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恩，我下周就好了。你要不要先看看英文版的？
English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge Civil Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economyAncient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering Century from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering 土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃
土木工程的key哀，速度，
土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge Civil Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economyAncient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering Century from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering
可以去自己学习的图书馆电子阅览室寻找资源
on the After many failures, however, thi
你是哪个省的啊 看看如果可以的话 可以给你一份全面的
土木工程常用英文期刊集粹土木工程常用英文期刊集粹Chaos, Solit***** and Fractals Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering Computers and Structures Engineering Structures European Journal of Mechanics - A/Solids Finite Elements in Analysis and Design International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics International Journal of Solids and Structures Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics Reliability Engineering and System Safety Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering Structural Safety Thin-Walled Structures ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanics Journal of Structural Engineering Academic Press Journal of Sound and Vibration IOS Press Shock and Vibration ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics Applied Mechanics Review John Wiley&S*****, L International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics Spring-Verlag Archive of Applied Mechanics Computational Mechanics Structural Optimization Kluwer Academic Publishers Nonlinear Dynamics AIAA AIAA Journal ACI Structural Journal Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering Civil Engineering and Environmental Systems Structural engineering and Mechanics 所列期刊基本上都是属于SCI检索范围 属土木类的顶级刊物,搞科研不可不看哦田间阡陌2010-05-14 10:44我是搞桥梁抗震的：1 Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering(Springer)《地震工程通报》刊载地震工程研究方面的原始论文及跨学科文章。2 Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America (GSW)《美国地震学会通报》美国地震学会刊物，刊载地震学、地震工程及相关领域研究论文。在地震学核心刊物中排名第18。2004年影响因子IF：8123 Canadian Geotechnical Journal (Canada NRC) 《加拿大土工杂志》是世界上地球勘察领域的三大学术期刊之一。其内容涉及地层基础，挖掘，土壤资源，水坝，筑堤，斜坡，地下水利的新发展，岩石工程，地球化学，废物管理和输送，土壤冻结，结冰，下雪，海岸土壤以及地缘战略学。4 Clay Minerals (GSW) 《粘土矿物》刊载粘土与粘土矿物分析、物理与化学性质、地质与土壤研究以及粘土矿的利用等方面的研究论文。在矿物学核心刊物中排名第12位，2005年影响因子IF：1845 Computational Geosciences (Springer) 《计算地球科学》 刊载以数学模拟、仿真模拟、数据分析、形象化、反演等手段研究地球科学的高质量论文。6 Disasters (Wiley Black) 《灾害》刊载研究各种自然灾害（地震、洪水、热带风暴等）的预防政策制定及其实施等方面学术论文、实地研究文章、会议报告和书评。7 Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics (Wiley) 《地震工程与结构动力学》 国际地震工程学会会刊。发表地震工程及其他动力负荷形式的研究文章，涉及地震频度、地面运动、土壤扩展与破坏、动力学分析方法、结构实验性能、震情分析等，兼载书评与会议消息。8 Natural Hazards (Springer) 《自然灾害》刊载自然灾害和技术性灾害的物理问题、灾难事件预测统计学、风险评价、灾害先兆的性质等方面的研究论文、评论、实例分析等，兼及相关的社会与政治问题及学术界动态。9 Natural Hazards Observer (NH R & A I Center) 《自然灾害观察者》报道地震、洪水等自然灾害的研究、计划与活动。10 Nonlinear Processes in G (AGU) 《地球物理学中的非线性过程》主要刊登以下两方面真正有创造性贡献的文章：动力学系统理论和应用非线性方法研究地球物理学基础问题。11Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology (GSW) 《工程地质学与水文地质学季刊》伦敦地质学会（GSL）刊物，刊载地质学在土木工程、采矿及水资源开发等领域的应用论文与评论。2004年影响因子IF：8912Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (Springer) 《岩石力学与岩石工程》刊载工程地质学、岩石工程、土壤力学、岩石力学等领域的实验、理论和应用方面的研究论文。我看了一下楼主列出的期刊，里面没有的我就补充了一下，这里给出的是我常用到的，主要是地震学、灾害学、地震工程学方面，大家可以看一看。如果有重复的，可能是我没有看仔细，还请见谅。
你是哪个省的啊 看看如果可以的话 可以给你一份全面的
有一篇施工监控的论文，你查收一下吧，希望对你有用！
这个要靠你自己找了,你可以上万方网找,还有那也可以找的但你们学校必须买那样的数据库
恩，我下周就好了。你要不要先看看英文版的？
我把我写的那篇给你吧 反正我也交了C) Civil Engineering Research Institute of Gansu, opportunities and threat analysis The opportunity to analyze the external environment since 1992, China's construction market has expanded gradually standardized, project bidding system and the construction supervision system and gradually implement and perfect, engineering consulting With the new business development, engineering consulting industry policy and legal environment for continuous Shiliu Da Party clearly pointed out to encourage and develop the third industry, accelerate the development of services for the China Engineering Consulting provides policy Countries are committed to development of related laws and policies to build a fair, just, open and orderly market, so that the legal system and market standardized management processes faster, thus carrying out engineering consulting business to create a good competitive Whole range of services to increase market demand, "one-stop" service demand The previous range of various types of engineering consulting services to include only projects a certain stage, or even just for a single phase of the part of the project legal often require different stages of project construction to select a different consulting firm, which makes the whole project consulting services a lack of And now because of investment diversification and engineering service needs of the construction process is the all-round development of the whole process, Gansu Research Institute of Civil Engineering works as a comprehensive scientific consulting firms precisely to meet this "one-stop" service needs Construction market business With the national key project construction and other types of investors to increase investment, engineering consulting industry is faced with unlimited business Over the next 10 years, China's housing construction peak, 15 to reach 7 billion during the expansion, by 2005 China's urban per capita housing area will reach 22 o' To promote Well-known American economist, Nobel Prize winner Joseph E Stiglitz at the World Bank conference in terms of: the 21st century the most important influences on human process, there are two things: First, China's urbanization, the second is a new technological China's urbanization rate in 2020 should reach 50% Analysis of the external threats to the environment in adverse market Currently engineering consulting industry peers competition between the increasing pressure, with disorderly competition between the industry, mainly because: the industry access to the policy is relaxed, a large number of new entrants making a relatively large number of engineering consulting firm, and the annual increase rapidly, out of Engineering Consulting Company homogenization between the serious, obvious differences between Various types of engineering consulting fees difficult to implement, keep the prices down to compete very Market demand for those who choose engineering consulting firm conversion relatively Social identity degree of Engineering consulting industry in the whole community to the status and role of the lack of knowledge and its degree of recognition is also far from In developed countries (such as the United Kingdom, United States, Germany, ), engineering consulting services engineering staff are mostly the elite belong to the high intelligence and complex talent and their intelligence services to obtain from the value of knowledge consistent with their high However, the province's engineering consultants have not been duly recognized in society and the government, the most representative is the industry has called for an increase in fees and The relative concentration of In accordance with a small number of key principles, engineering consulting company's main business by a small number of key customers to provide these critical services to customers in the engineering consulting fees have greater bargaining power, can often presses is relatively Gansu Research Institute of Civil Engineering and is currently on the frequently encountered such a The threat of potential China's accession to WTO, with the entry into force of government commitment, China's engineering consulting industry is already beginning to confront the threat of international engineering consulting Many of the world-renowned large-scale engineering consulting organizations, are trying to expand their business in China through a variety of At present, the world's top 200 engineering consulting company, has more than 150 assigned to China, these companies market their operational capability, management level and in such aspects as funding account for a large With the further liberalization of China's engineering consulting market, the country's various protection measures for the gradual abolition, these companies will inevitably beings, with our engineering consulting firms to snatch the market, and thus by potential entrants to become The threat of In accordance with national laws and regulations to allow owners of long-term construction projects, such as a large business or real estate investment company that has a dedicated construction management team, a relatively sound institutional system, the quality of personnel was also higher under the premise of free to complete the construction certain stages of work, rather than entrusted to a professional engineering consulting (D) of Gansu Academy of Marketing Science in Civil Engineering Problems in the Civil Engineering Research Institute of Gansu Province in the development of engineering consulting industry, the market has done a lot of efforts and achieved some good results, but under the conditions of market economy, marketing, engineering consulting inadequate grasp of the activities of law, lack of scientific marketing Currently, Gansu Academy of Marketing Science Civil Engineering There are following problems: 1, senior marketing management in place, lack of marketing mechanism is currently the Civil Engineering Research Institute of Gansu high-level management positions, there is no marketing functions, shown in Figure 1, this senior management of absence has brought a lot of First of all, the lack of marketing mechanisms, the Gansu Research Institute of Civil Engineering, Engineering Consulting Marketing completely spontaneous marketing stage in order to survive, seemingly full of marketing, but in reality various departments like marketing, does not command a Secondly, the marketing advantages of individual secondary sector can not be used for the whole institution, the enterprise's overall marketing functions of the greatly Affect the efficiency of selling many of the problems can not be resolved at a high level of hospital-wide adverse impact on marketing performance, marketing, lack of direction Market positioning is unknown, competitive advantage can not play two different business units in different markets to develop a single business consulting market, internal conflicts, marketing resources can not be focused on the use of hospital-wide can not form a competitive Weak corporate brand awareness, organizational culture is not conducive to the development of enterprises due to the current practice of Gansu Research Institute of Civil Engineering, the project responsibility system, each employee in the market are the equivalent of an independent consulting firm, and sometimes criticize each other for personal gain or strife, organizational culture is not conducive to long-term development of enterprises and brand image of the The industry's products less competitive in Gansu Civil Engineering consulting services with scientific research institutes, consulting services for all single-qualification due to the low barriers to entry, the nature of a large number of private companies have joined, leading to homogenization of severe service products, is facing fierce competition in the market Consulting service quality due to the lack of unified management of organizations in the technical quality of sector work is usually routine in-house office, there is no technical management and quality management functions, and thus the two units of the depth of consulting services, lack of standard 可以的话采纳我的
你是哪个省的啊 看看如果可以的话 可以给你一份全面的
1钢筋混凝土 素混凝土是由水泥、水、细骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空气，通常还有其他外加剂等经过凝固硬化而成。将可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板内，并将其捣实，然后进行养护，以加速水泥与水的水化反应，最后获得硬化的混凝土。其最终制成品具有较高的抗压强度和较低的抗拉强度。其抗拉强度约为抗压强度的十分之一。因此，截面的受拉区必须配置抗拉钢筋和抗剪钢筋以增加钢筋混凝土构件中较弱的受拉区的强度。 由于钢筋混凝土截面在均质性上与标准的木材或钢的截面存在着差异，因此，需要对结构设计的基本原理进行修改。将钢筋混凝土这种非均质截面的两种组成部分按一定比例适当布置，可以最好的利用这两种材料。这一要求是可以达到的。因混凝土由配料搅拌成湿拌合物，经过振捣并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一种需要的形状。如果拌制混凝土的各种材料配合比恰当，则混凝土制成品的强度较高，经久耐用，配置钢筋后，可以作为任何结构体系的主要构件。 浇筑混凝土所需要的技术取决于即将浇筑的构件类型，诸如：柱、梁、墙、板、基础，大体积混凝土水坝或者继续延长已浇筑完毕并且已经凝固的混凝土等。对于梁、柱、墙等构件，当模板清理干净后应该在其上涂油，钢筋表面的锈及其他有害物质也应该被清除干净。浇筑基础前，应将坑底土夯实并用水浸湿6英寸，以免土壤从新浇的混凝土中吸收水分。一般情况下，除使用混凝土泵浇筑外，混凝土都应在水平方向分层浇筑，并使用插入式或表面式高频电动振捣器捣实。必须记住，过分的振捣将导致骨料离析和混凝土泌浆等现象，因而是有害的。 水泥的水化作用发生在有水分存在，而且气温在50°F以上的条件下。为了保证水泥的水化作用得以进行，必须具备上述条件。如果干燥过快则会出现表面裂缝，这将有损与混凝土的强度，同时也会影响到水泥水化作用的充分进行。 设计钢筋混凝土构件时显然需要处理大量的参数，诸如宽度、高度等几何尺寸，配筋的面积，钢筋的应变和混凝土的应变，钢筋的应力等等。因此，在选择混凝土截面时需要进行试算并作调整，根据施工现场条件、混凝土原材料的供应情况、业主提出的特殊要求、对建筑和净空高度的要求、所用的设计规范以及建筑物周围环境条件等最后确定截面。钢筋混凝土通常是现场浇注的合成材料，它与在工厂中制造的标准的钢结构梁、柱等不同，因此对于上面所提到的一系列因素必须予以考虑。 对结构体系的各个部位均需选定试算截面并进行验算，以确定该截面的名义强度是否足以承受所作用的计算荷载。由于经常需要进行多次试算，才能求出所需的 3 截面，因此设计时第一次采用的数值将导致一系列的试算与调整工作。 选择混凝土截面时，采用试算与调整过程可以使复核与设计结合在一起。因此，当试算截面选定后，每次设计都是对截面进行复核。手册、图表和微型计算机以及专用程序的使用，使这种设计方法更为简捷有效，而传统的方法则是把钢筋混凝土的复核与单纯的设计分别进行处理。 2土方工程 由于和土木工程中任何其他工种的施工方法与费用相比较，土方挖运的施工方法与费用的变化都要快得多，因此对于有事业心的人来说，土方工程是一个可以大有作为的领域。在1935年，目前采用的利用轮胎式机械设备进行土方挖运的方法大多数还没有出现。那是大部分土方是采用窄轨铁路运输，在这目前来说是很少采用的。当时主要的开挖方式是使用正铲、反铲、拉铲或抓斗等挖土机，尽管这些机械目前仍然在广泛应用，但是它们只不过是目前所采用的许多方法中的一小部分。因此，一个工程师为了使自己在土方挖运设备方面的知识跟得上时代的发展，他应当花费一些时间去研究现代的机械。一般说来，有关挖土机、装载机和运输机械的唯一可靠而又最新的资料可以从制造厂商处获得。 土方工程或土方挖运工程指的是把地表面过高处的土壤挖去（挖方），并把它倾卸到地表面过低的其他地方（填方）。为了降低土方工程费用，填方量应该等于挖方量，而且挖方地点应该尽可能靠近土方量相等的填方地点，以减少运输量和填方的二次搬运。土方设计这项工作落到了从事道路设计的工程师的身上，因为土方工程的设计比其他任何工作更能决定工程造价是否低廉。根据现有的地图和标高，道路工程师应在设计绘图室中的工作也并不是徒劳的。它将帮助他在最短的时间内获得最好的方案。 费用最低的运土方法是用同一台机械直接挖方取土并且卸土作为填方。这并不是经常可以做到的，但是如果能够做到则是很理想的，因为这样做既快捷又省钱。拉铲挖土机。推土机和正铲挖土机都能做到这点。拉铲挖土机的工作半径最大。推土机所推运的图的数量最多，只是运输距离很短。拉铲挖土机的缺点是只能挖比它本身低的土，不能施加压力挖入压实的土壤内，不能在陡坡上挖土，而且挖。卸都不准确。 正铲挖土机介于推土机和拉铲挖土机的之间，其作用半径大于推土机，但小于拉铲挖土机。正铲挖土机能挖取竖直陡峭的工作面，这种方式对推土机司机来说是危险的，而对拉铲挖土机则是不可能的。每种机械设备应该进行最适合它的性能的作业。正铲挖土机不能挖比其停机平面低很多的土，而深挖坚实的土壤时，反铲挖土机最适用，但其卸料半径比起装有正铲的同一挖土机的卸料半径则要小很多。在比较平坦的场地开挖，如果用拉铲或正铲挖土机运输距离太远时，则装有轮胎式的斗式铲运机就是比不可少的。它能在比较平的地面上挖较深的土（但只能挖机械本身下面的土），需要时可以将土运至几百米远，然后卸土并在卸土的过程中把土大致铲平。在挖掘硬土时，人们发现在开挖场地经常用一辆助推拖拉机（轮式或履带式），对返回挖土的铲运机进行助推这种施工方法是经济的。一旦铲运机装满，助推拖拉机就回到开挖的地点去帮助下一台铲运机。 斗式铲运机通常是功率非常大的机械，许多厂家制造的铲运机铲斗容量为8 m³，满载时可达10 m³。最大的自行式铲运机铲斗容量为19立方米（满载时为25 m³），由430马力的牵引发动机驱动。 翻斗机可能是使用最为普遍的轮胎式运输设备，因为它们还可以被用来送混凝土或者其他建筑材料。翻斗车的车斗位于大橡胶轮胎车轮前轴的上方，尽管铰接式翻斗车的卸料方向有很多种，但大多数车斗是向前翻转的。最小的翻斗车的容量大约为5立方米，而最大的标准型翻斗车的容量大约为5m³。特殊型式的翻斗车包括容量为4 m³的自装式翻斗车，和容量约为5 m³的铰接式翻斗车。必须记住翻斗车与自卸卡车之间的区别。翻斗车车斗向前倾翻而司机坐在后方卸载，因此有时被称为后卸卡车。 3结构的安全度 规范的主要目的是提供一般性的设计原理和计算方法，以便验算结构的安全度。就目前的趋势而言，安全系数与所使用的材料性质及其组织情况无关，通常把它定义为发生破坏的条件与结构可预料的最不利的工作条件之比值。这个比值还与结构的破坏概率（危险率）成反比。 破坏不仅仅指结构的整体破坏，而且还指结构不能正常的使用，或者，用更为确切的话来说，把破坏看成是结构已经达到不能继续承担其设计荷载的“极限状态”。通常有两种类型的极限状态，即： （1）强度极限状态，它相当于结构能够达到的最大承载能力。其例子包括结构的局部屈曲和整体不稳定性；某此界面失效，随后结构转变为机构；疲劳破坏；引起结构几何形状显著变化的弹性变形或塑性变形或徐变；结构对交变荷载、火灾和爆炸的敏感性。 （2）使用极限状态，它对应着结构的使用功能和耐久性。器例子包括结构失稳之前的过大变形和位移；早期开裂或过大的裂缝；较大的振动和腐蚀。 根据不同的安全度条件，可以把结构验算所采用的计算方法分成： （1）确定性的方法，在这种方法中，把主要参数看作非随机参数。 （2）概率方法，在这种方法中，主要参数被认为是随机参数。此外，根据安全系数的不同用途，可以把结构的计算方法分为： （1）容许应力法，在这种方法中，把结构承受最大荷载时计算得到的应力与经过按规定的安全系数进行折减后的材料强度作比较。 （2）极限状态法，在这种方法中，结构的工作状态是以其最大强度为依据来衡量的。由理论分析确定的这一最大强度应不小于结构承受计算荷载所算得的强度（极限状态）。计算荷载等于分别乘以荷载系数的活载与恒载之和。 把对应于不乘以荷载系数的活载和恒载的工作（使用）条件的应力与规定值（使用极限状态）相比较。根据前两种方法和后两种方法的四种可能组合，我们可以得到一些实用的计算方法。通常采用下面两种计算方法： 确定性的方法，这种方法采用容许应力。 概率方法，这种方法采用极限状态。 至少在理论上，概率法的主要优点是可以科学的考虑所有随机安全系数，然后将这些随机安全系数组合成确定的安全系数。概率法取决于： 1 Reinforced Concrete Plain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of 答题实属不易，请楼主谅解，求采纳~
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