外汇论文外文参考文献

国际贸易论文参考文献

在现实的学习、工作中，说到论文，大家肯定都不陌生吧，通过论文写作可以培养我们的科学研究能力。如何写一篇有思想、有文采的论文呢？下面是我收集整理的国际贸易论文参考文献，供大家参考借鉴，希望可以帮助到有需要的朋友！

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三、对实证结果的分析从我国货币供给机制来看，目前我国基础货币的投放主要通过4条渠道：一是对金融机构的再贴现和再贷款；二是外汇占款；三是对财政贷款或透支；四是央行的直接贷款。我国近年来连续呈现国际收支顺差，外汇储备规模不断增加，使外汇占款逐渐成为基础货币投放的主要渠道，这一点可从1995年汇率改革以后我国外汇占款占基础货币的比重可以看出，如表4所示。我国外汇储备一直处于较快的增长状态，究其原因，一方面，这和我国企业的结售汇制度有密切关系。根据我国结售汇制度规定，企业超过限额的外汇收入必须在45天内进行结汇，而用汇时须从银行购买。对于外汇指定的银行也只能持有额定的外汇，多余或不足的部分通过银行间外汇市场买卖，最终必须归结于人民银行。所以外汇市场并没有体现真正的需求关系，而是由人民银行以人民币完全吸收外汇市场上的差额，这正是导致我国外汇储备高速膨胀的重要原因；另一方面，我国经常项目收支和资本项目收支的持续双顺差，使得外汇市场上外汇供给大于需求，人民币面临巨大的升值压力，这使得民间的外汇储蓄颇为动荡。在2005年7月21日我国宣布汇率制度改革之后，人民币的小幅升值更是引起了民间外汇储蓄和存款的大量兑换，为了维持人民币汇率的稳定，推进汇率制度的平稳改革，人民银行只能买进剩余的外汇，抛出相应的人民币，从而导致基础货币的进一步扩展。外汇储备的增加必然带来外汇占款的增加，不断增加的外汇占款形成了基础货币的内生性增长，央行被迫投放基础货币。如果此时人民银行不采取冲销的政策，并且在国内信贷不变的情况下，基础货币的增加，通过货币乘数效应的作用，国内货币供应量将会增加。公众手中持有的货币量将大于他们对货币需求的量，如果超额的货币供给冲向商品市场，商品的需求将会增加，进而推动物价水平上升。但是事实上，我国外汇储备近年来持续、大幅增长，物价却没有出现暴涨，究其原因主要有：(1)我国正处于计划经济向市场经济转轨的过程中，经济活动不可避免地带有计划经济色彩，外汇储备和国内信贷规模都是影响基础货币供应量的因素。中央银行可以通过一手抓外汇储备、一手抓本币来调控国内的基础货币。在我国还是有管理浮动汇率的情况下，我国外汇储备增加能否对国内通货膨胀形成现实压力，还取决于中央银行实行的国内信贷政策。当国内经济有通胀的苗头，央行就收紧信贷，因此，外汇储备对通货膨胀的影响被有意无意地弱化。(2)外汇储备的增加不一定导致外汇占款的增加。除国际收支顺差外，外汇储备的增加还有另外两个渠道：来自国际金融机构、外国政府借款和储备的收益。向国际金融机构或外国政府借入的外汇增加的储备并不增加外汇占款，也不增加基础货币。来自储备收益的外汇储备增加同样也不增加外汇占款，进而不增加基础货币投放。在我国的外汇储备增量中，外汇储备收益部分比重不高，但是，这种渠道的存在，也在一定程度上削弱了外汇储备增加对通货膨胀的影响。(3)中央银行可以通过干预基础货币和货币乘数减弱外汇占款对货币投放的影响。中央银行调整基础货币结构是通过调整其资产业务投放基础货币的，在外汇储备增加的同时，央行通过减少对金融机构、政府及非金融机构的债权来抵消外汇储备增长对货币投放的压力，通过发行中央银行票据等方式回笼货币。也可以通过影响货币乘数影响货币供给，比如中央银行可以通过调整法定存款准备金影响货币乘数进而影响货币供给。由于我国利率还没有实现完全意义上的市场化，资本项目还没有完全开放，因而利率与资本项目之间的传导机制受阻，这在一定程度上也减弱外汇储备增加对通货膨胀的影响。总之，外汇储备的变动会影响我国的物价水平的变动，两者之间呈现正相关关系。从实证分析结果看到，作用系数只有。但是，外汇储备对物价指数的影响不可忽视。这是由于我国外汇储备的变动幅度非常大，从2001年1月的1561亿美元增长到 2006年6月的亿美元，增长了5倍多，而同期国内信贷和GDP仅增长一倍多。随着我国经济体制改革的深入，经济体制的市场化改革也疏通了外汇储备通过影响货币供应量进而影响物价的渠道。因而，外汇储备对通货膨胀指标的影响也会日益显现出来。参考文献[1]刘荣茂，黎开颜.我国外汇储备对通货膨胀影响的实证分析[J].北京：中国农业大学学报，2005，(1).[2]封建强，袁林.我国外汇储备增长与物价波动研究[J].北京：经济科学，2000，(6).[3]戴根有.我国的外汇储备与通货膨胀[J].北京：战略与管理，1995，(5).[4]闫先东，冯克然.通货膨胀——国际收支角度的考察[J].北京：财贸经济，1997，(4).[5]谢平，张晓朴.货币政策与汇率政策的三次冲突：1994—2000年中国的实证分析[J].北京：国际经济评论，2002，(3).[6]邵学言，郝雁.对中国外汇储备与物价指数之间数量关系的研究——基于货币供求角度的实证分析[J].北京：经济学动态， 2004，(6).

对我国巨额外汇储备管理的探究分析字数：3716 字号:大 中 小 [摘要] 截至今年9月底，我国外汇储备已达9879亿美元，高居全球外汇储备持有量第一的位置。外汇储备多，固然意味着国力的增强，但它也产生了如增加通货膨胀压力、持有成本及降低货币政策效力等诸多棘手的问题。本文结合当前我国外汇储备增长因素的分析研究，旨在寻求有利于我国外汇储备管理的一些思路和对策。[关键词] 外汇储备 币种结构 外汇管理自1994 年外汇体制改革以来，我国外汇储备增长迅速，1996年突破1000亿美元大关，到2006年2月底，达到8537亿美元，超过日本高居全球外汇储备持有量第一的位置。每月百亿外汇储备的增长速度，使人民币不断承受升值压力。如何合理的管理高额外汇储备，成为当前关注的焦点。一、我国外汇储备增长迅速的原因1.贸易顺差持续增长是外汇储备不断增加的直接原因自1979年实行改革开放政策以来，我国的对外贸易一直保持着持续快速的增长。之所以能保持持续的贸易顺差，除了长期以来我国拥有良好的政治环境和经济环境外，还因为我国特有的贸易发展模式:一是我国有完善的基础实施、良好的工业配套能力和大量熟练的廉价劳动力，吸引着全球制造业向我国转移，使我国成为“世界工厂”;二是我国对外贸易形式主要是加工贸易，而加工贸易属于一种增值的贸易形式，必然会出现贸易顺差。由此可见，当前加工贸易是我国对外贸易顺差中的最主要因素。的持续增长促使外汇储备不断增加长期以来，我国为了吸引国外投资，刺激出口，制定了很多偏离中性的外资和外贸政策，如出口退税政策、关税政策、外资优惠政策。这些政策吸引了源源不断的外国直接投资（FDI），形成了与经常项目增长相互呼应的资本项目的持续增长。3.全球收支不平衡下美国因素导致我国外汇储备的增加美国与中国的经济结构不同，中国出口到美国的多是物美价廉而附加值低的产品，美国巨大的需求和中国产品的竞争力，造成了美国对中国的巨额贸易逆差。另外，美国是一个储蓄低于投资的国家，得从其他国家借债。中国等高储蓄率国家对美国的投资主要是以国家的名义，外汇储备的形式投资美国的国债，结果是外汇储备的进一步增加。4.内需不足、进口不力导致收支失衡和外汇储备增加对于世界主要经济体而言，内需对贸易平衡的影响，要远远大于汇率调整的作用。我国国内消费不足，出口迅猛增长，导致进口额不及出口额，进口增长率不及出口增长率，对外依存度很高，势必引起我国国际收支失衡，外汇储备增加。5.资本项目管制使外汇储备增加资本项目管制制度，主要是以强制结售汇制度以及外汇冲销政策为主。强制结汇制下，中央银行干预外汇市场收购市场上多余的外汇，形成大量的外汇占款。为了避免通货膨胀，中央银行又不得不采取外汇冲销政策来冲销外汇占款。强制结售汇之下的外汇供大于求以及外汇冲销政策的实施，是对我国外汇储备激增的最好解释。二、我国外汇储备管理面临的问题1.外汇储备经营管理效益较低，面临贬值风险持有外汇储备是有机会成本的，我国外汇储备的很大部分投资于美元资产，其收益率很低，这使得本可以利用的大量外汇资产闲置，在一定程度上限制了技术进步和经济增长的速度，也就提高了经济结构调整的机会成本。而且我国外汇储备的增长相当于一个资本由中国流向美国的过程，实际的效果就是中国人在省吃俭用的同时，给美国人贷款。2.为中央银行控制货币发行带来极大压力，大大压缩了货币政策的操作空间由于外汇占款过多，使得货币供给增加，通货膨胀压力增大而央行为了减轻通货膨胀压力，不得不通过增发短期票据，“对冲”外汇储备增加导致的增发本币。由于央行发行的票据要支付利息，且票据利率高于美元资产投资回报率，经济成本相当高。同时由于在收购外汇投放基础货币的同时，不得不相应减少发放再贷款，货币政策操作空间受到挤压。3.货币币种与资产结构未达到优化从目前我国外汇储备货币种类的选择上看，根据安全性、流动性、盈利性原则，我国的外汇储备中币种组合中存在过于单一的问题。储备币种过于集中在一种货币美元上，一方面随着国际金融体系动荡，美元储备的风险也在增加。另一方面无形中对所选择货币的国家提供低息的贷款。4.给人民币升值造成巨大压力美国日本等国近年来一直要求人民币升值，巨大的贸易顺差是其中重要的因素。众所周知，当前人民币大幅的升值弊大于利，不仅会影响到我国众多企业的综合实力还会使投机盛行，破坏我国发展的大好形势，因此，合理的处置外汇储备可以为人民币升值减轻压力。三、对解决我国巨额外汇储备问题的构想1.优化外汇储备的货币结构和资产结构我国外汇储备资产管理中应该考虑对投资性动机的要求稍微高一些，以获得最大的收益。中国应该购买以欧元或一些亚洲新兴经济体的货币计价的资产，以此来推动外汇储备多元化，优化外汇储备的货币结构和资产结构。目前最现实和最可行的方法，依然是实施外汇储备的币种结构调整和资产结构调整。在币种结构方面，应该适当扩大欧元资产和日元资产的比重；在资产结构方面，应该扩大投资于美国机构债和企业债的比重，并增加对美国股市上蓝筹股的投资从而最优的利用好外汇储备的价值。2.建立外汇储备风险管理制度首先要确认和评估外汇储备管理可能面临的各种风险如市场风险、信用风险、操作风险等，并且定义在储备管理中可接受的风险水平和指标。我国货币当局要随着不断增加的外汇储备规模,注重不同外汇储备资产的风险程度,提高风险控制水平。如建立定期分析研究市场的例会制度,定期对整个资产进行市价重估;对交易对手资信状况密切跟踪、及时报告,努力控制信用风险;建立储备管理的投资组合基准,以指导实际的储备投资等措施。3.适时增加黄金储备份额。近年来，在我国外汇储备迅速增长的同时，黄金储备在我国国际储备中所占的份额却是非常低的，这种状况和我国作为一个发展中大国的地位是极不相称的。而且在目前金价稳中有升的情况下，黄金是一种有效的储备保值手段，不仅有利于抑制外汇储备缩水，而且更有利于减轻人民币升值的压力。因此，从这一层面看，适时增加黄储备是优化外汇储备投资的一条可选途径。当然黄金储备的适度增加必然是一个循序渐进的过程，切不可操之过急。4.实施“走出去”的对外开放战略，积极扶持和培养我国的跨国公司从条件来看，中国企业初步具备了跨国并购的基础，改革开放引起的国内市场国际化使得中国企业在国内实际上已经承受着巨大的国际竞争压力，政府政策的鼓励与国内公众的关注、支持也对跨国并购起到强大的推动作用。跨国公司掌握着全球化时代资源配置的主导权，培养中国的跨国公司，对于提高我国对外开放水平，真正形成世界经济强国具有不可替代的作用。因此将外汇资金配置到这些方面是一个不错的选择。5.注资国有金融机构，推进国有金融机构的改革我国已动用了亿美元外汇储备为中国银行、建设银行和工商银行注资，支持这些机构进行股份制改造。从注资、股改上市的实践来看，储备注资是推动国有金融机构完善治理结构、提高经营绩效的可取方式。注资后，三家国家商业银行资本充足率大大提高，增强了抗风险能力，为其上市铺平了道路，同时也有利于吸引战略投资者的介入。目前，我国惟一的国有独资的再保险公司中国再保险集团公司也已获批注资，以重组改制上市。我们可以参照这一模式，扩大对其他国有金融机构，如政策性银行、国有保险机构的注资，巩固国家在金融领域的控制地位，推进国有金融机构的改革，并获得相应回报。6.增加石油战略储备，为长远利益打算在价格合适的时候，逐渐增加石油的战略储备，或者与石油输出国合作，投资石油战略储备的基础设施。在石油资源方面展开比较艺术的“石油外交”，争取石油输出国的稳定供给，用可以接受的方式进行石油资源的国际布局。这样不仅是一个有效的外汇管理方式，也促进了我们全方位能源战略的建设。四、结论对于已产生众多问题的巨额外汇储备，我们目前应积极借鉴国际储备管理经验并结合我国的实际情况，提高储备盈利性，采取合理的储备管理模式，最大限度的发挥好外汇储备的价值，使外汇储备的投资尽可能服务于本国利益。参考文献:[1]左小蕾:万亿外汇储备的四个出口[N].江苏经济报，2006(10)[2]巴曙松等:中国外汇市场运行研究[M].经济科学出版社,1999[3]何泽荣:中国国际收支研究[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,1998[4]马杰古田军:“加强外汇储备运营,适时调整币种结构”，《商场现代化》，2006年第3期

Exchange rateIn finance, the exchange rates (also known as the foreign-exchange rate, forex rate or FX rate) between two currencies specifies how much one currency is worth in terms of the other. For example an exchange rate of 102 Japanese yen (JPY, ¥) to the United States dollar (USD, $) means that JPY 102 is worth the same as USD 1. The foreign exchange market is one of the largest markets in the world. By some estimates, about 2 trillion USD worth of currency changes hands every spot exchange rate refers to the current exchange rate. The forward exchange rate refers to an exchange rate that is quoted and traded today but for delivery and payment on a specific future exchange rate quotation is given by stating the number of units of "term currency" or "price currency" that can be bought in terms of 1 unit currency (also called base currency). For example, in a quotation that says the EURUSD exchange rate is ( USD per EUR), the term currency is USD and the base currency is is a market convention that determines which is the base currency and which is the term currency. In most parts of the world, the order is:EUR - GBP - AUD - USD - *** (where *** is any other currency).Thus if you are doing a conversion from EUR into AUD, EUR is the base currency, AUD is the term currency and the exchange rate tells you how many Australian dollars you would pay or receive for 1 euro. Cyprus and Malta which were quoted as the base to the USD and *** were recently removed from this list when they joined the euro. In some areas of Europe and in the non-professional market in the UK, EUR and GBP are reversed so that GBP is quoted as the base currency to the euro. In order to determine which is the base currency where both currencies are not listed (. both are ***), market convention is to use the base currency which gives an exchange rate greater than . This avoids rounding issues and exchange rates being quoted to more than 4 decimal places. There are some exceptions to this rule . the Japanese often quote their currency as the base to other using a country's home currency as the price currency (., EUR = $ in the US) are known as direct quotation or price quotation (from that country's perspective) ([1]) and are used by most using a country's home currency as the unit currency (., £ = $ in the US) are known as indirect quotation or quantity quotation and are used in British newspapers and are also common in Australia, New Zealand and the quotation: 1 foreign currency unit = x home currency units indirect quotation: 1 home currency unit = x foreign currency units Note that, using direct quotation, if the home currency is strengthening (., appreciating, or becoming more valuable) then the exchange rate number decreases. Conversely if the foreign currency is strengthening, the exchange rate number increases and the home currency is looking at a currency pair such as EURUSD, the first component (EUR in this case) will be called the base currency. The second is called the term currency. For example : EURUSD = , means EUR is the base and USD the term, so 1 EUR = pairs are often incorrectly quoted with a "/" (forward slash). In fact if the slash is inserted, the order of the currencies should be reversed. This gives the exchange rate. . if EUR1 is worth , euro is the base currency and dollar is the term currency so the exchange rate is stated EURUSD or USD/EUR. To get the exchange rate divide the USD amount by the euro amount . = convention from the early 1980s to 2006 was that most currency pairs were quoted to 4 decimal places for spot transactions and up to 6 decimal places for forward outrights or swaps. (The fourth decimal place is usually referred to as a "pip.") An exception to this was exchange rates with a value of less than which were usually quoted to 5 or 6 decimal places. Although there is no fixed rule, exchange rates with a value greater than around 20 were usually quoted to 3 decimal places and currencies with a value greater than 80 were quoted to 2 decimal places. Currencies over 5000 were usually quoted with no decimal places (. the former Turkish Lira). . (GBPOMR : - EURUSD : - GBPBEF : - EURJPY : ). In other words, quotes are given with 5 digits. Where rates are below 1, quotes frequently include 5 decimal 2006 Barclays Capital broke with convention by offering spot exchange rates with 5 or 6 decimal places. The contraction of spreads (the difference between the bid and offer rates) arguably necessitated finer pricing and gave the banks the ability to try and win transaction on multibank trading platforms where all banks may otherwise have been quoting the same price. A number of other banks have now followed or peggedMain article: Exchange rate regimeIf a currency is free-floating, its exchange rate is allowed to vary against that of other currencies and is determined by the market forces of supply and demand. Exchange rates for such currencies are likely to change almost constantly as quoted on financial markets, mainly by banks, around the world. A movable or adjustable peg system is a system of fixed exchange rates, but with a provision for the devaluation of a currency. For example, between 1994 and 2005, the Chinese yuan renminbi (RMB) was pegged to the United States dollar at RMB to $1. China was not the only country to do this; from the end of World War II until 1966, Western European countries all maintained fixed exchange rates with the US dollar based on the Bretton Woods system. [2]Nominal and real exchange ratesThe nominal exchange rate e is the price in domestic currency of one unit of a foreign currency. The real exchange rate (RER) is defined as , where P is the domestic price level and P * the foreign price level. P and P * must have the same arbitrary value in some chosen base year. Hence in the base year, RER = e. The RER is only a theoretical ideal. In practice, there are many foreign currencies and price level values to take into consideration. Correspondingly, the model calculations become increasingly more complex. Furthermore, the model is based on purchasing power parity (PPP), which implies a constant RER. The empirical determination of a constant RER value could never be realised, due to limitations on data collection. PPP would imply that the RER is the rate at which an organization can trade goods and services of one economy (. country) for those of another. For example, if the price of a good increases 10% in the UK, and the Japanese currency simultaneously appreciates 10% against the UK currency, then the price of the good remains constant for someone in Japan. The people in the UK, however, would still have to deal with the 10% increase in domestic prices. It is also worth mentioning that government-enacted tariffs can affect the actual rate of exchange, helping to reduce price pressures. PPP appears to hold only in the long term (3–5 years) when prices eventually correct towards recent approaches in modelling the RER employ a set of macroeconomic variables, such as relative productivity and the real interest rate vs effective exchange rateBilateral exchange rate involves a currency pair, while effective exchange rate is weighted average of a basket of foreign currencies, and it can be viewed as an overall measure of the country's external competitiveness. A nominal effective exchange rate (NEER) is weighted with trade weights. a real effective exchange rate (REER) adjust NEER by appropriate foreign price level and deflates by the home country price level. Compared to NEER, a GDP weighted effective exchange rate might be more appropriate considering the global investment interest rate paritySee also: Interest rate parity#Uncovered interest rate parity Uncovered interest rate parity (UIRP) states that an appreciation or depreciation of one currency against another currency might be neutralized by a change in the interest rate differential. If US interest rates exceed Japanese interest rates then the US dollar should depreciate against the Japanese yen by an amount that prevents arbitrage. The future exchange rate is reflected into the forward exchange rate stated today. In our example, the forward exchange rate of the dollar is said to be at a discount because it buys fewer Japanese yen in the forward rate than it does in the spot rate. The yen is said to be at a showed no proof of working after 1990s. Contrary to the theory, currencies with high interest rates characteristically appreciated rather than depreciated on the reward of the containment of inflation and a higher-yielding of payments modelThis model holds that a foreign exchange rate must be at its equilibrium level - the rate which produces a stable current account balance. A nation with a trade deficit will experience reduction in its foreign exchange reserves which ultimately lowers (depreciates) the value of its currency. The cheaper currency renders the nation's goods (exports) more affordable in the global market place while making imports more expensive. After an intermediate period, imports are forced down and exports rise, thus stabilizing the trade balance and the currency towards PPP, the balance of payments model focuses largely on tradable goods and services, ignoring the increasing role of global capital flows. In other words, money is not only chasing goods and services, but to a larger extent, financial assets such as stocks and bonds. Their flows go into the capital account item of the balance of payments, thus, balancing the deficit in the current account. The increase in capital flows has given rise to the asset market market modelSee also: Capital asset pricing model The explosion in trading of financial assets (stocks and bonds) has reshaped the way analysts and traders look at currencies. Economic variables such as economic growth, inflation and productivity are no longer the only drivers of currency movements. The proportion of foreign exchange transactions stemming from cross border-trading of financial assets has dwarfed the extent of currency transactions generated from trading in goods and asset market approach views currencies as asset prices traded in an efficient financial market. Consequently, currencies are increasingly demonstrating a strong correlation with other markets, particularly the stock exchange, money can be made or lost on the foreign exchange market by investors and speculators buying and selling at the right times. Currencies can be traded at spot and foreign exchange options markets. The spot market represents current exchange rates, whereas options are derivatives of exchange in exchange ratesA market based exchange rate will change whenever the values of either of the two component currencies change. A currency will tend to become more valuable whenever demand for it is greater than the available supply. It will become less valuable whenever demand is less than available supply (this does not mean people no longer want money, it just means they prefer holding their wealth in some other form, possibly another currency).Increased demand for a currency is due to either an increased transaction demand for money, or an increased speculative demand for money. The transaction demand for money is highly correlated to the country's level of business activity, gross domestic product (GDP), and employment levels. The more people there are unemployed, the less the public as a whole will spend on goods and services. Central banks typically have little difficulty adjusting the available money supply to accommodate changes in the demand for money due to business speculative demand for money is much harder for a central bank to accommodate but they try to do this by adjusting interest rates. An investor may choose to buy a currency if the return (that is the interest rate) is high enough. The higher a country's interest rates, the greater the demand for that currency. It has been argued that currency speculation can undermine real economic growth, in particular since large currency speculators may deliberately create downward pressure on a currency in order to force that central bank to sell their currency to keep it stable (once this happens, the speculator can buy the currency back from the bank at a lower price, close out their position, and thereby take a profit).In choosing what type of asset to is officially pegged, synthetic markets have emerged that can behave as if the yuan were floating).汇率在经济学上，汇率定义为两国货币之间兑换的比例。通常会将某一国的货币设为基准，以此换算金额价值他国几元的货币。在英文使用方面，有时简写为FX，此为外国货币Foreign Exchange的简写。通俗的说，是一国货币单位兑换他国货币单位的比率，也可以说是用一国货币表示的另一国货币的价格。汇率的特性在于它多半是浮动的比率。只要货币能够透过汇率自由交换，依交换量的多寡，就会影响隔天的汇率，因此，有人也以赚汇差营利，今日以较低的比率购进某一外币，隔日等到较高的比率出现时，再转手卖出。所以有时汇率也能看出一个国家的经济状况。了解外汇也能看出这个国家的出口贸易状况。交叉汇率所谓交叉汇率是指两种不同货币之间的价格关系，两个国家之间的货币汇兑是利用各自对美元的汇率套算得出。举例来看，若一美元可分别兑换欧元、日圆，则欧元兑日圆的交叉汇率为（= ）。