石家庄铁道职业学院学报

2 混凝土箱涵施工裂缝原因分析 郭炳成 中小企业管理与科技(上旬刊) 2008/12 3 大断面顶推箱涵施工中泥浆套形成机理试验研究 李志伟 施工技术 2008/09 4 谈对混凝土箱涵施工裂缝原因的分析 刘佳学 中小企业管理与科技(上旬刊) 2008/06 5 大跨度框架桥顶进箱涵施工技术 毛俊卿 石家庄铁路职业技术学院学报 2008/02 6 浅谈钢筋混凝土箱涵施工裂缝的分析和控制 黄晨阳 科技创新导报 2008/20 7 谈混凝土箱涵施工裂缝原因的分析 曲世安 黑龙江科技信息 2008/03 8 混凝土箱涵施工裂缝原因分析 张弢 网络财富 2007/07 9 混凝土箱涵施工裂缝原因分析 张文楠 华商 2007/17 10 混凝土箱涵施工裂缝原因分析 张弢 华商 2007/15 11 大断面箱涵施工中管棚的承载作用机理分析 马香兰 青海大学学报(自然科学版) 2007/06 12 钢筋混凝土箱涵施工裂缝的分析与控制 黄玉兰 安徽建筑 2007/05 13 大断面箱涵施工中管棚的力学作用机理分析 李超 电网与水力发电进展 2007/06 14 顶入式立交箱涵施工质量病害的防治探讨 吴维东 科技信息(科学教研) 2007/16 15 郑开大道顶进箱涵施工设计研究 张贵婷 公路 2007/06 16 钢筋混凝土箱涵施工裂缝的分析与控制 刘洪涛 科技咨询导报 2007/17 17 钢筋混凝土箱涵施工裂缝的分析与控制 杨宏华 山西建筑 2007/11 18 钢筋混凝土箱涵施工裂缝的分析与控制 李长宏 科技情报开发与经济 2006/15 19 软土地层大断面管幕-箱涵施工技术 周松 岩土工程界 2006/02

本刊为国内外公开发行的综合性学术期刊，从1998年起被列为中国科技论文统计源期刊，主要刊登土木工程、铁道工程、桥梁工程、隧道工程、机械工程、电气工程、建筑工程、计算机网络、材料力学等方面的学术论文，读者对象是从事相关专业领域的科技人员及高校的师生等。

Sensorless torque control scheme ofinduction motor for hybrid electric vehicleYan LIU 1,2, Cheng SHAO1( Institute of Advanced Control Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian Liaoning 116024, China; of Information Engineering of Dalian University, Dalian Liaoning 116622, China)Abstract: In this paper, the sensorless torque robust tracking problem of the induction motor for hybrid electric vehicle(HEV) applications is addressed. Because motor parameter variations in HEV applications are larger than in industrialdrive system, the conventional field-oriented control (FOC) provides poor performance. Therefore, a new robust PI-basedextension of the FOC controller and a speed-flux observer based on sliding mode and Lyapunov theory are developed inorder to improve the overall performance. Simulation results show that the proposed sensorless torque control scheme isrobust with respect to motor parameter variations and loading disturbances. In addition, the operating flux of the motor ischosen optimally to minimize the consumption of electric energy, which results in a significant reduction in energy lossesshown by : Hybrid electric vehicle; Induction motor; Torque tracking; Sliding mode1 IntroductionBeing confronted by the lack of energy and the increasinglyserious pollution, the automobile industry is seekingcleaner and more energy-efficient Hybrid ElectricVehicle (HEV) is one of the solutions. A HEV comprisesboth a Combustion Engine (CE) and an Electric Motor(EM). The coupling of these two components can be inparallel or in series. The most common type of HEV is theparallel type, in which both CE and EM contribute to thetraction force that moves the vehicle. Fig1 presents a diagramof the propulsion system of a parallel HEV [1].Fig. 1 Parallel HEV automobile propulsion order to have lower energy consumption and lower pollutantemissions, in a parallel HEV the CE is commonlyemployed at the state (n > 40 km/h or an emergency speedup), while the electric motor is operated at various operatingconditions and transient to supply the difference in torquebetween the torque command and the torque supplied bythe CE. Therefore fast and precise torque tracking of an EMover a wide range of speed is crucial for the overall performanceof a induction motor is well suited for the HEV applicationbecause of its robustness, low maintenance and lowprice. However, the development of a drive system basedon the induction motor is not straightforward because of thecomplexity of the control problem involved in the IM. Furthermore,motor parameter variations in HEV applicationsare larger than in industrial drive system during operation[2]. The conventional control technique ranging from theinexpensive constant voltage/frequency ratio strategy to thesophisticated sensorless control schemes are mostly ineffectivewhere accurate torque tracking is required due to theirdrawbacks, which are sensitive to change of the parametersof the general, a HEV operation can be continuing smoothlyfor the case of sensor failure, it is of significant to developsensorless control algorithms. In this paper, the developmentof a sensorless robust torque control system for HEVapplications is proposed. The field oriented control of the inductionmotor is commonly employed in HEV applicationsdue to its relative good dynamic response. However the classical(PI-based) field oriented control (CFOC) is sensitive toparameter variations and needs tuning of at least six controlparameters (a minimum of 3 PI controller gains). An improvedrobust PI-based controller is designed in this paper,Received 5 January 2005; revised 20 September work was supported in part by State Science and Technology Pursuing Project of China (No. 2001BA204B01).Y. LIU et al. / Journal of Control Theory and Applications 2007 5 (1) 42–46 43which has less controller parameters to be tuned, and is robustto parameter variable parameters modelof the motor is considered and its parameters are continuouslyupdated while the motor is operating. Speed andflux observers are needed for the schemes. In this paper,the speed-flux observer is based on the sliding mode techniquedue to its superior robustness properties. The slidingmode observer structure allows for the simultaneous observationof rotor fluxes and rotor speed. Minimization of theconsumed energy is also considered by optimizing operatingflux of the The control problem in a HEV caseThe performance of electric drive system is one of thekey problems in a HEV application. Although the requirementsof various HEV drive system are different, all thesedrive systems are kinds of torque control systems. For anideal HEV, the torque requested by the supervisor controllermust be accurate and efficient. Another requirement is tomake the rotor flux track a certain reference λref . The referenceis commonly set to a value that generates maximumtorque and avoids magnetic saturation, and is weakened tolimit stator currents and voltages as rotor speed HEV applications, however, the flux reference is selectedto minimize the consumption of electrical energy as it is oneof the primary objectives in HEV applications. The controlproblem can therefore be stated as the following torque andflux tracking problems:minids,iqs,we Te(t) − Teref (t), (1)minids,iqs,we λdr(t) − λref (t), (2)minids,iqs,we λqr(t), (3)where λref is selected to minimize the consumption of electricalenergy. Teref is the torque command issued by thesupervisory controller while Te is the actual motor (3) reflects the constraint of field orientation commonlyencountered in the literature. In addition, for a HEVapplication the operating conditions will vary changes of parameters of the IM model need to be accountedfor in control due to they will considerably changeas the motor changes operating A variable parameters model of inductionmotor for HEV applicationsTo reduce the elements of storage (inductances), the inductionmotor model used in this research in stationary referenceframe is the Γ-model. Fig. 2 shows its q-axis (d-axisare similar). As noted in [3], the model is identical (withoutany loss of information) to the more common T-model inwhich the leakage inductance is separated in stator and rotorleakage [3]. With respect to the classical model, the newparameters are:Lm = L2mLr= γLm, Ll = Lls + γLlr,Rr = γ. 2 Induction motor model in stationary reference frame (q-axis).The following basic w−λr−is equations in synchronouslyrotating reference frame (d - q) can be derived from theabove model.⎧⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎩dλdrdt= −ηλdr + (we − wr)λqr + ηLmids,dλqrdt= −(we − wr)λdr − ηλqr + ηLmiqs,didsdt= ηβλdr+βwrλqr−γids+weiqs+1σLsVds,diqsdt=−βwrλdr+ηβλqr−weids−γiqs+1σLsVqs,dwrdt= μ(λdriqs − λqrids) −TLJ,dθdt= wr + ηLmiqsλdr= we,Te = μ(λdriqs − λqrids)(4)with constants defined as follows:μ = npJ, η = RrLm, σ = 1−LmLs, β =1Ll,γ = Rs + RrLl, Ls = Ll + Lm,where np is the number of poles pairs, J is the inertia of therotor. The motor parameters Lm, Ll, Rs, Rr were estimatedoffline [4]. Equation (5) shows the mappings between theparameters of the motor and the operating conditions (ids,iqs).Lm = a1i2ds + a2ids + a3, Ll = b1Is + b2,Rr = c1iqs + c2.(5)4 Sensorless torque control system designA simplified block diagram of the control diagram isshown in Fig. Y. LIU et al. / Journal of Control Theory and Applications 2007 5 (1) 42–46Fig. 3 Control PI controller based FOC designThe PI controller is based on the Field Oriented Controller(FOC) scheme. When Te = Teref, λdr = λref , andλqr = 0 in synchronously rotating reference frame (d − q),the following FOC equations can be derived from the equations(4).⎧⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎩ids = λrefLm+ λrefRr,iqs = Terefnpλref,we = wr + ηLmiqsλref.(6)From the Equation (6), the FOC controller has lower performancein the presence of parameter uncertainties, especiallyin a HEV application due to its inherent open loopdesign. Since the rotor flux dynamics in synchronous referenceframe (λq = 0) are linear and only dependent on thed-current input, the controller can be improved by addingtwo PI regulators on error signals λref − λdr and λqr − 0 asfollowids = λrefLm+ λrefRr+ KPd(λref − λdr)+KId (λref − λdr)dt, (7)iqs = Terefnpλref, (8)we = wr + ηLmiqsλref+ KPqλqr + KIq λqrdt. (9)The Equation (7) and (9) show that current (ids) can controlthe rotor flux magnitude and the speed of the d − q rotatingreference frame (we) can control its orientation correctlywith less sensitivity to motor parameter variations becauseof the two PI Stator voltage decoupling designBased on scalar decoupling theory [5], the stator voltagescommands are given in the form:⎧⎪⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎪⎩Uds = Rsids − weσLsiqs = Rsids − weLliqs,Uqs = Rsiqs + weσLsids + LmLrweλref= Rsiqs + weσLsids + weλref .(10)Because of fast and good flux tracking, poor dynamics decouplingperformance exerts less effect on the control Speed-flux observer designBased on the theory of negative feedback, the design ofspeed-flux observer must be robust to motor parameter speed-flux observer here is based on the slidingmode technique described in [6∼8]. The observer equationsare based on the induction motor current and flux equationsin stationary reference frame.⎧⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎩d˜idsdt= ηβ˜λdr + β ˜ wr˜λqr − γ˜ids +1LlVds,d˜iqsdt= −β ˜ wr˜λdr + ηβ˜λqr − γ˜iqs +1LlVqs,d˜λdrdt= −η˜λdr − ˜ wr˜λqr + ηLm˜ids,d˜λqrdt= ˜wr˜λ dr − η˜λqr + ηLm˜iqs.(11)Define a sliding surface as:s = (˜iqs − iqs)˜λdr − (˜ids − ids)˜λqr. (12)Let a Lyapunov function beV = . (13)After some algebraic derivation, it can be found that when˜ wr = w0sgn(s) with w0 chosen large enough at all time,then ˙V = ˙s · s 0. This shows that s will converge tozero in a finite time, implying the stator current estimatesand rotor flux estimates will converge to their real valuesin a finite time [8]. To find the equivalent value of estimatewr (the smoothed estimate of speed, since estimate wr is aswitching function), the equation must be solved [8]. Thisyields:˜ weq = wr˜λqrλqr + λdr˜λdr˜λ2qr +˜λ2dr −ηnp˜λqrλdr − λqr˜λdr˜λ2qr +˜λ2dr. (14)The equation implies that if the flux estimates converge totheir real values, the equivalent speed will be equal to thereal speed. But the Equation (14) for equivalent speed cannotbe used as given in the observer since it contains unknownterms. A low pass filter is used instead,˜ weq =11 + s · τ˜ wr. (15)Y. LIU et al. / Journal of Control Theory and Applications 2007 5 (1) 42–46 45The same low pass filter is also introduced to the systeminput,which guarantees that the input matches the feedbackin selection of the speed gain w0 has two major constraints:1) The gain has to be large enough to insure that slidingmode can be ) A very large gain can yield to instability of the simulations, an adaptive gain of the slidingmode observer to the equivalent speed is = k1 ˜ weq + k2. (16)From Equation (11), the sliding mode observer structureallows for the simultaneous observation of rotor Flux reference optimal designThe flux reference can either be left constant or modifiedto accomplish certain requirements (minimum current,maximum efficiency, field weakening) [9,10]. In this paper,the flux reference is chosen to maximum efficiency at steadystate and is weaken for speeds above rated. The optimal efficiencyflux can be calculated as a function of the torquereference [9].λdr−opt = |Teref| · 4Rs · L2r/L2m + Rr. (17)Equation (17) states that if the torque request Teref iszero, Equation (8) presents a singularity. Moreover, theanalysis of Equation (17) does not consider the flux fact, for speeds above rated, it is necessary toweaken the flux so that the supply voltage limits are not improved optimum flux reference is then calculatedas:⎧⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎩λref = λdr-opt,if λmin λdr-opt λdr-rated ·wratedwr-actual,λref = λmin, if λdr-opt λmin,λref = λdr-rated ·wratedwr-actual,if λdr-opt λdr-rated ·wratedwr-actual.(18)where λmin is a minimum value to avoid the division SimulationsThe rated parameters of the motor used in the simulationsare given byRs = Ω, Rr = Ω, Lls = 75 H,Llr = 105 H, Lm = mH, Ls = Lls + Lm,Lr = Llr + Lm, P = 4, Jmot = kgm2,J = Jmot +MR2tire/Rf, ρair = , Cd = = m2, Rf = , Cr = = m, M = 3000 kg, wbase = 5400 rpm,λdr−rated = shows the torque reference curve that representstypical operating behaviors in a hybrid electric . 4 The torque reference torque is modeled by considering the aerodynamic,rolling resistance and road grade forces. Its expression isgiven byTL = RtireRf(12ρairCdAfv2 +MCr cos αg +M sin αg).Figures in [5∼8] show the simulation results of thesystem of (considering variable motor parameters).Though a small estimation error can be noticed on the observedfluxes and speed, the torque tracking is still achievedat an acceptable level as shown in Figs. [5, 6, 8]. The torquecontrol over a wide range of speed presents less sensitivityto motor parameters presents the d and q components of the rotor flux λr is precisely orientated to d-axis because of theimproved PI shows clearly the real and observed speed in thedifferent phases of acceleration, constant and decelerationspeed with the motor control torque of . The variablemodel parameters exert less influence on speed shows the power loss when the rotor flux keeps constantor optimal state. A significant improvement in powerlosses is noticed due to reducing the flux reference duringthe periods of low torque . 5 Motor rotor flux λ Y. LIU et al. / Journal of Control Theory and Applications 2007 5 (1) 42–46Fig. 6 Motor . 7 Power . 8 Motor ConclusionsThis paper has described a sensorless torque control systemfor a high-performance induction motor drive for aHEV case. The system allows for fast and good torquetracking over a wide range of speed even in the presence ofmotor parameters uncertainty. In this paper, the improvedPI-based FOC controllers show a good performance in therotor flux λdr magnitude and its orientation tracking. Thespeed-flux observer described here is based on the slidingmode technique, making it independent of the motor adaptation of the speed -flux observer is used tostabilize the observer when integration errors are present.

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浅谈山区桥梁高墩施工的质量控制

为达到质量要求所采取的作业技术和活动称为质量控制。这就是说，质量控制是为了通过监视质量形成过程，消除质量环上所有阶段引起不合格或不满意效果的因素。以达到质量要求，获取经济效益，而采用的各种质量作业技术和活动。下面我为大家带来一篇关于浅谈山区桥梁高墩施工的质量控制

论文摘要: 随着我国社会主义经济的发展和科技水平的普遍提高，我国不断加大对山区桥梁的投入建设，并且在近几十年里取得了重大成就，但同时不能忽视的是由于山区地势地形复杂，山区桥梁的建设还存在众多的隐患，如何不断提高山区桥梁质量，是目前急需思考和解决的问题。本文就针对这一问题，从目前山区桥梁高墩施工中存在的不足入手，继而指出影响山区桥梁高墩施工质量的因素，最后就如何加强山区桥梁高墩施工的质量控制提出几点建议。

关键词: 山区桥梁;高墩施工;质量控制

众所周知，桥梁的建设对促进一个国家的政治经济文化有着不容忽视的作用，在充分开发国土资源，合理布局生产力，不断改善国际国内的投资环境等各个方面发挥着重要的作用。我国山区的桥梁建设更是在加强区域合作发展，提高山区人们的生活水平方面产生重要影响。近些年来，随着经济的发展，国家对山区桥梁的质量安全提出了更高的要求，这将有助于进一步发展我国基础工程设施，将工业化和信息化更有力的`向前推进。

一、山区桥梁高墩施工现状桥梁在进行高墩施工的过程中，本身就很容易出现竖向的中轴线呈现S 形的情况，对人们的生命财产安全产生极大的威胁。

一般来说，出现这种情况的原因在于桥梁高墩的节数过多，因为节数越多，墩柱越高，越容易产生这种状况。在平原地形下的桥梁高墩施工还不时出现这种情况，山区的桥梁高墩施工更是面临着严峻的挑战。此外，在施工的具体过程中，在模板安装、振捣等其它多种因素的影响下，有可能发生竖向中轴线偏离施工控制轴线的危险局面。我们一方面应该充分肯定近几十年来，山区桥梁取得的伟大成就，但绝不能忽视其存在的潜在威胁。当然，出现这一问题是由多方面因素共同作用而成，如何加强山区桥梁高墩施工的质量控制是当前桥梁施工需要解决的问题。

二、影响山区桥梁高墩施工质量的因素

(一)施工人员自身素质的因素人是所有实践活动的主体，因此在影响山区桥梁高墩施工质量的因素中，最首要最活跃的就是施工人员的意识和综合素质的原因。首先是施工人员的综合素质不高，责任意识不强，不能充分认识到山区桥梁的高墩施工安全的重要性。加上相关管理人员在桥梁高墩施工的过程中，只追求速度，不讲究质量，造成在设计和选料方面都没有经过仔细的实践调查。其次是施工人员的专业素质较差，对山区桥梁高墩施工的关键技术不能够熟练掌握和灵活运用，专业知识不扎实，十分不利于桥梁高墩施工的质量控制。

(二)地理环境因素据相关数据统计，有至少一半的交通安全事故是地理环境造成的，山区的桥梁高墩施工在地形地貌方面面临着巨大的挑战。

众所周知，我国山区地形落差大，垂直海拔较高，地质结构复杂，此外还不时发生狂风、暴雨、泥石流等自然灾害，给山区的桥梁施工带来了巨大的困难。具体来说，山区的桥梁工程有其自身的特征，其中最明显的一点就是桥梁的墩柱高度落差十分明显，在某些地方甚至达到几十米，施工难度巨大。由于山区的桥梁施工环境十分恶劣，且施工作业的机械化程度较低，这就需要施工人员耗费大量的体力。

三、山区桥梁高墩施工的质量控制措施

(一)制定严格的山区桥梁高墩施工规范要想真正保证施工工程的质量就必须严格遵守和贯彻国家规定的强制性的相关法律法规和行业标准，规范施工的流程。在山区桥梁高墩施工之前，各个部门应该做好全方位的准备工作，只有这样才能有效保证施工工程的顺利开展。高墩施工部门首先要对施工的全体工作进行全面了解，从而逐渐适应具体的自然环境和施工环境，其次要针对桥梁施工过程中可能遇到的突发情况，做出相应的预防措施。

(二)加强对山区桥梁高墩施工的技术控制桥梁高墩施工的质量控制首先应该严格控制原材料的质量，对于水泥、碎石和钢材这类的主要原材料应该严格按照业主准入厂家进行购买。其次，在钢筋的制作和安装控制中，应该满足材料技术的要求，在钢筋绑扎成形时，必须把扎丝扎紧，不允许出现折断或位移的现象。为了方便桥梁高墩施工，在制作钢筋的时候，应该依据规定的要求，控制好断面钢筋接头的钢筋长度和数量，以达到满足外观需要和设计规范的要求。施工中应加强测量监控及试验检测工作，控制好墩身的垂直度。

(三)爬模、滑模和翻模技术在山区桥梁高墩施工中的运用我国在桥梁高墩施工的过程中，一般采用爬模、滑模和翻模这三种施工技术。这三个施工工艺各有优缺点，在施工中，应从安全、质量、经济这三个方面去详细的比较论证，选择切实符合现场实际情况的施工工艺，并对高墩的施工安全技术方案进行专家评审论证，保证施工方案的安全性和可操作性。

结语：

综上所述，山区的桥梁高墩施工的质量控制是一项具体而繁琐的工程，需要施工单位人员具备较高的专业技术素质和良好的安全责任意识，还能够不断学习新的与山区桥梁高墩施工相关技术，并巧妙地运用到具体的实践中去。总之，山区桥梁高墩施工的质量控制是一项艰巨的任务，需要从制度、人才和环境等多面进行逐步的创新和改革，只有这样才能够不断加强山区桥梁高墩施工的质量控制。

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