奥巴马麦凯恩激辩金融危机据《今日美国》报道,在周二的总统辩论中,约翰-麦凯恩和巴拉克-奥巴马互相攻击,并提出了各自的应对美国金融危机的方案。John McCain andBarack Obama exchanged blame and offered proposals to address the nation'sfinancial crisis during Tuesday's presidential debate, USA Today reported.麦凯恩承诺对那些苦苦挣扎的房主们施以援手,而奥巴马则表示政府必须确保国家大规模救市方案按计划实施。McCain promisedaid to struggling homeowners and Obama said the government must assure themassive federal financial rescue package works as planned.二人辩论的主题很快便集中在经济问题上,当晚辩论主要围绕着这一话题进行。The debate focusedimmediately on the economy and stayed on it for much of the night.麦凯恩提议财政部有条件地买进按揭坏债,并根据目前的房价和房主们进行再次协商。McCain called forthe Treasury Department to buy up troubled mortgages — with some conditions —and renegotiate them with homeowners at the current value of homes.麦凯恩说:“我们都清楚,只有我们稳定了美国的家庭价值观,我们才能去创造就业机会、恢复我们的经济。McCain said,"We all know, my friends, until we stabilize home values inAmerica,we're never going to start turning around and creating jobs and fixing oureconomy,此外,我们还得重建对美国的信任和信心。”and we've got toget some trust and confidence back toAmerica."奥巴马称最近的经济低迷为“大萧条后最严重的金融危机”,他表示政府必须确保签署的金融救市方案按计划实施。Obama called thecurrent downturn "the worst financial crisis since the GreatDepression" and said the government must assure that the financial rescuepackage signed into law worked as planned.他说:“我相信这将是对过去8年来布什政府高调推行的失败的经济政策的最终审判,而参议员麦凯恩就是这一政策的支持者。”"I believethis is a final verdict on the failed economic policies of the last eightyears, strongly promoted by President Bush and supported by SenatorMcCain," he said.辩论开始前几小时,道琼斯工业平均指数又暴跌508点。辩论在一片金融阴霾中展开。The debate beganhours after the Dow Jones industrial average tumbled another 508 points, andthe resulting financial anxiety is looming large over the debate.麦凯恩指责奥巴马是参议院中收取房利美和联邦住宅贷款抵押公司捐款的第二大个人,而这两大公司正是目前名誉扫地的抵押贷款行业巨头。McCain accusedObama of being the Senate's second-highest recipient of donations fromindividuals at Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, the two now-disgraced mortgageindustry giants.奥巴马回击称,麦凯恩竞选团队经理戴维斯在华盛顿一家政治公关公司持股,直到最近,该公司每月都从联邦住宅贷款抵押公司收到成千上万的资金。Obama shot backthat McCain's campaign manager, Rick Davis, has a stake in a Washington lobbying firm that receivedthousands of dollars a month from Freddie Mac until recently.路透社报道,两位候选人均誓言致力于使美国能源独立。Both candidatesvowed to focus on making theUnited Statesenergy independent, Reuters reported.麦凯恩表示,核电是一项无污染能源,也将是解决气候变化的关键。他还对奥巴马进行了嘲讽。McCain saidnuclear power was a clean source of energy that would be key to battlingclimate change and mocked Obama.奥巴马支持发展核电,并将其作为一个大能源计划的组成部分。And Obama said heapproved of nuclear power as one element of a broader energy plan.美联社报道,辩论话题还涉及外交政策方面,其激烈程度不亚于经济和国内事务。The debate alsoveered into foreign policy, and the disputes were as intense as on the economyand domestic matters, AP reported.麦凯恩称他的对手“在伊拉克和进军问题上的观点是错误的。”McCain said hisrival "was wrong aboutIraqand the surge.“在俄罗斯侵略格鲁吉亚问题上,他(奥巴马)对俄罗斯的看法是错误的。”“He was wrong about Russia when theycommitted aggression against Georgia.”“他的职业生涯很短,他还不了解我们国家在安全问题上所面临的挑战。”“And in his short career he does notunderstand our national security challenges.”“而我们没有时间来进行在职培训。”“We don't have time for on the jobtraining.”奥巴马略带嘲讽地回击说,他确实不太了解一些事情,例如:多年来美国已经在伊拉克耗费了数千亿美元后,今后,美国要如何面对阿富汗问题的挑战。Obama counteredwith a trace of sarcasm that he didn't understand some things — like how UScould face the challenge inAfghanistanafter spending years and hundreds of billions of dollars inIraq.据路透社报道,辩论后哥伦比亚广播公司和美国有线新闻电视网的一项快速调查都显示奥巴马在辩论中胜出。Two quick pollstaken immediately after the debate, by CBS News and CNN, both judged Obama thewinner, Reuters reported.路透评论道,麦凯恩可能不会再有扭转竞选局面的机会。McCain could berunning out of chances to recast the race, Reuters commented.离大选只有4周的时间,两位候选人将在10月15日进行最终辩论。With only fourweeks to go until the election, the two candidates will meet for one finaldebate on October 金融危机激增MBA申请人数眼下的华尔街可谓哀鸿遍野,而美国各地的商学院却因此振奋不已:全日制MBA课程的申请人数在2008年激增。Business is bad onWall Street, and business schools across the country are bracing for theimpact: A surge in applications this year to their full-time . programs.金融市场一片混乱,美国经济放缓,华尔街正在经受深刻的结构性变化。很多人决定,现在是回学校充电的好时候。With financialmarkets in turmoil, the economy slowing down and Wall Street undergoing aprofound structural change, many people are deciding that now is a good time tohead back to school.考虑迈入校门的人有些是此次金融业大裁员的牺牲品,另一些则觉得他们的饭碗即将不保。Some would-bestudents are the victim of layoffs roiling the financial industry. Others thinktheir jobs could disappear soon.即使目前工作还算稳定的MBA申请者也认为,利用这段时间攻读研究生文凭是个不错的选择--因为未来几年的升迁和跳槽机会都会比较稀缺。Even someapplicants whose jobs are currently stable are deciding that it makes sense togo for a graduate degree now: since promotions and new opportunities could behard to find in the next few year商学院还没有关于申请人数的统计数字,因为大多数顶尖学校的第一轮招生截止日期是在10月中旬。不过,许多商学院表示,今年咨询MBA课程的人增加了很多。Schools don't haveapplication tallies yet -- as deadlines for the first round of admissions arein mid-October for most top-tier schools -- but many already are reporting bigincreases in interest.纽约大学斯特恩商学院称,今年参加其校外MBA推介会的人员增加了30%。New YorkUniversity Stern School of Business reports a 30% increase in attendance atoff-site information sessions this year.西北大学凯洛格管理学院的申请人数目前已增长22%。NorthwesternUniversityKelloggSchoolof Management has had a 22% increase inapplications so far.芝加哥大学工商管理研究生院表示,其网上咨询和推介会参加人数都有显著上升。Universityof Chicago GraduateSchool of Business says it is seeing significant increases ininquiries online and attendance at information sessions.今年,GMAT考试的注册人数也在增加。People are alsoregistering for the Graduate Management Admission Test in greater numbers thisyear.美国研究生入学管理委员会位于弗吉尼亚州McLean市,成员包括165家商学院。According to theGraduate Management Admission Council, a McLean, membershiporganization of 165 graduate business schools,.该机构称,2008年1至9月GMAT考试的注册人数达到129,902人,比去年同期上升。GMAT registrationvolume for the first nine months of this year totaled 129,902, up from thesame period last year.这些数字反映出一种与以往的经济衰退期类似的趋势。The numbersunderscore a trend that has occurred in previous economic downturns.商学院和经济学家说,研究生入学人数是反经济周期的,也就是说,它与经济景气程度背道而驰。Graduateadmissions are countercyclical -- meaning that they move in the oppositedirection of the economic cycle, business schools and economists say.由于次债风波的连锁反应,这批MBA研究生毕业时,将面对一个完全不同的华尔街,就业市场可能很不乐观。When this year'. applicants graduate, they will enter a dramatically different WallStreet and potentially smaller job market that has been altered by the rippleeffects of the credit crunch.今年即将毕业的研究生已经感受到就业市场的低迷。This year's newlyminted graduates already encountered a tougher job market.科尔说,在芝加哥大学,2008年毕业生中找到工作或有公司邀请加盟的人数比去年下降了约3个百分点。At the University of Chicago, the percentage of 2008graduates that either had offers or had already accepted them dropped roughlythree percentage points from the previous year, Ms. Kole says.一些商学院表示,由于毕业后的就业前景不确定,因此目前有稳定工作的申请者可能会放弃进入商学院的机会。Indeed, schoolssay not knowing what the job market will look like upon graduation could detersome prospective applicants who have stable jobs from applying.有些申请者则打算碰碰运气。Some applicantsare taking their chances.其他研究生院也都预计申请人数会增加。Other graduateschools are also expecting increases in applicants.学员们今年还要考虑另一个问题──次债危机使学生贷款很难申请。Also a factor forstudents to consider this year: The credit crunch has roiled the market forstudent loans.一直关注这一领域事态发展的负责人马克-坎特罗维兹称,2007年,有144家民间和政府教育贷款机构暂停了学生贷款。In the past year,144 education lenders have suspended private and federal loans, according toMark Kantrowitz, publisher of , who has been following thedevelopments.不过,坎特罗维兹说,商学院的学生应该可以找到贷款,因为很多贷款机构只是对本科生和成人教育学生暂停发放贷款。Still, says business-school students should be able to find loans. Manylenders, he says, have suspended loans for undergraduate and continuingeducation students but not graduate loans对这些贷款机构来说,“研究生贷款项目是最有利可图的,因为贷款质量最高。”For lenders,'graduate student loans are the most profitable because the loan balances arethe highest,' he says.然而,学生要想获得私人贷款,可能需要提供更多的信用证明,而且贷款利率也会上升。But students mayface tighter credit requirements in getting private loans and pay higherinterest rates.
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The development of modern financeFirst, the financial problem of the uncertainty(A) the uncertainty of the field in the application of asset pricing1. Portfolio Theory and Capital Asset Pricing ModelIn the framework of the financial analysis, introduction of the concept of uncertainty is a major role. First Kenes (1936) and Hicks (1939) proposed the concept of risk compensation that the financial products in the presence of uncertainty, should interest rates in different financial products in compensation for additional risks. Subsequently, Von Neumann (1947) applied the concept of expected utility of the proposed settlement in the decision-making under uncertainty in the method chosen, on this basis Markowiz (1952) developed a portfolio theory, he thought when investors choose portfolio concerned only with future cash flow of the mean and variance. He assumed that the expected utility of investors consistent with secondary distribution or multinomial distribution. Markowiz The main conclusions are subject to uncertainty, optimal decision-making is a diversified investment holding. Tobin (1958) that investor liquidity preferences for their own benefits and risks of different options for the balance. This further improved the framework of portfolio choice the field of asset pricing model is another well-known theory of capital pricing model (CAPM), Sharp (1994) and Lintner (1995) using the formula succinctly expressed the portfolio value and risk-free interest rate and the level of risk assets, the relationship between . Black (1972) introduced even in the non-risk assets zones remained the case, Sharp and the CAPM formula is still valid, just without the risk of interest rates are including the entire market on all assets of the portfolio rate of return instead of the 预期. Contemporary with the CAPM model of the asset pricing model also Ross (1977) arbitrage pricing model (APT) and Lucas (1978) the typical agent asset pricing by CAPM asset pricing model for asset pricing provides a simple method of calculation, and obtain some support from empirical studies (Fama and Macbeth, 1973), but in reality some of the anomalies is still a lack of effective explanatory power, Brennan (1989) that the CAPM is based on the expectations of all investors in the investment and risk are common in estimates and judgments, and all investors the same utility function based on the assumption that this assumption is inconsistent with the reality This is leading to some practical problems CAPM on the root causes of the lack of explanatory power. It is beyond doubt on these assumptions, to promote the introduction of the concept of asymmetric information and . Market efficiency hypothesisMarket efficiency hypothesis that in a perfectly competitive market, there is no asymmetric information and market frictions affect the future earnings of the average investment risk is different. 60s in the 20th century a large number of research workers on the market efficiency hypothesis was tested, Fama (1973) through empirical tests on the . stock market, that the efficient market hypothesis holds, but many researchers found that in the market, There are many market efficiency hypothesis or CAPM model can not explain the abnormal phenomenon. For example, Basu (1977) found that the average earnings assets, in addition to the β coefficient of the CAPM, but also with the price earnings ratio of assets (P / E ratio) is related to the same β coefficient, the higher the price earnings ratio stocks (growth stocks) better than the market price of the low price earnings ratio of stocks (value stocks); Benz (1981) found that the market price of the stock with the size of the listed company; Stattman (1980) found that stock prices and the ratio of book value (P / B ratio) is also an important factor affecting stock prices. Fama and French (1993) On the basis of the above three-factor model proposed that the impact of asset prices in the β factors, joined the P / E ratio and P / B ratio interpretation of these anomalies, the efficient market hypothesis seems powerless, someone had tried the "January effect" to the end of Shuishou interpreted as the impact of outflow, but in the United Kingdom, Australia, the annual revenue of the country is not in December, there are still "in January effect "can not be explained. Some scholars from a psychological perspective to explain these anomalies, such as, Dreman (1982) the stock price P / E ratio effect interpreted as the investor always overestimate growth stocks with high growth, leading to market high P / E ratio of stock market was overvalued, that it is a reason for low stock . Continuous time modelIn asset pricing theory is another important assumption: stock market is always in a continuous process, under this assumption, Merton (1969,1971) to develop instantaneous CAPM Capital Asset Pricing Model (ICAPM), the same information symmetry, frictionless market, asset price changes in line with Ito process under these conditions, asset prices and investor preference for independent effectiveness. In subsequent studies Merton (1973) and Black (1973) The application of these continuous-time model has been successful in the option pricing formula, the formula was later confirmed that a large number of empirical studies and has been widely applied in practice.(B) the uncertainty of financial management in the company ofFinancial analysis is another important area of financial management, major research firms in the investment decision-making in the proportion of the debt and equity options, the company's dividend policy and other issues. Results of the first studies in this area by the Modigliani and Miller (1958) made their study shows that full market (no market frictions and asymmetric information exists) the value of the company has nothing to do with the company's debt ratio (MM theorem). A similar study concludes that the value of the company's profit distribution policy has nothing to do. Obviously, these research findings and practical in reality. MM theorem based on the conclusions in the distribution of profits, due to the cash outflow will be sent found Jinhong Li, the Company repurchased shares will be more willing to choose policies, rather than the dividend policy, in reality, many companies prefer to dividends rather than Share buy-back, this phenomenon is Black (1976) referred to as "Company dividend puzzle (Dividend Puzzle)", which Miller (1977) can give the explanation, MM theorem conclusion is that the reason and the reality of different tax and the so-called bankruptcy costs on the financial structure is the result of certain liabilities of the company can achieve the role of tax relief, another company because of the existence of high debt ratio risk of bankruptcy, so the debt ratio to the value of existing shares affected, Miller and Other scholars make on these financial problems are not very satisfactory interpretation of the whole until later after the introduction of asymmetric information, it seems Caidui explain these issues to achieve a mentioned above, some of the phenomena of reality is difficult to simply use the uncertainty (risk) to get a satisfactory explanation, it is in the research of these issues raises the question of asymmetric information on financial concerns, plus last 60 years in the 20th century to game theory, represented a breakthrough in the information economy research methods, leading many scholars to the financial problems of asymmetric information in the study achieved a lot, especially the use of asymmetric information can explain a lot of perfectly the financial structure issues. Following is an overview of this still results in two parts, first in the results of financial decision-making, followed by the asset pricing results.(A) asymmetric information in corporate financial management application
The financial crisis have affect many different area of the world .Asia is one of them .since the building of global economy system .the economic connection of the world have became more and more close! Now ,the effect of the crisis in develop country is very serious .More and more people become jobless .Asia have prepared for meeting any country in Asia want cooperate more close .because the effect of the crisis hurt the developing country deeply
现代金融学的发展一、金融问题中的不确定性研究在21世纪以前的经济学研究中,研究者大多关注的是企业中的投入产出效率问题,由于当时资本市场化程度低,很少有人专门研究与资本决策有关的问题,尽管如此,还是有些研究成果对以后金融学的发展起到了很大的推动作用,其中最大的贡献是资金时间价值概念的提出。随着金融市场的发展,以及人们对不确定性概念的认识,进入30年代以后产生了大量对金融决策问题的研究成果,同时这些成果又积极推进了金融市场的活跃与发展。在本文以下部分简要概述与评价了这一时期的重要研究成果。(一)不确定性研究在资产定价领域中的应用1.证券组合理论与资本资产定价模型在整个金融分析的框架中,不确定性概念的引入是具有重大作用的。最早Kenes(1936)和Hicks(1939)提出了风险补偿的概念,认为由于金融产品中的不确定性的存在,应该对不同金融产品在利率中附加一定的风险补偿。随后,Von Neumann(1947)应用预期效用的概念提出了解决在不确定性条件下的决策选择的方法,在此基础上Markowiz(1952)发展起了证券组合理论,他认为投资者选择证券组合时关注的只是未来现金流的均值与方差。他假设投资者的预期效用符合二次分布或者是多项式分布。Markowiz的主要研究结论是在不确定的前提下,最优的投资决策是分散化持有。Tobin(1958)认为投资者出于自身流动性偏好的不同选择收益与风险的均衡。这进一步完善了证券组合选择理论的框架。在资产定价领域另一著名的理论模型就是资本定价模型(CAPM),Sharp(1994)和Lintner(1995)用公式简明地表述了资产组合的价值与无风险利率以及资产的风险水平之间的关系。Black(1972)推出了即使在不存在无风险资产的情况下,Sharp和CAPM公式仍然成立,只是无风险利率被包括整个市场上所有资产的证券组合的预期收益率代替。与CAPM模型同时代出现的资产定价模型还有Ross(1977)的套利定价模型(APT)和Lucas(1978)典型代理资产定价模型。以CAPM为代表的资产定价模型,为资产定价提供了一个简洁的计算方法,并且得到了一些在实证方面的研究的支持(Fama and Macbeth,1973),但是对现实中的一些异常现象仍然缺少有效的解释能力,Brennan(1989)认为CAPM是建立在所有投资者对投资的预期与风险都具有共同的估计与判断,并且所有投资者的效用函数一致的假设基础之上,这一假设与现实不一致,这是导致CAPM对一些现实问题缺少解释力的根本原因。以后正是对这些假设的质疑,推动了信息不对称概念的提出与研究。2.市场有效性假说市场有效性假说认为,在一个完全竞争市场中,不存在不对称信息与市场摩擦,影响未来平均收益的只是投资风险的不同。在20世纪60年代有大量研究工作者对市场有效性假说进行了检验,Fama(1973)通过对美国证券市场的实证检验,认为有效市场假说是成立的,但是很多研究人员发现了在市场中,存在着许多市场有效性假说或者CAPM模型解释不了的异常现象。例如,Basu(1977)发现资产的平均收益除了与CAPM中的β系数有关外,还与资产的价格盈利比率(P/E比率)有关,在相同β系数下,价格盈利比率高的股票(成长型股票)的市场价格好于价格盈利比率低的股票(价值型股票);Benz(1981)发现股票的市场价格还与上市公司的规模有关;Stattman(1980)发现股票的价格与账面价值的比率(P/B比率)也是影响股票价格的重要因素。Fama和French(1993)在以上研究的基础上提出了三因素模型,即在影响资产价格的β因素外,加入了P/E比率和P/B比率因素。另外,许多研究人员从时间序角度研究也发现了一些市场有效假说与CAPM解释不了的异常现象,其中最为著名的就是Pozeff和Kinney(1976)发现的所谓“一月效应”;他们发现在纽约证券市场的指数在一月期间的存在明显低于其他月份的现象;还有就是Cross(1973)和French(1980)发现存在类似的“星期一效应”,以后许多研究人员在世界范围内验证了这两种现象的存在。对这些异常现象的解释,有效市场假说显得无能为力,有人曾经试图将“一月效应”解释为到年末税收流出的影响,但是在英国、澳大利亚等税收年度不在12月份的国家,仍然存在“一月效应”就无法解释了。有些学者从心理学的角度解释这些异常现象,例如,Dreman(1982)将股票价格的P/E比率效应解释为,由投资者总是过高估计具有高成长性股票的成长性,导致市场中具有高P/E比率的股票的价格被高估了,这是导致股票收益率低的原因。3.连续时间模型在资产定价理论中的另一个重要假设是:证券市场总是在连续过程中,在这一假设前提下,Merton(1969,1971)将CAPM发展为瞬时资本资产定价模型(ICAPM),同样在信息对称、无摩擦的市场中,资产价格的变化符合Ito过程,在这种条件下,资产的价格与投资者的效用偏好无关。在随后的研究中Merton(1973)和Black(1973)应用以上连续时间模型成功地得到了期权定价公式,这一公式后来被大量的实证研究所证实,并且被广泛在实践中应用。(二)不确定性研究在公司财务管理中的应用金融分析研究的另外一个重要领域是公司财务管理,主要研究公司在投资决策中的有关负债与权益比例选择、公司的红利政策等问题。最早这方面的研究成果由Modigliani和Miller(1958)作出,他们的研究显示,在完全市场中(没有市场摩擦与信息不对称存在)公司的价值与公司的负债比率无关(M-M定理)。类似的研究结论还有,公司的价值与公司的利润分配政策无关。显而易见,这些研究结论与现实中的事实不符。依据M-M定理的结论,公司在利润分配时,由于派发现金红利会有现金流出,公司将更愿意选择股份回购的政策,而不是红利政策,而在现实中,许多公司更愿意选择分红而不是股份回购,这一现象被Black(1976)称为“公司红利的困惑(Dividend Puzzle)”,对此Miller(1977)所能给出的解释是,M-M定理的结论之所以与现实不同在于税收与所谓的破产成本对财务结构的影响,是由于一定的负债可以使公司达到税收减免的作用,另外由于对高负债率公司存在着破产的风险,所以负债率对公司股票价值存在影响,Miller以及其他的学者对这些财务问题做出的解释总体来说都不很令人满意,直到后来引入不对称信息以后,似乎才对这些问题的解释取得了突破。二、金融中的不对称信息问题的研究正如前文所述,对现实中的一些现象很难单纯用不确定性(风险)来得到满意的解释,正是在对这些问题的研究引起了人们对金融问题中的不对称信息的关注,加上在20世纪60年代以博弈论为代表的信息经济研究方法的突破,使得许多学者在对金融问题中的不对称信息的研究中取得了很多成果,特别是用不对称信息可以完美地解释许多有关财务结构方面的问题。以下仍然分两部分概述这方面的成果,首先是在财务决策方面的成果,接下来是在资产定价方面的成果。(一)不对称信息在公司财务管理中的应用1.红利信号模型关于公司红利决策的困惑引起了许多学者的关注,除了以上提到的公司更愿意支付红利而不愿意将利润用于股份回购的异常现象之外,Lintner(1957)还发现公司在进行红利决策时,由于受累进税制的影响,更愿意使各年的红利平滑些,所以公司每年的红利波动要远远小于股票价值波动,有关税收减免的理论解释较为理想,并且在以后被许多学者用实证方法证实了这一现象的存在(例如:Fama and Babiak,1968)。但是税收效应并没有很好解释公司为什么更愿意支付红利的困惑。最早Miller(1961)注意到红利可能是向投资者揭示公司发展前景的信号,但是直到Bhattacharya(1979)才应用博弈论方法建立起了红利模型,Bhattaeharya成为第一个将博弈论引入金融分析的学者,Bhattacharya认为公司的管理者对公司投资项目的前景与其他普通投资者相比具有信息方面的优势,管理者通过公司的尽可能高的红利向普通投资者传递信息,如果公司红利水平高意味着公司投资项目的未来前景好,而对于无法支付高额红利的公司将不得不向银行贷款,从而担负过高的财务成本。以后许多学者在此基础上对模型又进行了一个改造(Miller and Rock,1985;John and Williams,1985)。但是仍有学者质疑认为,按照以上模型认为只有在公司需要为新项目向市场融资时,才有积极性支付高水平的红利,但事实上模型的红利支付水平并不受公司是否有新项目的影响。也就是说,上面的信号模型不能很好解释红利的平滑性。为此,Kumar(t988)发展出了一个粗糙信号(Coarse Signaling)模型,其结论认为公司在一定的利润范围内会支付同样水平的红利,直到公司的利润水平超出了这一范围,公司管理者才会调整红利支付水平。红利信号模型的另外一个问题是,公司为什么愿意支付红利,而不是股票回购。Ofer和Thakor(1987),Barclay和Smith(1988)用逆向选择原理解释了这一现象,他们认为公司更愿意在市场上自己股票被低估时回购股票,所以回购股票行为向市场传达了股票价值被低估的信号,所以会引起股票价值的上涨,从而使公司支付了额外的成本,而用红利分配利润不存在这一逆向选择问题。2.资本结构正如上文提到的,公司资本结构问题的研究在引入不对称信息以前一直没有得到令人满意的结论。应用博弈论描述公司资本结构的决策过程,大大推动了对公司基本结构决策研究的发展。最早Ross(1977)建立了一个公司负债决策的博弈模型,其中公司通过负债率向资本市场传递公司未来经营前景的信息,由于高负债率可能导致公司破产的风险加大,而一旦公司破产将为公司的经营者带来损失,所以只有公司管理者对公司未来的现金收益乐观时才会在资本结构决策时选择贷款,提高负债率。而前景乐观的公司提高负债率的决策是前景悲观的公司所无法模仿的,所以对资本市场来说,高负债率是公司发展前景乐观的信号。随后在Myers(1984)的模型中,认为如果管理者在公司项目发展需要融资时,如果管理者认为目前市场上自己公司股票价值被市场高估了,会选择通过发行股票的直接融资方式,而如果管理者认为公司股票价值被低估了,就会选择贷款等间接融资方式,所以说公司增加发行股票向资本市场传递的是公司目前股票价值被高估的信号。Myers认为经营者在面对新项目需要投资时首先选择的是用自身盈利积累完成投资,其次是选择贷款等间接融资方式,最后才会选择发行股票的融资方式,这被称之为“融资顺序理论(Pecking order theory of finance)”。在金融分析中应用博弈论的不对称信息理论取得较大成绩的研究就是所谓的代理问题的研究,Jensen和Mecking(1976)指出公司中存在两类代理问题,其一是债权人与股东的代理矛盾,其二是股东与公司管理者的代理矛盾。债权人与股东间的矛盾表现在股东总是扩大公司投资风险,因为项目成功了超额收益全部是股东的,而如果公司经营失败,破产的成本由债权人与股东共同负担。Diamond(1989)通过研究认为,在长期重复博弈条件下,股东的声誉可以在一定程度改善股东和债权人间的矛盾。股东与管理者间的矛盾是由于股东不能有效控制管理者的经营行为,因而管理者会最大化自己的利益,可能会损害股东利益。在80年代末与90年代,出现了有大量关于代理问题的研究成果,Hart和Moore(1989,1994,1998)研究发现当企业家计划投资新项目而需要向外融资时,与投资者签订贷款合同是最优合同,得到这一结论的关键在于虽然企业家与外部投资者在项目未来进展的各个时期都可以观察到项目的收益情况,但是第三方(例如:法官)无法观察到项目的收益,此时贷款合同是最优融资合同,并且Hart认为由于贷款人在企业家不能偿还贷款时可以控制公司的资产,所以企业家有积极性偿还贷款。3.公司所有权控制市场公司所有权控制市场的概念最早是由Manne(1965)提出的,他认为为了有效的配置资源,公司所有权控制市场的存在是必要的,现代资本市场的有效运转离不开公司所有权控制市场的存在。在公司所有权控制市场中所有权的转移方式是多样化的,包括:收购、兼并、股票的发行以及委托代理关系的变化等手段。在传统的完全竞争、无摩擦的资本市场假设下,很少考虑公司所有权转移对公司价值的影响,而事实上每次兼并收购活动都会引起公司股票价值的大幅波动。直到进入80年代以后非对称信息概念的引入,使得人们认识到了公司所有权控制市场对资本市场影响的内在机制。Crossman和Harl(19803研究了在公司收购过程中存在所谓的“免费搭车问题(Free Rider Problem)”,他们认为当收购方发现一个目标公司的运营效率低下,而决定收购目标公司时,面对外部的标购,原有的股东知道收购者通过收购后公司在新的经营者经营下,效率会提高,所以会自发抵制收购,等待收购价格的升高,直到收购价格升高到在新经营者的经营水平下的合理的价格时,原有股东才会出售手中股票。考虑到收购方在收购过程中搜集信息、组织收购是有成本的,所以采用标购行为实际上为收购方带来了损失。Shleifer和Vishny(1986)认为,如果收购方在标购目标公司以前就已经持有了目标公司的一定股票,可以解决上述“搭车问题”的困惑,收购方可以用自己手中股票的增值弥补收购带来的损失。然而Shleifer和Vishny的结论并没有在实证中得到证实,反而Desai和Kim(1988)的实证结果认为大多数的收购方在标购前并没有持有目标公司的股票。在收购行为研究方面的另外一个困惑就是收购行为往往导致股票价格的大幅上涨,例如:Jennings和Mazzeo(1993)发现收购发生时的收购人对目标公司的首次出价,大多数高于收购前10天的股票价格的20%。Fishman(1988)将这种现象解释为是由于有潜在竞争者随时会加入收购,较高的出价是为了阻止竞争者加入。4.新股发行(IPO)在1963年在由美国证券交易委员会组织的一项研究中,首次发现在新股上市后的短期存在着明显的超额回报的现象,以后许多学者在许多国家发现了这一现象,例如:Ibbotson和Ritter(1995)统计得出美国纽约证券市场1960-1992年发行新股的首日的超额回报是。在许多年中IPO现象成为挑战市场有效性假说的又一个证据。对IPO现象最早的解释是由Rock(1986)作出的,Rock认为IPO现象实质是个逆向选择问题,新股上市时市场上存在着两类投资者,一类是具有信息优势的投资者,一类是不具信息优势的投资者,信息投资者只是在新股定价低于其真实价值时才购买,而当定价高于其真实价值时只有不具信息优势的投资者才会参加购买,所以平均来说,不具信息优势的投资者购入了较大比例的被过高定价的股票,为了在市场中留住不具信息优势的投资者,公司在初次发行新股时常常有意低定价。类似Rock对IPO超额回报问题的解释,许多研究人员给出了这一问题的其他合理解释,例如:Allen和Faulhaber(1989)以及Grinblatt和Hwang(1989)将新股发行低定价解释为公司未来前景良好的信号;Hughes和Thakor(1992)认为公司新股发行低定价是为了规避诉讼风险;Ruud(1993)认为新股上市后的短期高回报是由于承销商的价格稳定活动造成的。在IPO领域中的另外一个难以解释的现象就是新股上市后长期表现不好。Ritter(1991)研究发现,在1975-1984年间发行的新股在发行后3年间的回报比正常股票的回报至少低15%。以后Loughran(1993,1995)再次证实了这一现象的存在。Shiller(1990)用所谓“主持人效应”解释新股长期回报不好的现象,他认为新股上市的初期承销商出于对自身声誉的考虑会创造短期超额需求的假象,随后随着承销商从市场的退出,导致了新股长期回报不佳的现象。(二)不对称信息在资产定价领域中的应用Grossman和stiglitz(1980)最早将非合作不对称信息的概念引入资产定价领域的研究中,建立了所谓资产定价的理性预期均衡理论,他们认为资本市场中的每个参与者都从市场价格的变化中获得信息(所谓的学习过程),并且每个参与者的行为不会对市场价格构成影响。在80年代初期这一理论成果主要用于解释公司财务方面的问题,直到Kyle(1985)以及Kyle和Milgrom(1985)研究做市商制度下的价格形成机制的成果出现以后,不对称信息对资产价格的影响才越来越多地引起人们关注,以后在Kyle Milgrom框架的基础上出现了大量的研究成果。由于在这一框架下的价格决定机制不同于Modigliani Miller的市场均衡机制,是通过研究具体市场条件下的资产价格形成机制,所以常常将这部分研究成果称为市场微观结构理论。Kyle研究了在做市商制度下证券市场的价格形成机制,在Kyle的模型中,市场由三类参与者构成:风险中性的做市商、噪音交易者和信息交易者,噪音交易者出于自己的流动性需求进入市场交易,信息交易者根据自己的信息交易,为了最大化自己的利益,信息交易者选择自己在市场上的交易数量。与Kyle不同之处在于,Milgrom建立的序贯交易模型(Sequential Trade Model)中交易者每次交易的数量都是固定的,即每次都只能买入或卖出一个单位的资产,做市商根据交易指令的类型来设定买卖价差,在均衡条件下,由于有竞争做市商的存在,买入报价是做市商收到卖出指令时关于资产价值的条件期望值,卖出报价是做市商收到买入交易指令时关于资产价值的条件期望值,因而交易者的交易指令将促使做市商调整其买卖报价,这种调整从本质上是一种贝叶斯学习过程。Easley和O'Hara(1987)在Milgrom模型的基础上考察了交易规模对做市商价格行为的影响,其结论是做市商的定价策略会依赖指令的规模,数量比较大的指令往往以比较差的价格成交。以后Easley和O'Hara(1992)又考察了交易时间对价格行为的影响,发现交易时间会影响价格,并且交易间隔影响交易价差的大小。现代金融理论方法经过近一个世纪的发展,取得了许多重大突破,特别是进入80年代以后,越来越多的金融难题得到解释。但是由于金融市场的复杂性,至今对许多问题的解释还很难令人满意,例如:对P/E比率和P/B比率对资产价值的影响的现象至今还没有合理的解释,对IPO以及基金中的折价现象的研究结果也没有较为统一的认识,另外市场中是否存在信息操纵问题也是一个争论的焦点。对这些问题的研究与解释,将进一步推动金融理论的发展。
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