美国黑人音乐文化研究论文

黑人民权领袖马丁路德金为美国民主献出生命，马丁·路德·金为黑人谋求平等，发动了美国的民权运动，功绩卓著，闻名于世。金在成为民权运动积极分子之前，是黑人社区必有的浸礼会的牧师。民权运动是美国黑人教会的产物，本文记叙金的第一次民权演说，揭示了民权运动与黑人教会的关系。马尔科姆·艾克斯于1925年出生在美国内布拉斯加州东部的奥马哈市，少年时期是个不学无术的街头混混，贩毒、吸毒、滥交、抢劫、杀人几乎无恶不作。终于自食恶果，被抓入监狱。入狱后，他居然从看字典开始，学习了世界历史，哲学，政治，自然科学等方面的知识，并参加了黑色穆斯林组织。出狱后，他投身黑人运动，成为声望仅次于马丁·路德·金的黑人运动领袖。

有关吉他的起源及发展简史，我个人认为大体可以分为以下八个阶段：1、有根据的吉他的远祖应该是公元前1400年前生活在小亚细亚和叙利亚北部的古赫梯人城门遗址上的“赫梯吉他”。这是考古学家找到的最古老的类似现代吉他（一样具有内弯的琴体）的乐器，是。8字型内弯的琴体决定了吉他属乐器特有的声音共鸣和乐器特点，这也成为吉他与其它弹拨乐器所不同（如琴体是半梨形的鲁特属乐器）的最显著特点。2、吉他一词最早出现为西班牙文吉他（Guitarra）一词,最早出现在十三世纪的西班牙。当时，已经出现“摩尔吉他”和“拉丁吉他”。西班牙语吉他（Guitarra）是由波斯语逐渐演化成的， 其中摩尔吉他琴体为椭圆形背部鼓起，使用金属弦，演奏风格比较粗犷；拉丁吉他琴体为与现代吉他类似的8字型平底结构，使用羊肠弦，风格典雅。如图：摩尔吉他 拉丁吉他3、吉他发展史上的第一个鼎盛时期是文艺复兴时期。四对复弦的吉他演奏高峰的出现是吉他进入第一个鼎盛时期的标志。（1）文艺复兴是14世纪至16世纪在欧洲兴起的一个思想文化运动，进而带来一段科学与艺术革命时期，揭开了现代欧洲历史的序幕，被认为是中古时代和近代的分界。马克思主义史学家认为是封建主义时代和资本主义时代的分界。 （2）文艺复兴发端于14世纪的意大利（文艺复兴一词就源于意大利语Rinascimento，意为再生或复兴），以后扩展到西欧各国，16世纪达到鼎盛。1550年，瓦萨里在其《艺苑名人传》中，正式使用它作为新文化的名称。此词经法语转写为Renaissance，17世纪后为欧洲各国通用。19世纪，西方史学界进一步把它作为14至16世纪西欧文化的总称。西方史学界曾认为它是古希腊、罗马帝国文化艺术的复兴。 3、十六世纪（1500年-1600年）四对复弦的吉他和它的近亲──用手指弹奏的比维拉琴，在演奏与创作方面都达到了很高的水准。吉他和比维拉琴不仅深受广大欧洲民众喜爱，而且还常常成为宫廷乐器。当时的吉他、比维拉大师有米兰（Luis milan）、纳乐瓦埃斯（Luys de Narvaez）、穆达拉（Alonso mudarra），以及十七世纪时五组复弦的巴洛克吉他时代大师桑斯（Gaspar Sanz）、科尔贝塔（Cor betta）、维赛（Vi see）等。他们的许多作品现在仍是现代古典吉他作品宝库中的不朽财富。当时吉他、比维拉琴等乐器所使用的记谱方法还不是现在的五线谱，而是用横线来代表各弦，用数字或字母表示音位和指法，与现在民谣吉他中使用的六线谱类似的图示记谱法。如图：四弦复弦吉他 （比维拉）当时十分兴盛的乐器还有被认为是吉他同宗的鲁特琴（Lute）。鲁特琴前身是阿拉伯的乌德琴（UD的原意是木头）。当时著名的鲁特琴大师道兰（Dowland）和魏斯（Weiss）等人的作品经后人改编，在今天的古典吉他曲目中也占有重要的位置。伟大的巴洛克音乐集大成者巴赫所创作的不朽作品中如大提琴、小提琴组曲、奏鸣曲的吉他改编曲，在古典吉他曲目中的地位举足轻重，尽管有学者对巴赫有没有创作过鲁特作品提出疑问，但他所传世的四首鲁特琴组曲和少量鲁特作品，首首都具有不朽的价值。巴洛克时期的其他一些作曲家如维瓦尔弟的鲁特琴、曼陀林协奏曲，和D.斯卡拉第的古钢琴奏鸣曲的吉他改编曲都在古典吉他曲中占有重要位置。4、吉他发展史上的的黄金时代出现在十八世纪后期。六弦吉他的出现，标志着吉他的发展的第一个黄金时代的到来。当时鲁特琴和比维拉琴逐渐退出了历史舞台，五对复弦和其后出现的六对复弦的吉他也渐渐完成了它们的历史使命。1800年前后，全新的六根单弦的吉他以其清晰的和声及调弦方便等优点很快得到了几乎全欧洲的青睐五对复弦吉他 六对复弦吉他六根单弦吉他5、有“吉他音乐的贝多芬”之称的索尔的出现，标志着六弦吉他发展到了颠峰。十九世纪初，活跃在当时古典吉他音乐中心巴黎、维也纳、伦敦的最著名的古典吉他大师有索尔（Sor），阿瓜多（Aguado），朱利亚尼（Giuliani），卡鲁里（Carulli），和卡尔卡西（Carcassi）。其中索尔和朱利亚尼除了是古典吉他大师外还是出色的音乐家，他们以杰出的才华为六弦古典吉他创作了包括协奏曲在内的第一批大型曲目，为六弦古典吉他日后的发展奠定了基础。尤其值得一提的是索尔，他在创作上承袭海顿、莫扎特的古典音乐传统，除写作歌剧、舞剧音乐外，还为古典吉他创作了包括系统的练习曲、教程在内的大量优秀作品，被音乐评论家称为“吉他音乐的贝多芬”。阿瓜多、卡鲁里、卡尔卡西的重要作品和他们所作的大量练习曲与吉他教程至今仍是古典吉他中的经典。在十九世纪还有不少音乐家喜爱并演奏古典吉他，如舒伯特、韦伯和柏辽兹，小提琴魔王帕格尼尼不但擅长演奏吉他，而且还曾放弃提琴演奏，献身于吉他达三年之久，为吉他写下了大量作品。十九世纪后期著名的吉他音有乐家科斯特（Coste）、默茨（mertz）、卡诺（Cano）、雷冈第（Regondi）等，他们为吉他创作的很多优秀作品都成为了十九世纪古典吉他音乐的经典。6、十九世纪中叶，由于钢琴和提琴乐器出现了一批名震青史的演奏大师，吉他逐渐受到冷落，进入历史上第一个低潮。在钢琴、管弦乐、歌剧音乐发展的巨大冲击下，吉他在十九世纪中期以后渐渐失去了往日的辉煌，演奏与创作一度处于低潮，这种情况一直持续到十九世纪末吉他才再度复兴。7、泰雷加的《大霍塔舞曲》的创作成功，标志着古典吉他发展的再度复兴。古典吉他在十九世纪末再度复兴的生命力是在西班牙获得的。吉他能在二十世纪蓬勃发展并达到前所未有的辉煌，在很大程度上应归功于“近代吉他之父”泰雷加对吉他从制做、乐器性能、演奏技术直至曲目等各方面的深入研究和革新。泰雷加和他的老师阿尔卡斯一直致力于与吉他制作家托雷斯（Torres）合作，并最终生产出了琴体扩大、音量增大、乐器性能明显改善的现代古典吉他。毕业于马德里音乐学院和声与作曲专业，并且是位出色钢琴家的泰雷加尽管公开演出不多，但一生潜心研究吉他，创立了全新的演奏方法，创作了大量糸统和科学的练习曲与出色发挥吉他乐器性能的不朽名曲，其中，《大霍塔舞曲》被广泛流传，为复兴古典吉他作出重要贡献。除此之外，他还选择改编了许多适合吉他演奏的古典音乐名曲，以扩大古典吉他的目曲范围。由于泰雷加的杰出贡献以及他的学生、后继者柳贝特（Llobet）、普霍尔（Pujol）等人的不懈努力，终于使古典吉他在十九、二十世纪之交重新获得了新的生命，为二十世纪古典吉他的辉煌打下了坚实的基础。托雷斯（Torres）古典吉他 二十世纪古典吉他8、塞戈维亚时代的到来，标志着古典吉他的辉煌二十世纪古典吉他强大的生命力是由伟大的吉他大师－－塞戈维亚（&127;Andre Seqovia 1893-1987），以其近七十年的演奏和探索一步步推向高潮的。塞戈维亚以他超凡的天才、坚定的信念和坚持不懈的努力，使吉他最终摆脱了沦为酒店、咖啡馆民间乐器的命运，使古典吉他作为音乐会独奏乐器的魅力被音乐界与世人所公认，最终使吉他克服了种种偏见，成为了和钢琴、小提琴一样被人们广泛喜爱的高雅乐器。塞戈维亚遍及世界各地的频繁演出不但使全世界了解了古典吉他，使吉他在全世界流行开来，还吸引了许多专业作曲家为吉他写下了大量高水平的音乐作品。这些作曲家中最著名的如：为吉他写下《五首前奏曲》与《十二首高级练习曲》的巴西作曲家维拉-罗伯斯（Villa-Lobos），《阿兰胡埃斯》吉他协奏曲的作者罗德里戈（Rodrigo）等。塞戈维亚还为吉他改编了大量著名音乐作品，如巴赫的无伴奏小提琴作品《恰空》等，大大丰富了古典吉他的曲目，最终使古典吉他的曲目在二十世纪无论在数量和质量上都达到和其他重要乐器一样的水平。在上世纪初几乎没有一个音乐学院开设吉他专业，塞戈维亚不但积极从事教学工作，培养了大批年青的吉他演奏家，他还积极呼吁世界各大音乐学院开设吉他专业，并鼓励他的学生们从事教学工作，至此，目前世界著名的音乐院校不仅开设了古典吉他专业，而且把其列为重要的学科加以建设。这是塞戈维亚对古典吉他的又一巨大贡献。现在活跃在世界各地音乐舞台上的无数优秀的吉他演奏家，都曾直接或间接地受过塞戈维亚的教诲或影响的。虽然大师已经离开了人世，但是每当我们演奏起古典吉他、或是学习古典吉他、或是观赏古典吉他演奏、聆听古典吉他音乐，甚至仅仅是谈论起古典吉他时，我们实际上都是走在大师以毕生的功绩铺就的宽阔大道上和不朽的光辉中，尽管我们末必能时刻意识到这一点。 对二十世纪吉他音乐产生重大影响的其他音乐家中，特别值得一提的是巴拉圭吉他奇才巴利奥斯（Agustin Barrios Mangore 1885-1944）。这位具有印第安血统的巴利奥斯自称为“吉他中的帕格尼尼”而且毫不为过，他除了是位出色的吉他演奏家和作曲家外，还是位哲学家、画家、宗教学者和诗人，除了在世界各地成功地巡回演出外，他还是第一个为古典吉他录音的演奏家。巴利奥斯出色的艺术才华在二十世纪的大部分时间里并末得到世人的公认，在上世纪后期，巴利奥斯以多种风格创作的大量丰富多彩的吉他曲逐渐被发掘出来，并成为了古典吉他音乐作品中最重要和最受人喜爱的曲目之一

The importance of family education Family education on the issue since ancient times by people's concern, but as a subject to study in China in recent years is also the matter. This is the development of the times, the demand, the National necessary to improve the overall quality of the issues involved. Here with the parents of the importance of family education, the aim is to the family and society, the education sector to shoulder the common task of educating the next generation. The education is a system of education works here include a family education, social education, collective (Tuoyouyuansuo, school) education, the three interrelated and organic combination of mutual influence, interaction and mutual constraints The education project from which one can, but in this project, family education is the foundation of all education. The former Soviet Union educators famous Su Huomu Belinsky transferred to a child than marble, he said, to shape this into a marble statue of need six sculptor: 1 family, 2 schools, 3 children of the collective; 4 child; books; 6 occasional factor. From the order, the family was included in the first place, can see the family in shaping children in the course of a very important role in the hearts of the educators occupy a position. For this reason parents understand the importance of family education is very necessary. First, family education is the starting point for education and basic point Family education generally refers to the family of parents and adult children of minors education process. Their educational objectives should be: the child into the community to accept collective education (kindergarten, school education) prior to guarantee the physical and mental health development of children, to accept the kindergartens, schools of education to lay a solid foundation. The child for admission into the school, with kindergartens, schools to moral, intellectual, physical, the United States, the various aspects of comprehensive development. Education is the focus of moral education mainly among children good moral quality and develop good habits mainly habits include: living habits, labor practices, learning habits, the church children how to learn "life." As a result of family education in the family, and kindergartens, schools of education, social education, compared with the following characteristics of these features so that family education to become the starting point for education and basic point is by no other educational advantages. (A) family of early education The family is the cradle of life of children, who are receiving education after the birth of a venue that is the first class life; parents are children's first teachers, that is, the Enlightenment division. Therefore, parents of children by the application of early education the most. Generally speaking, after the birth of a child after three years of development, access to early childhood, from the 3-year-old…… 6-year-old is preschool, which is said in the early stages of education, this is the physical and mental development of an important period. China's Gu Yan: "Cang, with the Cang, with the yellow, yellow." Childhood is gradually nurture life with the beginning of many basic human capacity is a stage of this age, such as language, and some basic moves Living habits, and so on, the character is gradually taking shape. . psychologists Bloom, a person's intellectual development if his 17-year-old regarded as the level reached 100 percent, then 4 years old when it reached 50 percent. 4-8 years old and a 30% increase ,8-17-year-old also won 20 percent. This shows that children in the 5-year-old former intelligence is the fastest growing period, the early intellectual development is the best, if parents in this period by the implementation of good family education, early child will be the key to intellectual development. Since ancient times, many people with lofty ideals, celebrities in the early years of fruitful period by a good family education is their future become an important cause. For example, the German poet, playwright Goethe's become, effective early education in the family. Goethe 2-3 years old, his father hold on to the outskirts of the field visit to observe nature, culture Goethe's observation capability. 3-4 years old, his father taught him to sing, the songs back, said a fairy tale, and we intend to let him in the face of public lectures, training his speaking ability. These are awareness education so that young Goethe optimistic, progressive, happy to think, be good at learning. Goethe-8-year-old can use, Germany, Britain, Italy, Latin, Greek reading books, 14-year-old wrote the script, the 25-year-old with a month's time wrote a famous poem in Europe, "The Sorrows of Young Werther . " Another example of ancient "and his son calligrapher," Wang Xizhi's known for, Wang Xianzhi, there have been a number of 1350 Edison invented the great inventors, the generation of literary star Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and other celebrities of the growth process that the family education in the early intellectual development is very important . Instead, the period of childhood are not good family education and intellectual impact on the normal development of many of the examples is. Such as India, "Langhai" Ka Mala, who was Diao to the wolf, when 8-year-old was found, but their living habits with the same people, their living habits and almost like a wolf, limbs, crawling, eating raw meat, day V Night, Later, a man-made training, two years before standing, after six years can be like walking Xiangren, four years learned to six words, in his 17-year-old, the intellectual level reached only 3-year-old child's level. According to "China Women" revealed that China's Nanjing City Xingma one of the workers suffering from mental and psychological diseases, Shenpa children persecuted by the people, will own three children from small lock at home, people so that they contacts with the outside world, has a long Up to 10 years, resulting in the children mental retardation, speech delay, compared with their peers, intellectual capacity and very different life, near idiots, so the family can not be neglected the role of early education, (B) family education continuity of family education second characteristic is the continuity. After the birth of a child, from small to large, almost 2 / 3 of time living in the family, Zhaochaomumu, all the parents in the education. Such education is the intentional and unintentional, planned and unplanned, consciously and unconsciously, are carried out, no matter what, in what time education, parents are in their own words and deeds at any time affect their children's education . Such education of children living habits, moral conduct and behaviour and so on in the style of conversation kept to influence and demonstrations, the subtle influence of the considerable role, accompanied by a person's life can be said to live to old to learn the old, some Parent educator again called for life teachers. This life of the education often reflects a family's Family Style, Family Style is good or bad often have to continue for several generations, or even a dozen, dozens generation, and this Family Style often with family members engaged in the employment-related . Such as: Xinglin family "," Pear Orchard House, "" family education ", etc. At the same time Family Style also reflects a family's style of study, study, good or bad is often the continuation of many generations, a dozen people, several dozens of generations . As in modern China, Wuxi people Yan Gong added-not "countries selected in the Museum", statistics from 2003-Shunzhi Branch to Guangxu 30 years Bing Xu Jia Chen Branch, the champion of 114 people, including his son by the first brothers Shuzhileishi Absolutely not, such as Suzhou Miao, Wu and Pan Sanxing, Changshu Weng, both surnamed Jiang, Chen Haining, Zhejiang, check the two surnames. See, family education is often the continuity of personnel groups have an important impact on the rise. This Situation. Ancient and modern times quite prominent in the contemporary with the development of science, and social needs of the unemployed increased, the broad people's careers, a family member can not have all engaged in the same work, but many see this situation That some family members work frequently appears in the results, be commended, but some family members one after another crime. This is a continuous education and family have great relations. (C) family education authority Family Education is the authority of parents in their children on their elders reflected by the power and power. The existence of the family, parents and children identified the blood relationship, upbringing, emotional, moral and ethical children in the living needs of the elderly parents have great dependence, family members and the fundamental interests of consistency, have decided The father of each of their children a greater role in the constraints. Parent education was easier to accept and submit to the children, parents and reasonable use of this feature, the children good moral character and habits formed the usefulness, for child care, in particular, is the case. Child care and other children in playing the game, when disputes arise when parents are often invoked to confirm their own speech act is right, if they like to say: "My father is saying this." Or "My mother is So do. "And so on. Children of parents in the eyes of the authority decided to accept the child how to treat the nursery schools and community education. The relationship between children and parents, the child is the first to face an important social relations. In this relationship, almost embodies the moral social ethics in all aspects, if such a relationship in the formation of cracks and defects, the children then to the community, in a variety of relationships will be reflected. Therefore stressed the importance of parental authority, but also because the children of parents in childhood has always played a dual role: the safety of children is not only the survival of protected persons, but also a life of the Wizard of Enlightenment. The effects of parental education, depends on the extent to establish the authority of parents, foster parents must be authoritative Built on respect for children on the basis of personality, rather than the feudal patriarchal system, parents are wise to understand the importance of establishing authority, but also know how to establish the authority does not rely on repression and force, subjective assumptions, but the method used Gangrouxiangji. Both parents in the education of their children's attitude on the first concerted and coordinate with each other, should be wide, wide, it should be strict martial law, in front of their children establish a kind of dignity and image, so that parents accept their children's education. (D) of the infected family education Parents with children between the blood relationship and kinship between the natural and close, making the parents of the children have strong feelings on the role of infection. Children on the demeanour of the parents can often Xinlingshenkuai to intelligence-intelligence. In dealing with in and around the side of the relationship between matter and the issue of children on the attitude of parents is very easy to resonate. In the happy parents, the children will take part in joy, the parents showed irritability and Menmenbuyue, the child's emotions can easily be affected, even young children as well. If the parents lack of rational and emotional, hot temper, will enable blind children to absorb its weaknesses. Some parents in dealing with unexpected incidents, show panic anxiety, surprise, the impact on children is not good if the frightened parents the same, steady firm and children in distress will also calm the situation calmly, so the quality of child psychology training Play a positive role. (5) timeliness of family education Family education process, parents are parents of children in the family of the individual acts of education than kindergarten, school education should promptly. As the saying goes:知子莫若父, that women Morrow home. Overnight between parents and children, their situation can be said to be well known to the children was slightly changed, even a look, a smile can make parents Xinlingshenhui, so as parents through their children's every move, his every word and deed can make the best of At this very moment of their psychological state, found the child on the existing problems, timely education, timely corrective, not the problem overnight, so that bad habits in the embryonic stage of the eradication. And kindergartens, schools, teachers faced with dozens of children, only for the children of this age stage for general education, that is, education groups, because of time and energy constraints, it is impossible to take care of each child's characteristics, Prone to the phenomenon of loss, or even to take care of the children of teachers and the poor do not have a sense of trust, and parents could guide their children promptly correct understanding. So parents of children to the correct family education so that children can enter kindergarten before forming a good habit, to accept collective education has laid a good foundation, can make up for the lack of mass education. Second, a good family education is the 21st century created the necessary conditions for personnel "China's 1990s development program for children" in the specified: "Today's children are the masters of the 21st century, child protection and the bottom-up development is to improve the quality of the population base, which is a prerequisite for development. The healthy growth of children Related to the future and destiny of the motherland. Improve the quality of the entire nation, from the start with children. "And:" In 2000 to make 90 percent of children (under the age of 14) of the parents to varying degrees, master conservation, education of children of knowledge. "This Top targeted the parents shoulders for the state created the heavy responsibility of the 21st century talents. Can this generation of children training to become Dezhitimei the all-round development of people, this country is Houjiyouren relationship to the Bainiantaiji. Fu-Lu Bell also said: "The country's fate is not so much lies in the hands of those in power, we might as well have said to be in the hands of his mother." This sentence is very philosophical, it profoundly understand the parents pick in the education of their children in The role played by. Parents should first clear direction of education and national interests, the people's request in line with the principle, the child can not be regarded as private property, it is necessary to establish the idea of the country, correct educational purposes. China's 21st century is what the situation, with the words of Comrade Deng Xiaoping, to make our country in the middle of the 21st century to achieve the level of moderately developed countries, per capita income reached 4,000 . dollars, in gross national product amounted to 6 trillion . dollars. The 21st century should be a good ideologies and noble moral character, and improve the psychological quality, positive spirit of cooperation with others, strong adaptability, Chikunailao the comprehensive development of the new generation. If the 21st century do not have such a group of high-quality builders is very difficult to complete this great, with such a quality is not overnight can do, and a good family education training is a prerequisite for high-quality people. Third, a good family education is a catalyst to optimize the children hearts Children from infancy into childhood, with age, from the family environment will eventually enter the small community, contact with the crowd outside the home, things. Lee Jia Choue those in society from time to time to enter the child's perspective, adults take isolation tactics will not work, because in the family video from different angles will continue to reflect the reality in today's society, issues both positive and negative have The. Children, especially young children lack a rational ability to distinguish right from wrong, but sensitive than adults have the feeling of capacity. They occurred around the kind of terrible things, sensitive, and this sensitivity training is the ability to rationally distinguish between a good basis, as parents should take advantage of this extension, help the children feel in this capacity on the basis of , The development of the social life of the ability to identify and psychological capacity, social filter information, optimize the hearts of young children. If parents in their daily life can be for young children is not strong capacity to accept the characteristics specific to seize the day-to-day chores, help children understand the community in identifying the Shishifeifei, specifically so that they feel Lee's bright side, Experience to the ugly despicable, can help children enhance the Yangshan Chuxie sense of justice, thus resist the dark side of the ugly soul of the child erosion. For example, today's video into the urban residents in almost every family, the children almost every day to deal with them, it can be said is not out of their homes, Bianzhi the world. Which can be received from all over the world all kinds of information. There are political situation, scientific and technological progress, ordinary people of Sushi, from which you can learn a lot of knowledge and understanding of major domestic and international events, both within and outside small home. It is inevitable that some homicide violence, obscene absurdity of the lens Yingru child's eyelid. Parents should address these issues timely guidance, to improve their children's ability to identify, we need to keep their own perceptions of behaviour, for their children establish a positive image, optimizing the hearts of children, the prevention of child make mistakes, and even violations of law and discipline. Family to work in this area, help small and stability of the environment. The family is society's cells, with healthy cells, can we have a sound body, the sick cells, the body will cause disease. As an ancient saying goes: "body repair and then home-and-then-State governance, rule of the then-world", "Qijia, the country, the world-the" point of view is that this truth. For this reason parents do a good job in optimizing the work of children's mental stability and social, stability and national power in ages. In short, as parents to the importance of family education fully and conscientiously do a good job in their children's education, make good parents responsibilities and obligations for the country to train qualified personnel in the building.

众所周知，美国黑人的先民是16世纪初到19世纪末从非洲西部被贩卖到北美来的黑奴，那时的西非音乐便是今天美国黑人音乐的主要渊源。（Maultsby 2001：571）因为当时并没有音乐学家对西非地区进行过系统的调查，所以我们对那时西非音乐的情况并不了解。20世纪以来，特别是70年代以后，许多音乐学家到这一地区调查，使我们对其当代民间音乐的情况有了较深入的了解。（Merriam 1959:13）考虑到当代民间音乐是古代民间音乐传承发展的结果，我们便可参考今天西非的民间音乐，推测16到19世纪西非民间音乐的主要特点。西非民间音乐强调运用打击乐器，其节拍和节奏非常复杂，欧洲音乐在同一时间里，各个不同的声部常常只用一种节拍，而西非民间音乐与此不同，各声部常常同时运用不同的节拍形式，如一个声部用四四拍，而另一个声部用八三拍和八五拍交替出现的八八拍，这种情况称为复节拍（poly-meter）。（Nettl 1972:400）此外，各种各样的切分节奏和复节奏也常在西非音乐中出现，这使它在节奏和节拍方面显得十分丰富多彩，西非民间音乐在节奏运用上的另一个特点是12拍为一个单位的循环出现。（Titon 2002：103）西非民间音乐的旋律和语言结合非常密切，因为西非语言有许多和汉语一样是有声调的语言（tonal languages），所以在旋律中也普遍运用摇声，许多音在进行过程中音高有所变化，并不固定在一个高度上。（Nettl 1972:401）西非音乐中多用重复手法发展乐思，具有代表性的演唱和演奏的方式是一领众和式。(Nettl 1972 ：399)西非民间音乐历来有即兴演奏、演唱的传统，不按照乐谱演奏、演唱，。(Nettl 1972：402) 它的表演场合也和欧洲古典音乐有所不同，不是在音乐厅或音乐会上，而是与劳动、游戏、仪式密不可分，和戏剧、舞蹈、美术、诗歌等不同的艺术形式结合在一起。西非民间音乐的另一个主要特点是提倡参与，在许多情况下，观众参与表演受到鼓励。（Titon 2002：90）通过对当前西非音乐和美国黑人音乐的比较，不难发现，美国黑人音乐在各方面都继承了西非音乐的传统。美国黑人音乐的品种和特点美国黑人音乐大致可以分为劳动音乐、宗教音乐和流行音乐三个类别。劳动音乐中主要的品种是劳动歌曲；宗教音乐中最有影响的是黑人灵歌（the Negro spiritual），福音歌（gospel music）；流行音乐中则有蓝调（blues）、爵士（jazz）、迪斯科（disco）等不同的品种。在这些品种中，最早出现的是劳动音乐，而最有影响的则是蓝调和爵士。劳动音乐中最重要的品种是被称为“field holler” 的号子，号子都是即兴编唱的，大都用虚词为歌词，只有很少一部分用实词为歌词，大多采用五声音阶，而且不少音“带腔”（bent pitches或flexible tones），后来就成为蓝调中的特有的蓝调音（blue notes）。号子多采用一领众和式，节奏比较复杂。（Ferris 1991：51）灵歌是信仰基督教黑人在教堂中演唱的宗教歌曲，其内容多表现痛苦的情感，如《你是否在场？》的歌词为：当我主被钉上十子架，你是否在场？当我主被钉上十子架，你是否在场？主啊！那情景令我发颤当我主被钉上十子架，你是否在场？当他被钉在树上，你是否在场？当他被钉在树上，你是否在场？主啊！那情景令我发颤当他被钉在树上，你是否在场？灵歌最初是即兴演唱的，也多采用一领众和的形式，所以也比较容易学。虽然它的内容是基督教的，但它的演唱形式和创作方式都保存了西非的传统。蓝调是一种具有民歌风的独唱曲，它最初是黑人自娱性的歌曲，后来非常流行，而且对包括爵士在内的几乎所有美国音乐品种都产生了深远影响。蓝调产生是在美国内战之后产生的，当时有不少被解放了的黑奴离开农场和家乡去做他们所不熟悉的工作，如修铁路、挖沟等，辛苦的工作和菲薄的工资使他们感到痛苦，便即兴编唱一些歌曲来表达自己的不幸，这便是最初的蓝调。晚上，黑人们在聚居地方唱蓝调自娱，这种蓝调称为“乡村蓝调”（rural blues）。后来有黑人歌手到城市中的酒吧和沙龙去演唱乡村蓝调，并用吉他、口琴或钢琴伴奏，这些由专业歌手所演唱的蓝调则被称为“城市蓝调”（urban blues）。蓝调歌词的主要题材是关于爱情和劳动生活，歌词最初的格律是每段一句，重复演唱三次，后来演变为每段两句，第一句重复，构成AAB形式，如：你还要像狗一样待我多少年？你还要像狗一样待我多少年？我宁可快些死去，在地下长眠。[3] （Titon 2002：194）蓝调所用的音阶基本和大调相同，但常出现降低半音的三级、七级甚至五级音，有时也会在这几个音级上用摇声，这些带腔的音被成为“蓝调音”（blue notes）（Ferris 1991：229）。蓝调的旋律一般是12小节，每句歌词唱4小节，3句正好是12小节，这种形式被称为“12小节蓝调”（twelve-bar blues）。12小节一段显然继承了西非音乐12拍为一个单位的传统。蓝调采用主和弦、属和弦和下属和弦伴奏，其和声进行的一般规律是第一句用主和弦，第二句前两小节用下属和弦，后两小节用主和弦，第三句前两小节用属和弦，后两小节用主和弦。和弦进行是进行即兴演唱和演奏的基础，歌手们能够根据这一简单的和声进行，即兴编唱出无数优美动听的曲调，也正因为用这个有12小节的和声进行为基础，歌唱家和器乐演奏家才能配合默契，即兴地进行创造。蓝调乡村蓝调演唱者多为男性，城市蓝调的演唱者则多为女性，蓝调的演唱家和演奏家经常和爵士音乐家合作，他们之间的关系密切。因为蓝调和爵士都是黑人创造的音乐，节奏复杂多变，旋律都用蓝调音，还都强调即兴演唱和演奏。谈到爵士乐就不能不提到拉格泰姆（Ragtime）音乐，在英文中“拉格”一字的意思是用切分节奏来演奏一个旋律。拉格泰姆出现在19世纪末，是当时的作曲家们创作的一种钢琴独奏曲，虽然它采用欧洲古典音乐的和声，但受黑人音乐的影响，充满切分节奏。在美国内战结束后，黑人音乐家们可以得到或用比较便宜价钱买到内战时期军乐队所用的乐器，新奥尔良的黑人音乐家便开始用他们自己方式演奏这些乐器。他们不仅在举行庆祝游行时和音乐会上演奏，也为葬礼演奏。葬礼结束后在从墓地回城市的路上，他们常用拉格泰姆音乐中切分节奏演奏流行歌曲，并自由地进行加花和炫耀自己的演奏技巧。黑人的管乐队逐渐从室外的仪式性乐队演变为以伴舞和娱人为主的室内乐队后，音乐家们用格泰姆音乐加切分节奏的办法来演奏欧洲的进行曲、舞曲，甚至歌剧选曲，并加上即兴演奏的段落。就这样，新奥尔良的黑人音乐家们便逐渐创造一种新的演奏方式-爵士乐。“爵士”诞生在20世纪初，最早写作“jass”、“jasz” 或“jazz”，后来才统一写为“jazz”。至于这种音乐为什么叫“爵士”也有不同的说法，但大多数研究家都认为这一称呼和新奥尔良地处斯道瑞维尔 (Storyville) 的红灯区有关，因为许多黑人音乐家最初就是在那一带的妓院和赌场里演奏的。（Ferris 1991：233）有人认为“jazz”一字源于“jasmine”（茉莉花），因为斯道瑞维尔的青楼女子多用茉莉花味的香水；也有人认为“jazz”源于“jezebel” （无耻的放荡女人），在19世纪末，这个单词在美国差不多就是妓女的代称。（Ward 2000：65）最早的爵士乐队包括黑管、短号、长号、鼓等乐器，由3到8个演奏员组成一个乐队，后来小号取代了短号，又加上了萨克管、吉他和倍大提琴等乐器，才形成了比较完整的爵士乐队。爵士音乐家们在选定一首乐曲后，决定为它配什么样的和声和如何重复后，便开始即兴演奏。他们当时所选的乐曲，可能是拉格泰姆、蓝调、进行曲或流行歌曲。在即兴演奏时，一般由短号演奏旋律，黑管环绕主要旋律演奏对位旋律，长号演奏和声基础，而鼓打出各种节奏。每件乐器除伴奏之外，一般也要即兴地演奏一段。所以，与其说爵士乐是一种独特的音乐，不如说它是一种以即兴独奏和集体合奏相结合的独特演奏方式。这种方式之所以能够被音乐家实践，是因为它吸取了欧洲音乐中的精华-和声，在和声背景的制约下进行即兴演奏，使集体的合奏和个人的发挥都有了依据。这种方式又之所以为全世界的广大听众所欢迎和热爱，也在于它的原则和西方古典音乐不同，更能体现近现代人对生活的看法和现代人精神方面的要求。1920年代，许多杰出的爵士乐演奏家从新奥尔良搬到了芝加哥，这样芝加哥便取代新奥尔良，成为爵士乐的中心。芝加哥的白人音乐家也喜欢爵士乐，便把一些流行的和古典音乐的曲调改编为爵士乐，但白人音乐家并不即兴演奏。这种根据事先写出总谱演奏的爵士乐被成为“甜爵士”（sweet jazz）。1924年，为了在卡耐基音乐厅演出，“甜爵士”的倡导者包罗.惠特曼（Paul Whiteman）请作曲家格什温（George Gershwin）按爵士乐的风格为交响乐队写了一首《蓝色狂想曲》（Rhapsody in Blue），这首乐曲演出后受到公众的热烈欢迎，被称成为“交响爵士” （symphonic jazz）。由于“甜爵士”和“交响爵士”都不是即兴演奏而是按谱演奏的，当时许多评论家都不认为它们是“爵士乐”。美国黑人音乐的影响爵士乐导致了“甜爵士”和“交响爵士”产生，但美国黑人音乐的影响远不止于此。有评论家认为爵士乐是美国人对世界文明三个最重要的贡献之一，（Ward 2000：VII）我十分赞赏这个看法。因为包括爵士乐在内的美国黑人音乐，在20世纪初为世界音乐史揭开了新的一页。从文艺复兴时代开始逐渐发展起来的欧洲古典音乐，在19世纪末发展到它的颠峰时代。从民族音乐学的观点来分析它，不难发现它有如下特性：1）在音乐家内部有细致分工，一般是作曲家负责创作，写出乐谱，演奏家和歌唱家负责表演，按照乐谱唱、奏，很少有即兴表演。表演艺术家所应当表达的应当是作曲家彼时彼地的感情，而不应当是他们自己此时此地的感情。2）这种音乐一般是在音乐厅中表演的，听众的职责是安静地坐在那里用耳朵听，一般不允许听众参与表演，在音乐的进行中听众必须洗耳恭听，不允许发出任何声音。3）这种音乐虽然是反映生活的，但却不在日常生活中演奏，一般也不和劳动、仪式、游戏、恋爱等活动结合。同时，古典音乐有很高的技术性，不经过长期的专门学习和训练，无法掌握它；不经过长期的熏陶，也无法理解它。如果把这种音乐文化和世界上其他音乐文化，如印度、中国、非洲、中东音乐文化加以比较，不难发现其他音乐文化都看重即兴演奏，都允许听众有某种程度的参与，都和日常生活本身密切结合，都有各种不同的实用功能，它们之间有更多的共性，西洋古典音乐和它们相比就显得非常特殊。欧洲的古典音乐文化的确是人类历史上一种杰出的，但也是比较特殊的音乐文化。按照安德鲁.克拉克的看法，欧洲古典音乐文化在20世纪已经成为“无源之水、无土之木”，“到20世纪20年代古典音乐创造性的一面开始沿着现代化的死胡同消失殆尽”，“只有那些最热忱的爱好者还坚持着”。（克拉克 2004：8）美国是全世界经济文化最发达的国家，早期移民主要来自欧洲，教授欧洲古典音乐是美国的大、中、小学校音乐教学的主要任务。然而根据2000年统计的材料看，美国只有10%到15%的人和欧洲古典音乐有所接触，在这些人中也只有一半对古典音乐真有兴趣，其他一半人只是偶尔听听罢了。也就是说，这个国家只有5%到7%的人对欧洲古典音乐感兴趣，而在这些人中间，听收音机的人最多，听唱片的次之，而去音乐会的最少。（Brown 2002：7）事实证明克拉克的看法很对，大众已不再对古典音乐感兴趣。而美国黑人音乐却遵循完全不同的原则创作音乐，它以即兴演奏为主，演奏家和演唱家也就是作曲家，他们在表演时，倾诉自己的、而非他人的感情；表演可在各种场合进行，提倡人们参与，修养不那么高的听众也不会被拒之门外，除听觉效果外，也强调表演的视觉效果；因为他们希望音乐尽量地贴近生活，最好能和和生活融为一体。所以他们的表演符合大众的需求，非常受欢迎。上述美国黑人音乐的原则，因为和欧洲古典音乐如此不同，所以能在古典音乐逐渐成为文化恐龙的过程中，为全世界指出了一个新的发展方向，许多不同民族的人都朝着这个方向努力，开辟了一个多元文化和方兴未艾的休闲文化的新时代。这是美国黑人音乐对世界音乐文化的影响所在，也是美国黑人对世界音乐历史做出的巨大贡献。

音乐是一种很神奇的东西.无论高低贵贱,我们都有欣赏音乐的自由.无论你是高兴或悲伤.当你真正用心去聆听音乐的时候.你就会忘记生活中的种种得失.尽情沉静在美妙的音符之中.音乐是一种心灵的产物.音乐是内心感情的一种宣泄.因此音乐往往会引起共鸣.会勾起你的喜怒哀乐.贝多芬的第九交响曲,就是在他失聪的情况下写出来的.试想失去听觉对一个音乐家来说意味着什么.可是贝多芬的伟大正是在于他用心去聆听这个世界,聆听自己的命运.所以他才能写出那么震撼的交响曲.贝多芬正向一个音乐精灵,在他身上我们看到音乐的两个属性-灵性和神奇.我是个感情很丰富的男孩子.我认为通常这样的人对音乐的热情会比较高.因为音乐本身是种很感性的东西.出于对音乐的喜爱我选择了音乐欣赏课.这对我来说对音乐的理解和感悟有了种突破.也纠正我对音乐的一些狭隘的理解.对于我们年轻人来说通俗流行音乐充满了吸引力和号召力.这是因为符合了年轻人的口味.但盲目追求流行的同时我们也丢失了一些东西.流行中的确有很多好的东西.但也有很快餐的音乐.现在终于知道老鼠爱大米有多可笑了.第一次那么近距离和静下心来聆听高雅艺术还是在音乐欣赏课.那么的震撼.感觉心灵受到洗礼.忘不了美妙的钢琴曲的声音. 我真的喜欢钢琴的声音.同时我也觉得自己的欣赏水平的提高.在感受音乐的同时,我们更了解了许多的音乐家.其中有天才莫扎特.和音乐之父贝多芬.上面提过.不过他是让人感受最深,心灵震撼最大的一个人.我觉得他太伟大了.贝多芬的一生是充满了艰辛与痛苦，但他同样是幸福与永恒的.因为有音乐伴随他的一生.更影响他的后代. 当然我是无法用音乐评论家的角度去分析他的音乐，我只能用心去感受，试图能与贝多芬音乐的灵魂接触，对于一位伟大的音乐家来说，音乐是生命，贝多芬同样如此，音乐是让人欣赏的，但贝多芬耳失聪后，仍对音乐那种至死不悔的精神让我感动。他仍不断的创作，为后人留下了不朽的音乐篇章。此时此刻，音乐是有灵魂的，它飘忽于世界上的任何一个角落。人们热爱音乐，更爱音乐给他们带来的那份感情。音乐的力量是伟大的，它甚至能拯救人的生命。当然伟大的音乐只能由伟大的音乐家来创造，或许这话过于绝对了，但有一点，音乐是值得我们去付出的，也只有我们去付出了，才会让更多的人来了解音乐，才会让音乐家的生命永恒，让音乐的天使留在我们的身边。每个音乐人都希望有贝多芬那样的成绩，但音乐又是自私的，而是在于每个人对音乐的理解。贝多芬的创作过程也是令人惊讶的，他善于捕捉每个音乐细胞。我想音乐与贝多芬已经合为一体了。贝多芬是音乐，音乐亦是贝多芬。音乐的升华就是生命，或许有一天当我们去拨弄那把无玄琴时，才发觉音乐就在我们身上。其实音乐无所不在.关键我们缺乏发现的眼光.就是因为音乐的灵性和神奇吧.所以不是没个人都能成为音乐家.我看过西区故事,了解了黑人音乐.我们这一代人大都或多或少地受到过西方古典音乐的熏陶，或者曾经喜爱过已广泛采用西方音乐体系的所谓中国民歌。我们接受那些起源于白人传统的美国流行音乐来一般不成问题。但摇滚乐的基础有一大半来自黑人音乐，其旋律特点，节奏方式，乃至音调高低等都与西方古典音乐有所不同。黑人乐手十分注重Showmanship。这个词可以译为职业道德。比如，早期的黑人民歌手即使再穷，上台也要穿西装，因为他觉得这是职业歌手起码的装束。后来的黑人摇滚乐手在表演时一个比一个疯，演出服一个赛一个地夸张。这个词还可以译为表演技巧。表现在音乐上，就是对即兴演奏的重视。其实早期的西方古典音乐很重视即兴演奏，据说莫扎特就是一个天才的即兴演奏大师。但后来由于种种原因，西方人把这个美好传统给丢掉了。早期美国黑人乐手的唯一舞台就是酒吧。在那种嘈杂的环境下，面对喝得醉醺醺的听众们，没有什么比一大段出色的即兴演奏更能吸引人们的注意力的了。美国摇滚乐吸收了黑人音乐这一特长，极为重视器乐独奏，在主副歌之间总要来上一大段Solo，极为出彩。这在中国流行音乐中是少见的，这和中国乐手缺乏演出机会有着密切的关系。这些人可以说是后来风靡美国的所谓“另类文化”的开山鼻祖。他们对世界文化的一大贡献就是扩展了人们的视野，鼓励人类第一次越过贫富、阶级和肤色这些表面的差异，挑战已经经历了几千年的许多基本价值观念。不管这种挑战是否有意义，有一点是肯定的：即美国的文化艺术（尤其是摇滚乐）的发展受了他们很大的影响。其中一个最显著的后果就是：人们比过去更能容忍另类的思想和艺术了，甚至从某种程度上说是鼓励个性发展，崇尚标新立意。没有这种态度，没法想象美国摇滚乐在这四十多年里会出现那么多独特的歌手，那么多富有个性的作品，那么多不同的流派。虽然我们聆听好音乐的时间不多.但我真的感觉到了音乐给我们带来的一切.不敢想象没有音乐世界是什么样子.虽然没有每次都去,可是我去的每次都用心听了.感谢老师，感谢音乐欣赏课。我知道以后的时光中能有这样的时间听音乐的时候不多.可是我很珍惜这样的机会.我在人生的道路上，她将永远伴我向前迈进。我想让音乐支撑起所有的价值和尊严，因为音乐让我多了一份睿智，让世界多了几缕温馨……