一愿望。作为交际工具的语言就是人类生活的一部分。语言的学习也决非局限于课堂。缺乏英语语言环境几乎是每个中国学生在英语学习过程中遇到的最大的问题，特别是在口语练习中这个问题更为突出。
2提高中职学生英语口语能力的教学策略
2.有教师应全方位多层次渗透口语教学
口语教学不能只局限于学校开设的口语课，它还应该渗透到英语精读、英语视听、英语阅读和商务英语等其它的英语课堂，因为这些本来就是互相联系、协调发展的。例如:视听材料中的对话几乎都是日常英语，为学生提供了大量的口语范例。而在精读课堂上，教师可根据课文的中心思想，引导学生思考并尝试重组语言，复述课文，提问、小组讨论和抢答。从而创造性地运用语言，提高学生的英语口语能力。同时，商务英语中写作或翻译课上，教师还可以引导学生进行口头作文和翻译练习。通过这样可将传统的教师教、学生听的单向活动，变为师生之间、生生之间的互动交流活动。
渗透口语课堂。口语教学实践性比较强，而我们所能掌握的课堂时间非常有限，对于那些性格比较内向心理素质稍差的学生来说，口语练习的机会就更少。因此渗透英语口语课堂，增加学生的口语实践量，是提高学生学习兴趣和交际能力的有效途径。可以开展丰富多彩的课外活动，如读书活动、英语演讲比赛、英语晚会、英语角、唱英文歌曲、主动和外国人交谈等，把学生的主动权交还学生。
2.2提高教师的业务能力，改进教学方法
要培养学生流利的口语能力，教师必须首先具有流利、地道的口语能力。因此，教师应该注重自我的发展和进步，多学习多参加英语口语培训，不断地提高自己业务能力。其次，教师的教学方法应该多种多样:利用卡片、图片、多媒体、有声材料等资源，使教学变得有声有色，图文并茂、生动活泼;同时，也可以采取灵活多变的活动方式，如问答形式、小组讨论、角色扮演、辩论等形式，激发学生的学习英语兴趣。
2 .3形式多样的课堂活动能激发学生的学习兴趣
爱因斯坦说:“兴趣是最好的老师”。罗纳尔多自小喜欢足球运动，常常在街头踢球，正是出于对足球的狂热爱好，使他多年来不放弃追求自己的梦想，最终成为足球运动界的超级巨星。教学实践证明，如何激发学生学习英语的兴趣并把这份兴趣延续下来是何等重要，只有激发兴趣学习才收到良好的效果。因此，在口语课教学中，要根据教学内容，学生的兴趣，组织课堂发言、情景对话、角色扮演、看图说话、话题讨论、讲故事等各种各样丰富多彩的课堂活动，创造性地运用各种教学手段，尽可能地为学生提供口语练习的机会。如为了缩短课堂与实际生活的距离，将真实的生活引进课堂，在教学中不妨模拟生活情景，让学生在模拟生活中运用所学的知识进行训练。例如，在教Go shopping时，可以精心组织一个小超市，让一些学生扮演顾客，一些学生扮演售货员，让学生去说、去表演，诱发学生的表演欲，调动学生的积极性。又如:在教剑桥国际英语教程Unit 5 ; Goingplaces内容时，可以先为学生创设情境:To-morrow is Saturday. Where are we going?这一情境很快激发他们的学习热情，然后在情境中展开教学，让学生们各抒己见，有的说We are going to the People's Park.We are going to relax. We are going tosee the sea and lying on the beach andgoing surfing. We'll remember to bringsurfboardl We're going to the big libraryin our city to read all kinds of books在同学们的讨论中，教师依次将重难点适时适当的融人进去，使学生们在欢乐中掌握本课的内容，这样既能使学生进入角色进行语言实践，又培养了学生用英语进行交际的能力。同时一还要经常改变对话内容，参加对话的学生也不断轮换，增强学生的参与意识，使课本的知识形象化，激发了学生学习的兴趣，增强了口头表达能力。重视学生的能力表现。大家都知道，学生喜欢表现自己。因此，要经常在课堂上安排游戏、对话、小品表演等各种活动来丰富学生的学习内容，让学生获得运用所学语言达到交际的目的，这种偷悦的心理体验也会进一步激发学生学好英语的兴趣、成为鼓舞学生克服困难的强大动力。
Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies 二语词汇习得策略 [摘 要] 词汇是构成语言的基本单位，词汇习得在语言学习中占有重要地位。英国著名语言学家D.A. Wilkins (1972) 说过：“没有语法，人们不能表达很多东西；而没有词汇，人们则无法表达任何东西。”这就说明了词汇在学习中的重要性。本文旨在分析二语词汇习得策略并应用于不同水平的学习者。学习者根据自己的水平选择正确的习得方法和策略学习词汇，从而提高学习效率和习得效果。 关键字： 二语词汇习得 词汇习得策略 元认知策略 认知策略 Abstract Vocabulary is the basic unit of a language. Language acquisition plays an important role in language learning. Famous linguistics D. A. Wilkins said, “Without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed (Lewis, 1993:16).” It speaks volumes for the importance of vocabulary in language learning. This paper aims to analysis the second language acquisition strategies and applies to different levels of learners. According to the different levels, the learners should choose the proper methods and strategies to promote learning efficiency and acquisition effect. Key words: Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition； Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies； Metacognitive strategy； Cognitive strategy Introduction With economic globalization and multi-polarization of the world, especially the population of the internet, English becomes more and more important, because it is considered as the tool for absorbing and communicating information. As we all known, vocabulary acquisition is one of the most noticed-question of the second language learners. “Vocabulary” appears in the area of linguists’ study. Nowadays, researchers still can not give a complete and reasonable definition of vocabulary. Since 1970s, the second language vocabulary acquisition research has gradually become the hot point and important subject in the second language vocabulary acquisition research area. These researches aim to discuss the efficiency vocabulary memory strategies to promote the memory skills and vocabulary levels. Then how to acquire vocabulary become popular among the researchers. Wenden &Rubin (1987), O’Malley& Chamot (1990) refer to the content of vocabulary acquisition strategies; Rubin (1987) and Oxford (1990) classify the memory strategy to the direct cognitive strategies. Especially, CohenAphek (1981), Porte (1988), O’Malley (1990), Vann (90), Cohen (1990), etc made a basic searching of vocabulary acquisition. In a word, there are various opinions in how to acquire vocabulary. Firstly, it talks about the importance of vocabulary. Secondly, what does it mean to “acquire” a word? This paper mainly aims to the detail analysis of the vocabulary acquisition from three aspects：Meta-cognitive Strategy; Cognitive Strategy and Social or Affective Strategy. Especially, it highlights the effect of the context and rending to vocabulary acquisition. This paper talks about the applications of the vocabulary acquisition strategies. And it puts forward some problems and difficulties of vocabulary acquisition. This paper also discusses the influencing factors to the acquisition. It includes the mother tongue, age, language contact, logical thinking ability, identity degree, and academic motivation . The purpose of this paper is to rise the awareness of English learners that the importance of vocabulary in language learning and the vocabulary acquisition strategies can not be neglected, and each strategies is deeply rooted in its language. Through the analysis of the theory of study, the paper tries to draw the learner’s attention to the strategies of the second language vocabulary acquisition and using the vocabulary in communication. In order to improve the acquisition efficiency, some strategies put into practice are introduced. The first presents the importance of vocabulary, some basic concepts of vocabulary and vocabulary learning, the second part tells what does it mean to know a word, the third part deals with the theory of vocabulary acquisition and presents the factors and differences influencing the vocabulary acquisition. The fourth part is detailed discussion of vocabulary acquisition strategies in different levels of learners. The last part is conclusion. Literature review 1. The importance of vocabulary As the first time, when we go to school and our English teacher will tell us that vocabulary is of great importance in learning English. After several years, we understand words gradually, especially when we study in high school. If we know a little about vocabulary, we may have poor English. That is because the listening, speaking, reading and writing show the necessary of learning vocabulary. Many researchers agree that lexis is at least as important as structure, because it is using wrong words and not wrong grammar that usually breaks down communication. Mistakes in lexis much more often lead to misunderstanding and may be less generously tolerated outside classroom than mistakes in syntax. (Carter, 1987). As Stephen Krashen remarked, “When students travel, they don’t carry grammar books, they carry dictionaries. A significant role of vocabulary in both teaching and learning processes was first stated by Stephen Krashen in The Natural Approach (1985): “Vocabulary is basic for communication. If acquirers do not recognize the meaning of the key words used by those who address them they will be unable to participate in the conversation.” Words are basic tools in human communication; therefore they determine the main part of people’s life-relationships between people and associations with the surrounding world that people live in. The larger one’s vocabulary, the easier it is to express one’s thoughts and feelings. In real communication, correctly and idiomatically used vocabulary can even decrease some structural inaccuracy and grammar errors. (Zhang Jiying, 2002). So learners should enrich and expand their knowledge of words as much as possible in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language. 2. What does it mean to “know” a word? Knowing a word is not a simple phenomenon. In fact, it is quite complex and goes far beyond the word’s meaning and pronunciation. (Zhang Jiying, 2002). Richards (1976) think knowing a word means also knowing the frequency of words and their likely collocates; being aware of the functional and situation limitations that apply; knowledge of the “syntactic behavior”; derivational forms and word class; associative and connotative knowledge; semantic value-breaking down words into minimal units as with componential analysis (see Katz&Fodor1963or Leech1974); knowing the other (possible) meaning associated. Nagy and Scott (2000) identify several dimensions that describe the complexity of what it means to know a word. First, word knowledge is incremental, which means that readers need to have many exposures to a word in different contexts before they “know” it. Second, word knowledge is multidimensional. This is because many words have multiple meanings and serve different functions in different function in different sentences, texts, and even conversations. Third, word knowledge is interrelated in that knowledge of one word connects knowledge of other words. What all of this means is that “knowing” a word is a matter of degree rather than an all-or-nothing proposition (Beck&Mckeown, 1991; Nagy&Scott, 2000). The degree of knowing a word are reflected in the precision with which we use a word, how quickly we understand a word, and how well we understand and use words in different modes and different purpose. The memory strategy, cognitive strategy, social strategy and metacognitve strategy are used more frequently than the affective strategy and compensative strategy. Conclusion This paper has attempted to provide some theories of second language vocabulary acquisition and some strategies. Such as metacognitive strategy, cognitive strategy, and social strategy. However, this paper also put forward some microcosmic strategy. As a matter of fact, vocabulary acquisition should combine the context. In addition, this paper hasn’t mentioned that culture is also an important factor in vocabulary acquisition. In the study of second language vocabulary acquisition, we should pay attention to the process and the acquiring results. This paper focuses on the study of the second language vocabulary acquisition strategies. Bibliography [1] A.U. Chamot. The Learning Strategies of ESL Students. In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin, (eds), Learner Strategies in Language Learning, 1987. [2] Cater. R. and M. McCarthy. Vocabulary and Language Teaching. New York: Longman, 1987. [3] Nation, L. S. P. Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. New Newbury House Publishers, 1990. [4] O’Malley, J. & Chamot, A. U.. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition [J]. Cambridge University Press, 1990:12-15. [5] 陈桦，张益芳.中国儿童英语词汇记忆策略探究[J].外语学刊,2001(4). [11] 戴曼纯. 论第二语言词汇习得研究[J]. 外语教学与研究，2002(2). [12] 徐德凯.大学英语词汇教学理论与实践[M].长春：吉林出版集团有限责任公司，2009. [6] 王文宇.观念、策略与英语词汇记忆[J].外语教学与研究，1998(1). [13] 文秋芳. 英语学习策略论.上海：上海外语教育出版社，1996. [7] 吴霞，王蔷.非英语专业本科生词汇水平研究. 外语教学与研究，1998(1). [15] 张纪英.英语词汇学教学与研究[M]. 武汉：华中科技大学出版社,2007. [16] 朱厚敏. 英语词汇学习策略研究[M] 长春：吉林大学出版社，2009.
On suprasegmental features Introduction So far we havebeen talking about phonetic features as they apply to single phonetic segments,or phones. Phonetic features can also apply to a string of severalsounds, such as a syllable, or an entire word or utterance. The study ofphonological features which applies to groups larger than the single segment,are known as suprasegmentalfeatures, such as the syllable or the word. The study of these features is knownas prosody. It mainly includessyllable, stress, pitch, tone, and intonation. In this paper, I will talk aboutthe suprasegmental features ingreat detail. Key words: phonetic, suprasegmental. Syllable The most obvious prosodic feature in languageis the syllable. Let's briefly discuss the notion of syllables. Like all of our other basic linguistic concepts,although everyone knows what a syllable is, the concept "syllable" isdifficult to define in absolute terms. A syllable can be divided into threeparts, that is, onset, nucleus, and coda, of which nucleus is a must. Asyllable that has no coda is called an open syllable while a syllable with codais called a closed syllable. In English only long vowels and diphthongs canoccur in open syllables. The onset may be empty or filled by a cluster of asmany as three consonants, while the coda position may be filled as many as fourconsonants. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice asto where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.In some languages, syllables are always open,that is, they always end in a vowel, never a consonant. (Hawaiian) On the other hand, every Hawaiian syllable must begin with a consonant. (Aloha spoken as a single word beginsin a glottal stop.) In other languages, syllables are always closed; they mustend in a consonant (Navaho): Háá'ishah dididiljah. Let's build a fire. Táá diné 'ooljéé'go naaskai' Three men went to the moon. (LikeHawaiian, they must also begin in a consonant.)Stress The nature of stress The word stress is used differently bydifferent authors, and the relationship between stress, emphasis, accent andprominence is also defined differently. Robins has defined it as “a genericterm for the relatively greater force exerted in the articulation of part ofutterance”. The nature of stress is simple enough—practically everyone wouldagree that the first syllable of words like“father”, “open” is stressed, thatthe middle syllable is stressed in “potato”, “apartment” and the final syllableis stressed in “about”, “perhaps”, and most people feel they have some sort ofidea of what the difference is between stressed and unstressed syllables,though they might explain it in many different ways.The production of stress is generallybelieved to depend on the speaker using more muscular energy than is used forunstressed syllables. From the perceptual point of view, all stressed syllableshave one characteristic in common, and that is “prominence”. Roach hasmanifested that at least four different factors are important to make asyllable prominent:i) Loudness: Most people seem to feelthat stressed syllables are louder than unstressed ones; in other words,loudness is a component of prominence.ii) Length: The length of syllables hasan important part to play in prominence; the syllables which are made longerthan the others will be heard as stressed.iii) Pitch: Pitch in speech is closelyrelated to the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds and to the musicalnotion of low-pitched and high-pitched notes; if one syllable is said with apitch that is noticeably different from that of the others, this will have astrong tendency to produce the effect of prominence.iv) Quality: a syllable will tend to be prominentif it contains a vowel that is different in quality from neighboring vowels. Languages differ in how they use stress.1) In some languages, eachsyllable is equally stressed or unstressed，as in Cambodian2) the syllable in eachword is more stressed. Theplace of stress is fixed on acertain syllable:1) initial. Finnish,Hungarian and other Finno-Ugric languages2) penultimate. Polish,3) final. French.4) Complex set ofrules. In Bulgarian nouns and verbs have separate sets of rules forstress placement. Hopi (phonetic: first syllable of a two syllableword: síkwi meat; inwords of three or more syllables, accent falls on the first long vowel: máamatsi to recognize; or onthe first short vowel before a consonant cluster: péntani to write; otherwise it falls on thenext to last syllable: wunúvtu standup)The place of stress is random.1) In Russian the stress iscompletely random: xoroshó, xoróshi.2) In English the stress ismore predictable but still random. Usually a middle syllable of a longerword receives the stress. In two syllable words stress is rando and oftenrenders differences in meaning: project/toproject, produce/produce, and insult/ to insult. Some languages have more than one stress perword: English is such a language. In English, words of foursyllables or more have a primaryand a secondary stress. SomeEnglish compounds have phrasal stress on the first element of thecompound. Phrasal stress often distinguishes meaning in adjective/nouncombinations. Sentence stress in English According to He Shanfen (1992), Englishsentence stress has two main functions:⑴ to indicate the important words in thesentence; ⑵ to serve as thebasis for the rhythmic structure of the sentence. Consequently, in connected English speech,sentence stress usually falls on content ( or lexical) words, which carry thebasic meaning of a sentence, e.g. nouns, adjectives, adverbs etc. Those whichare usually unstressed in sentences are form (or structural) words, which showgrammatical relationships, such as articles, auxiliary and modal verbs,monosyllabic prepositions, etc.Pitch Another prosodic feature is pitch, defined as the frequency ofvibration of vocal cords. Pitch is measured in hertzes. Physiologically, pitch tends to be higher inwoman than in men and higher before puberty than after puberty. Also, thepitch of women's voices tends to lower with old age; the pitch of men's voicestends to get higher with age. Despite these physiological, non-linguisticuniversal, each language uses pitch distinctions for linguisticallymeaningful purposes. Startingfrom the lowest pitch on the initial syllable, the pitch of each subsequentsyllable raises until the word reaches the "peak". From that point,pitch either remains at the same level for the remainder of the word or itdrops again. The choice between maintenance of high pitch or allowing it todrop is a matter of formality: pitch is maintained in formal or careful speech,but dropped in colloquial usage.七．ConclusionBeing the most important part, suprasegmental features can not be despised in phonology research.From the whole passage, we can understand that suprasegmentalfeatures not only has its phonology significance, but also the practicaluse as well. We can not say this person is a good language user just by his orher vocabulary, as well as the grammar. Spoken language is also very useful. Ido hope that the paper will be sufficient to prove that suprasegmental features is an efficient way for our studies and encouragemore and more students to pay attention to using it.Reference【1】CaoJianfen. The Rhythm of Mandarin Chinese. Instituteof Linguistics of Chinese Academyof Social Science. RPR-IL/CASS (2000-2002).【2】Chen Ying.2001. Contrastive Study of Suprasegmental Phonology in English and Chinese: aFunctional Perspective. MA: Southwest China Normal University.【3】Chomsky,N. & Halle,M. 1968. The Sound Pattern of English. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers.
关于英语语言学的论文，论文题目和主要内容已列出，供参考。链接附后1.题目：语言学英文版论文。主要内容：该论文主要讲词汇是构成语言的基本单位，词汇习得在语言学习中占有重要地位。英国著名语言学家D.A. Wilkins (1972) 说过：“没有语法，人们不能表达很多东西；而没有词汇，人们则无法表达任何东西。”这就说明了词汇在学习中的重要性。本文旨在分析二语词汇习得策略并应用于不同水平的学习者。学习者根据自己的水平选择正确的习得方法和策略学习词汇，从而提高学习效率和习得效果。http://wenku.baidu.com/link?url=SXkEsiMcpfqhM3IdT5ZZ97aNTmwfO_74dvJoNSWoCp2FIyudzpd1uBSgh2ccFJS6RN7xNBPb9WFk_matYEwCRT0EMxynK7D_vYN7D59Og5G2.题目：.英语专业毕业论文(语言学)——谈判英语文化差异。主要内容：该论文主要讲国际商务谈判中文化差异的影响，就是汉语习惯思维和西方语言文化之间表达的准确性对商务谈判带来的影响。http://wenku.baidu.com/view/ef2d20e09b89680203d825be.html4.题目：外国语言学及应用语言学硕士论文：商务英语信函的词汇特点研究，主要内容：商务英语信函词汇的选择和应用多呈现如下7种特点：1)简单词汇的选择。2)具体词汇多于笼统词汇。3)褒义词多于贬义词。4)缩写词的选择。5)确切词汇多于模糊词汇。6)礼貌、客气的词汇多于不礼貌的词汇。7)商业术语的选择。产生的原因多取决于商务活动的和商业伙伴的合作关系。商务活动的双方均为达至双赢的进行合作。这是本文所分析的词汇特点产生的主要原因。
经典美文,经得起时间的考验,被历史证明是最有价值、最重要的文化精髓,思想宏远,构思巧妙,语言精美。我整理了英语美文小短文200字，欢迎阅读!
Spirit is a monument, is a cornerstone, is on the way of life is brilliant, ruler. A modest, being the Confucius YinChu hits, "two heads are better than one, slowly," fools, generation Confucianism masters, With tolerance, ambitious, daring JiHuanGong devoid of nay, appoint people by abilities, achievement, generation vista dominance, With firmness, lonely lonely YuFen SuWu of sorrow, always don\'t throw away the hand that race day, the heart of han motherland, patriotic model; the cadre A dedication, kindness and plain, the ordinary XuHuCai can years like one day, warm feeling, sprinkle the people, to today\'s "living lei feng." … Through history, tunnel, through history, forever will hold the grand mansion lofty life.
精神是一座丰碑，是一块基石，是前进道路上的灯塔，是灿烂人生的标尺。有了谦虚，学富五车、才高八斗的孔子缓缓吟出"三人行，必有我师",不耻下问，终成一代儒学大师;有了宽容，雄心勃勃、意气风发的齐桓公摈弃私仇，任人唯贤，成就千秋伟业，终成一代霸主;有了坚贞，寂寞忧愁、孤寂郁愤的苏武始终不扔掉手中的汉使族节，心系祖国，终成千秋爱国楷模;有了奉献，善良质朴、平凡无闻的徐虎才能够十年如一日，情洒百姓，温暖万家，终成当今的"活雷锋".……精神，穿越历史隧道，趟过历史长河，将永远撑起人生巍峨壮观的大厦。
Father had a family of sons who were perpetually quarrelling among themselves. When he failed to heal their disputes by his exhortations, he determined to give them a practical illustration of the evils of disunion; and for this purpose he one day told them to bring him a bundle of sticks. When they had done so, he placed the faggot into the hands of each of them in succession, and ordered them to break it in pieces. They each tried with all their strength, and were not able to do it.
He next unclosed the faggot, and took the sticks separately, one by one, and again put them into their hands, on which they broke them easily. He then addressed them in these words: "My sons, if you are of one mind, and unite to assist each other, you will be as this faggot, uninjured by all the attempts of your enemies; but if you are divided among yourselves, you will be broken as easily as these sticks."
一位父亲有几个孩子，这些孩子时常发生口角。他丝毫没有办法来劝阻他们，只好让他们看看不合群所带来害处的例子。为了达到这个目的，有一天他叫他们替他拿一捆细柴来。当他们把柴带来时，他便先后地将那捆柴放在每一个孩子的手中，吩咐他们弄断这捆柴。他们一个个尽力去试，总是不能成功。
然后他解开那捆柴，一根根地放在他们手里，如此一来，他们便毫不费力地折断了。于是他就告诉他们说："孩子们!如果你们大家团结一致，互相帮助，你们就像这捆柴一样，不能被你们的敌人折断;但如果你们自行分裂，你们就将和这些散柴一般，不堪一折了。"
Replace Negative Influences with positive Ones
It is important that you identify external negative factors in your life which may be holding your thoughts hostage. For instance, your mental state can become toxic by being around friends who are negative. If you are not vigilant enough, you will start to adopt their thoughts as your own. Hence, be alert to what your negative influences are. If they come from certain friends, limit your exposure to them as much as you can. Refrain from discussing your plans with people who will be unsupportive of your dreams and goals.
Instead surround yourself with thoughts and actions from people who will empower you.
From being uninspired and de-motivated, you will begin to feel uplifted and driven to greater self growth. The positive energy that they vibrate will start affecting the self talk that you engage in as well.
随着全球化进程的推进,国际交流合作与竞争日益加强,英语能力成为衡量我国高素质人才的重要指标之一,因此许多用人单位将英语作为衡量应聘者的重要条件。我整理了关于200字英语短文，欢迎阅读!
When I was in grade four in primary school, my father taught me how to use computer. After that, I was very interested in playing computer. I watched movies, played computer games, searched the Internet and listened to the music on computer.
Because my father must work in his computer, so he bought another for me. I was very happy that I had my own computer. It was put in the study. I am always very careful to use my computer, because I am worried I would break. I often chat with my net friends. Because of my computer, I make many friends who have many in common. Of course, I use my computer in study. There are resources on the Internet. I can learn more after class. It does great help to me.
Computer games is a hot topic nowadays. Some people hold that it is bad. And others hold that it is good. In my view, whether good or bad is determined by the players.
If one plays computer game properly in his spare time, computer games can be an excellent source of joy. For example, something impossible in your real life can be realized in the computer home.sanwen8.cn
games. You can pilot a space craft and travel in the universe. Every coin has two sides. If one plays computer game excessivly, it may affects his eyesight and study.
the computer games itself is only a tool like knife. If we use it properly, it can pare apples. But if we use it to attack others. It immediatly becomes an lethal weapon.
Football is connected with the people throughout the world.It has become a part of people's life..Every day, man), football matches are going on here and there around the world. Pick up a newspaper and you can learn the the results of the football matches. We enjoy playing football, watching football games after work. During the football matches of the World Cup,millions of people watch the matches on TV. When their favorite teams win, they will give them three cheers. When they fail,they feel sad. We all hope our national team will be the strongest one in the world.
The Dragon Boat Festival， also called Double Fifth Festival， is celebrated on the fifth day of the fifth moon of the lunar calendar. It is one of the most important Chinese festivals，the other two being the Autumn Moon Festival and Chinese New Year.
The origin of this summer festival centers around a scholarly government official named Chu Yuan. He was a good and respected man，but because of the misdeeds of jealous rivals he eventually fell into disfavor in the emperor"s court.
Unable to regain the respect of the emperor，in his sorrow Chu Yuan threw himself into the Mi Low river. Because of their admiration for Chu Yuan， the local people living adjacent to the Mi Lo River rushed into their boats to search for him while throwing rice into the waters to appease the river dragons.
Although they were unable to find Chu Yuan，their efforts are still commemorated today during the Dragon Boat Festival.
中文翻译
端午节，又称为五五节，因为端午节是在农历的五月五日，是三个重要的中国节庆之一，其他两个分别是中秋节和农历新年。
这个节日的由来是古代中国有一位博学多闻的官吏屈原，他是一位爱民而且又受到尊崇的官吏，但是由於一位充满嫉妒的官吏陷害，从此在朝廷中被皇帝所冷落。由於无法获得皇帝的重视，屈原在忧郁的情况下投汨罗江自尽。
由於对屈原的爱戴，汨罗江畔的居民匆忙的划船在江内寻找屈原，并且将米丢入汨罗江中，以平息汨罗江中的蛟龙。即使他们当时并没有找到屈原，但是他们的行为，直到今天在端午节的时候，仍然被人们传颂纪念著。
毕业论文主要研究方法有以下：
一、语言学（语言学一般理论的研究）。
二、英美文学（英美文学的文化研究、作品分析等）。
三、翻译学（翻译理论与实践探讨、译本研究以及名家名著翻译作品对比研究等）。
四、英美文化（英美加澳新等西方国家文化以及与汉文化的比较研究）。
五、教学法（英语教学法、测试学等方面的研究）。
英语专业论文参考选题
1. A Brief Analysis of the Heroine Personality in Jane Eyre 《简爱》的主人翁个性分析。
2. A Brief Comment on O’Henry Short Stories 亨利的短篇小说述评。
3. A Comment on Hardy’s Fatalism 评哈代的宿命论。
4. A Comparison between the Themes of Pilgrimage to the Wes t and Pilgrim’s Progress 《西游记》与《天路历程》主题的比较。
5. A Probe into the Feminist Idea of Jane Eyre 《简爱》男女平等思想的探索。
毕业论文主要研究方法有以下：一、语言学（语言学一般理论的研究）。二、英美文学（英美文学的文化研究、作品分析等）。三、翻译学（翻译理论与实践探讨、译本研究以及名家名著翻译作品对比研究等）。四、英美文化（英美加澳新等西方国家文化以及与汉文化的比较研究）。五、教学法（英语教学法、测试学等方面的研究）。
翻译论文研究方法有哪些_论文研究方法有哪些文库_大学论文研究方法有哪几种写论文时具体使用的研究方法是什么调查法调查法是科研中最常用的方法之一。 是一种有目的、有计划、系统地收集研究对象现实情况和历史情况资料的方法。 调查方法是科研常用的基本研究方法，综合运用历史法、观察法等方法和对话、问卷调查、案例研究、测试等科学方式，规划、周密、系统地进行教学现象…… .论文翻译中常用的翻译方法是什么论文翻译中常用的翻译方法是根据英汉两种语言的不同思维方式、语言习惯和表达方式，在翻译时添加一些词、句子或句子，更加准确地表达原文中的含义汉语文学专业论文的研究方法是什么1、文献法文献法是一种古老而富有生命力的科学研究方法。 每个社会活动都想留下永久的痕迹，但各种各样的文献都不可或缺。 人的活动和认识的无限性与个人的生命和认识的有限性的矛盾决定了我们在研究死亡事实时必须依赖文献。 比较研究法作为一种思维方式，比较研究通晓教育研究的全部…… .论文中的研究方法翻译本文采用的研究方法主要是概念…… .theresearchmethodofthistexthasadoptedmainlyincludes : conceptanalysismethod，evidence anal“本论文主要研究内容如下”如何翻译正确？您可以这样翻译theminstarerecontofthispareareasfollows或theminstocontofthisthesareasfollows论文中的研究方法翻译^_^theresereationmetofthisthethasedpatedmainlyincludes : conceptanalysismethod，evidence analysis method，comparison analysis method ww毕业论文的研究方法应该怎么写？研究思路、研究方法、技术路线和实施步骤1、研究如何确定研究课题科学研究是问题―问题―课题教学是研究(掌握方法很重要，否则不是研究)。 进步和成果增长。 教育科学研究的课题主要来自两个方面： a .实践的来源—客观存在或潜在的教育实际问题，教育教育实践本身存在的问题…… .英语论文开头报告的研究方法和手段如何翻译？你的开题报告有什么要求？ 开题报告书需要多少字？ 具体形式的要求是什么？ 我希望你能帮助我。 顺利的开题报告主要包括以下几点。 (1)论文名称是课题名称的第一，名称必须正确规范。 正确地说，论文的名称必须明确论文研究的问题是什么、研究的对象是什么、论文是什么…… .英语专业论文、研究用语的翻译、研究方法是什么？研究方法Method这就够了英语毕业论文题目：从XX理论到散文翻译以XXX为例的文献综述是怎么写的？翻译方向的英语毕业论文可探讨某理论应用于英语翻译。 (选题越具体越好)，但还是要注意一些问题： 1。 这个理论不太古老，可以表达你的新意2 .例如从名家的翻译中选择，典型的3 .请从这个理论本身开始：论述这个理论的提出和发展现状，并且重点研究翻译的起源，最后进行总结。 …是.
外国电视剧英语论文有定性和定量的研究方法。英文论文写作要先做出摘要引言，然后提出一些理论，最后通过一定的论点查找到问题，解决问题的一个过程，提出问题是依据现状来说，解决问题需要解决你提出的问题。定性方法是 研究者可以作为局外人观察要研究的现象，让一切本来的规律去发生，发展。