西方保险论文文献综述

作者认为：对于养老保险资金的投资实行统账基金分开投资、放宽账户基金投资范围，其思路是正确的，这既符合国际惯例，又是目前我国账户基金迫切提高收益率的重要途径。但是，由省级政府担任投资主体和由省级社保经办机构担任受托人则存在风险。而要化解这些风险，我们一方面由中央政府统一负责投资个人账户基金，另一方面，由劳动社保部门单独建立专门机构，负责全国账户基金的运营也许是一个解决之道。 据悉，目前相关部门正在起草《养老保险个人账户基金投资管理办法》，主要内容是个人账户基金由省级政府作为投资主体，实行省级统一管理，适当扩大投资范围，以实现基金的保值增值。而在过去十几年里，基本养老保险的统筹基金和账户基金始终采取上个世纪90年代制定的银行协议存款和购买国债的狭窄投资策略，收益率很低，从未超过3%，面临着贬值的风险。 改革实践存在四大风险 统账基金分开投资、放宽账户基金投资范围，其思路是正确的，这既符合国际惯例，又是目前我国账户基金提高收益率的重要途径。但是，由省级政府担任投资主体和由省级社保经办机构担任受托人则存在风险。 首先，地方负责账户基金投资不符合国际惯例，金融市场可能受到冲击。 账户基金实行市场化投资，这既是大势所趋，又是国际惯例。但是，如果不将账户基金与统筹基金的投资策略在立法中明确分开，省级政府在实际操作时必然将其同等看待，混合投资使用，相同的回报率就没有体现统账基金之间的差异性；统账基金难以分离，账户资金具有强烈的私有性，政府财政兜底则没有法理依据。 其次，省级政府投资等于省社保经办机构充当受托人的作用，这不符合国际惯例，存在较大道德风险。 即使在发达国家，由地方政府举办的公务员补充养老保险在内部受托和外部受托中都完全难以避免道德风险的发生，政治干预难以避免，丑闻时有发生，利益输送导致腐败；在中国，地区之间发展水平差异非常大，社保部门的专业人才匮乏，尤其在中、西部地区，长期在机关工作的官员对信托制和金融市场十分陌生，一旦市场化投资放开，上海社保案的前车之鉴就难以避免。 第三，地区间发展差距很可能导致形成一个二级市场，冲击金融市场。 由于东、中、西部地区在经济发展水平、专业人才水平等许多方面存在重大差距，并且，账户基金事实上是各省可以掌握的一个“公共基金”，不愿意放手，不可能像完全市场化的企业年金那样在全国范围实现充分的竞争，使回报率呈现出趋同和平均化倾向，恰恰相反，地方割据下的账户基金法人治理结构难以真正建立起来，领导干预不可能完全避免，这就必然形成沿海与内地之间回报率的巨大差距，就不能排除落后地区流向发达地区的可能性，这样，“利差”将有可能导致在账户基金中形成一个“二级市场”，扰乱正常的金融市场，潜伏着金融风险。同时，回报率存在较大差异性是对欠发达地区账户持有人不公平的表现，久而久之，容易产生地区间攀比，导致社会稳定出现问题。 第四，由各省自行负责投资营运，难以建立一个全国统一的补偿机制。 账户资金与统筹基金一样，均属基本社会保险，根据惯例，对账户基金国家应建立一个基本的、有限的补偿机制，在一旦发生投资亏损时发挥作用。补偿机制不等于财政兜底。建立补偿机制的思路很多，许多国家有现成经验，例如，风险基金型、储备金型、以丰补歉型、商业保险型等等，不一而足；但是，如果各省各行其是，各自为政，统一的补偿机制就难以建立，为地方财政带来风险，中央政府将很难予以监管，或是某些地方政府根本就无法建立任何待遇补偿机制，一旦遇到投资亏损，将会引发社会动荡。账户资金的私有性决定了这样一个事实：虽然这是私人与省级政府之间的委托代理关系，但从本质上讲，基本养老保险是国家颁布的强制性制度，一旦出现问题，其最终结果还是由中央政府出面做最后担保人。 推进改革应从两方面入手 从我国目前的实际情况出发，结合国际上的成功经验，笔者认为，对于养老保险个人账户基金投资的改革应该从如下两个方面入手。 首先，由中央政府统一负责投资个人账户基金。 与其存在着“地方负责投资，中央负责买单”的潜在可能性，甚至有可能成为新一轮社保违规的风险点，就不如在制度建立之初就直接实行中央政府投资的体制，将建立补偿机制和投资体制等诸多方面一并考虑，建立一个一揽子账户投资设计方案。 从全世界的实践来看，基本养老保险的账户基金历来只有两种模式可供选择：或由中央政府集中负责投资的模式（如新加坡、马来西亚等），或由个人分散决策投资的模式（如香港和智利等）。《社会保险法》（征求意见稿）规定由省级政府负责投资，这是一个非常理想化的设计，在实践中必将存在诸如道德风险、政治风险、市场风险、投资风险等，中央政府将防不胜防。另外，这样的投资政策没有体现中央政府对基本社会保险所应该负有的起码责任。 其次，由劳动社会保障部门单独建立一个机构，专门负责全国账户基金的运营。 在劳动社会保障主管部门体系之内建立一个专门的账户资金投资机构是上策，这是因为，账户基金的投资管理是中国社保制度改革的一个不可分离的组成部分，必须将其纳入社保制度运行框架之内统筹考虑，这关乎到社保制度改革的长期走向和账户持有人的长远利益。反之，如果将资产投资从待遇支付中剥离出去，形成“两张皮”，就无法对社保制度的整体设计进行长期跟踪和统筹设计，不利于实现到2020年建立一个覆盖城乡社保体系的目标。为此，账户基金投资管理体制的设计原则应考虑将制度收入与待遇支出、统筹部分与账户部分、收益率调整与社保制度可持续性、制度收入系统与待遇发送系统等因素全部结合起来，“一揽子”设计，实行全国范围的统一账户基金投资策略和管理体制，这样，既是防范违规风险的一个举措，也是中央政府主动承担社会保障责任的一个体现。 目前，各地方政府极力坚持个人账户资金自己投资，说到底，是认识和利益问题。由于经济实力的原因，沿海发达省份与中西部欠发达省份之间的态度可能完全相左，但切不可采取欠发达地区由中央政府负责投资和发达地区由省级政府负责投资的区别对待政策。

行政管理毕业论文一、前言保险投资在保险公司的经营中占有举足轻重的地位。但是目前我国保险公司资金运作现状并不尽如人意，保险公司作为一个商业企业，其根本目的在于追求利润的最大化，随着市场竞争的加剧，保险公司利润已不能单纯依靠收取的保险费与一定概率下的保险赔付差额，而是越来越倚重于保险投资的有效运营。因为保险与给付之差，其利润率是一定的，而且还有减少的趋势，而保险投资的运营，其预期的利润率却是无限大的，所以只有安全有效地进行各种投资运营才能使保险资金获得长期稳定的增长，使保险公司获得较高的利润。可见有效的资本运营是现代保险业的支柱，是保险经营发展的生命线。二、我国保险投资的历史和现状（一）我国保险投资的历史沿革建国初期，我国保险企业的资金按规定只能存入银行，所得利息全部上缴国家财政，无任何保险投资可言。经过20年的停办以后，我国保险业随着改革开放而获得新生。中国人民保险公司1980年开始恢复办理国内保险业务，并积极发展国外保险业务。1984年11月，国务院批转的中国人民保险公司《关于加快发展我国保险事业的报告》中指出：“总、分公司收入的保险费扣除赔款、赔偿准备金、费用开支和纳税金后，余下的可以自己运用”。1985年3月国务院颁布的《保险企业管理暂行条例》又从法规的角度明确了保险企业可以自主运用保险资金。这不仅是我国保险体制改革的一次重大突破，也是增强我国保险业活力的一项战略性措施，对加快我国保险业发展产生了深远的影响。我国保险企业投资大体可以分为以下几个阶段。1、初步发展阶段：1984年至1988年底中国人民保险公司在取得投资权后，从1984年下半年开始，总公司在北京、江苏等地尝试性地开展投资（包括贷款）业务，部分省、自治区、直辖市以及计划单列城市分公司也相继开展保险投资业务。在这一阶段，中国人民银行对保险企业的投资活动实行严格管理，一是对资金运用规模实行计划控制，例如1986年人行对人保下达2亿元投资额度。二是对资金运用的方式与方向作了严格规定。1986年人保的资金运用被限定为投资地方自筹的固定资产项目。1987年批准试办流动资金贷款业务和购买金融债券。这一阶段的经营效益不大理想，资产运用率和投资收益水平都比较低。以1986年为例，中国人民保险公司国内业务汇总的资产运用率只有，投资收益率仅为。2、调整整顿阶段：1988年底至1990年底由于面临治理整顿的经济环境和紧缩信贷规模的局面，加之保险业本身经营效益不佳，我国保险投资业务于1988年底进入调整整顿阶段。其内容和措施有：总结前几年资金运用工作的经验和教训，严格执行信贷计划，严肃利率政策，把资金转投到流动资金贷款方面，坚持“十不贷”和注意“重点倾斜”并采取了担保和银行承兑汇票抵押等手段，努力提高资金运用的安全性与收益性。在这一阶段，中国人民保险公司的资金运用工作除办理流动资金贷款业务外，大部分工作放在对原有投资贷款项目的清理的催收上。资金运用的范围被限定为流动资金贷款、企业技术改造贷款、购买金融债券和银行同业拆借。3、进一步发展阶段：1991年至1995年经过两年多的调整整顿，加之宏观经济形势的好转，保险投资业务于1991年开始进行新的发展阶段。在这一阶段，保险投资在保险界得到了普遍认同和重视。两家新成立的全国性保险公司——中国平安保险公司、中国太平洋保险公司先后加入了保险资金运用的行列。保险投资规模不断扩大，1992年底。人保、平保、太保三家保险公司的资金运用余额达亿元。保险投资的范围有所拓宽，证券投资得到较大发展，保险投资收益得到提高。4、规范发展阶段：1995年至今随着1995年《保险法》的出台和实施，各保险公司遵照《保险法》调整业务，以符合《保险法》的要求。《保险法》的实施，为我国保险投资业务的规范与健康发展奠定的基础。（二）我国保险公司保险投资现状1、决策机制薄弱目前许多保险公司尚未建立一套规范有效的决策机制，人保财险公司直到2003年下半年才成立了专门的保险投资公司。决策的盲目性、被动性、随意性十分突出，在仅能投资债券的时期，这类决策机制不会体现任何危机，对于资产规模迅速壮大的保险公司来说，更是掩盖了其决策的弊端：决策机制落后，决策反馈机制尚未建立，在保险公司进入基金市场后会充分暴露出来。2、保险投资渠道狭窄1998年以前，保险公司的资金运用渠道限于：银行存款、买卖政府债券、金融债券和国务院规定的其他资金运用形式。2000年3月1日起实行的《保险公司管理规定》，保险公司的资金运用，限于银行存款、买卖政府债券、金融债券、买卖中国保监会指定的中央企业债券和国务院规定的其他资金运用形式。而西方国家保险公司资金运用的法定渠道则较广泛。如美国、日本就规定保险公司可进行政府债券、公司债券、股票、抵押贷款、不动产、保单放贷等业务。3、保险资金利用率低保险资金的利用率，在国外基本上达到90%，而在我国还不到50%。有限的保险资金主要用于银行存款。据统计，1998年人保、平保和太保三大保险公司保险资金的40%—60%局限于现金和银行存款，保险资金基本上无“运用”可言。截止到1999年底，中国人民保险公司的资金运用率还不到20%。为了保证保险资金的安全，保险公司将大量资金存于银行，由银行进行专业的资金运用，而保险公司只能获得固定的较低的存款利息，银行存款的利息已经远远不能使保险资金保值、增值了，保险公司必须开拓出投资新领域来保证其资金的收益性、安全性。4、保险投资缺乏相应人才保险投资涉及到存款、国债、证券等多个领域，因此保险投资人才必须对国家经济发展有远见，对各行业发展有底数，才能有胆略，有灵活性，善于捕获商机，在资本市场上获得丰厚的回报。而我国保险公司由于历史原因，现有员工基本上由军转干部、金融机构及政府部门调入和正规大学毕业生三部分组成，且前两部分约占公司员工的70%，年龄大都在40周岁以上。这样的人力资源结构，呈现出明显的弊端，即知识结构老化，缺乏创造力。保险公司要想从保险投资中获益，就必须引进相应人才，同时注重公司内部年轻人才的培养。免费公文网版权所有5、保险公司管理水平落后，影响保险投资收益由于我国长期实行计划经济体制，管理体制落后，投资缺乏科学决策，许多公司在科学决策、内部约束机制方面比较薄弱。由此出现了许多领导项目贷款、人情贷款等。这些项目贷款很多无法收回投资本息，甚至成为呆账、坏账。管理水平的落后，影响了投资收益。中国的保险公司要生存，保险事业要发展，客观上要求保险资金实现有效运用，但是这并不是说中国马上就完全放开对保险资金运用的限制，还有一些地方需要去完善，还有一些制度需要制定，这是一个渐进的过程。三、建立我国保险投资体制的构想（一）保险投资客观上需要建立有效投资体制所谓保险投资体制是指保险投资活动运行机制和管理制度的总称。保险投资机制建立的目的在于提高保险投资的收益，降低投资风险。保险公司的承保业务与投资业务是现代保险业的两个重要特征，其中保险投资业务已经成为现代保险公司生存和发展的重要手段。一方面，保险投资业务的发展，将扩大保险公司的盈利，增加保险公司偿付能力和经营和稳定性。同时，保险公司收入的增加，将使保险公司有能力降低保险费率，减轻被保险人的负担，提高保险公司的竞争能力。我国保险业如果没有投资收益作为基础，加入WTO后，在承保业务上很难与国外保险公司进行价格（费率）竞争。另一方面，保险投资业务的发展和获利可以弥补业务上亏损，维持保险公司的生存和发展。如1987年英国两大保险公司保险业务亏损分别为亿英镑和亿英镑，而投资利润为亿英镑和英镑，盈亏相抵后，还有不小的综合盈利。从近期国际保险业的发展特点来看，保险公司的主要收益已经从传统的承保收益逐步转移为投资收益，如美国产险业务自1978年以来连续21年出现承保亏损，主要收益来自于投资收益。由于保险经营是一种负债经营，因而保险资金的运用除了考虑投资的收益外，还必须保证投资的安全性。因此，市场的开放，投资工具的增加和投资规模的不断扩大，客观上需要保险公司进一步加强投资机制的建设，提高化解风险的能力，保证保险资金实现安全性和投资收益的协调。（二）保险业应尽快建立、健全保险企业的制度和规范建立和完善中国保险投资体制是一个系统工程。只有保险公司建立了现代企业制度，加强经营管理，才可能为高水平、高效益的保险投资提供根本制度保证。如何加强经营管理，我个人认为可以包括以下内容：第一、加大公司运作的透明度和社会舆论的监督作用，运用法律武器，严惩那些损害股东权益的行为，有效地维护股东的权益。第二、建立和完善对经理层的约束和激励机制，彻底改变旧的用人机制，让市场和竞争来决定经理的选拔，使经理的报酬与公司的业绩直接挂钩。第三、加强管理创新，按照现代企业制度的要求，摒弃旧的、传统的管理模式及其相应的管理方工和方法，创建新的管理模式及其相应的方式和方法。（三）进一步拓宽资金运用渠道保险资金运用是保险公司稳健经营的基础，是关系到保险公司经营状况的重要因素。由于我国保险业起步较晚,加之其它种种原因,目前我国保险资金运用存在的问题是证券投资基金规模太小；保险公司无法控制入市资金的风险；在目前封闭式基金占据主流的情况下，保险公司只能被动的分红，其变现很难实现；保险资金的运用渠道过窄；保险资金中短期性行为严重。针对这些问题，必须进一步拓宽保险资金的运用渠道，加快资金入市步伐，使我国保险业能够持续快速发展。1、保险资金入市（1）保险资金入市可以增强保险公司的盈利能力，如果运用得当，还可有效解决保险公司所面临的“利差损”问题。在《保险法》规定的范围内进行投资，仅每年的利差损就有3至6个百分点，这为保险公司的长期发展埋下了巨大隐患。在银行存款的利率为，国债的买卖收益最多不过6%-7%，在同业拆借市场上，因资金量有限，所以收益率微乎其微。而在2000年保险公司投资证券基金的平均收益达12%。因此，保险资金入市，从长远来看，对保险公司增加盈利能力、解决“利差损”具有重要的意义。（2）保险资金入市可以有效改善保险公司资产结构。如果允许保险资金按严格的比例进入证券市场，可以在一定程度上缓解资金闲置的压力。因为保险资金进入证券市场是进行股权的交易，在证券市场机制作用下，根据保险资金运用原则，保险公司必然将资金投入到效益好、有成长性的企业中去，这样客观上就使保险资产得到了相应的改善。（3）从长期来看，保险资金入市对于启动保险消费将起到一定的促进作用。保险资金入市无疑使国家找到一种对资金更有效的配置方法，从而使部分社会资金与证券市场之间形成纽带。在这个纽带的连接过程中，不但可以改变整个社资金的结构，还可以使经济发展得到更大的保障，以便使国家、企业、个人以及保险公司更好的发展。（4）保险资金入市，可以增强我国保险公司的国际竞争力。随着我国加入WTO，保险业面临着更大的冲击，承受着更大的压力。保险公司除了用提高服务质量来争取保单，扩大客户群外，其所得到的保费收入如何获取最大的安全收益是关键问题。在发达国家，保险资金的投资渠道较我国畅通的多，除了存入银行和购买国债外，还可涉足证券市场甚至房地产业。所以，保险资金入市，可以增强我国保险公司与国外保险公司的竞争实力，更好地奠定加入WTO后的经济基础。（5）保险资金入市可有效缓解证券市场中资金供给与需求之间的矛盾，有助于稳定证券市场。随着保险业的不断发展，可入市的保险资金的规模将越来越大，必将会改善证券市场的资金结构，它对证券市场的长期发展所起的作用也会越来越明显。2、保险资金进入短期拆借市场。尽管保险公司都有较高的信誉，但上前还不能以信用方式进入短期拆借市场，而须有抵押。如果能直接以信用方式进入短期拆借市场，可以为保险公司提高资金运用效率提供方便。3、扩大可投资的企业债券范围。目前保险资金只可购买铁路债券、电力债券和三峡债券，应扩大到其他的企业债券。尽管企业债券质地有好有坏，或者说存在风险，但应相信保险公司有一定的鉴别能力。4、进行资产委托管理。免费公文网版权所有资产委托就是保险公司以合同的形式把资金委托给专业的资产管理公司进行运作。它的最大好处是保险公司省心省力，不必事事躬亲，同时由专业公司进行操作，也可确保较高回报。（四）培育专门资金运用人才我国加入WTO将使保险业面临更加严峻的考验，保险公司如何作好准备，采取措施，搞好投资收益，上面已经从体制和机制创新、拓宽资金运用渠道等多方面进行了探讨，但要确保这些对策措施具有现实的针对性、决策的参考性和实施的可操作性，关键在人，关键取决于目前保险公司干部职工队伍的素质。因此，首先要改变干部队伍年龄老化问题，采取买断工龄、提前内退等方式，分流一批年龄老化的人员，以保证队伍的生机与活力；其次，要从管理入手，通过秘诀革，建设与国际接轨的一流现代化商业保险公司的高效精简的机关管理体制，尽快与国际经济接轨；再次，要注重人才的引进和使用，以及后备干部和后备人才的储备。目前，当务之急是要围绕加快效率的长远目标，建立结构合理高素质的干部队伍；以及培养选拔一批优秀的中青年干部，建立数量充足、结构合理的后备干部队伍，构建既有长期培养对象，又有近期可以上岗的人才储备库《保险行政管理毕业论文:论保险公司保险投资(1)》来源于免费范文网

扩展阅读：【保险】怎么买，哪个好，手把手教你避开保险的这些"坑"

中国期刊全文数据库 共找到 8 条[1]杨松. 新保险法修改的主要内容浅析[J]. 红河学院学报, 2004,(02) . [2]何杨彪. 试论新《保险法》对消费者权益的保护[J]. 湖南财经高等专科学校学报, 2009,(04) . [3]黄曼妮. 关于新《保险法》不可抗辩条款的思考[J]. 黑龙江金融, 2009,(09) . [4]方志平. 试论新《保险法》背景下寿险的合规营销[J]. 上海保险, 2009,(04) . [5]胡滨. 新《保险法》——彰显被保险人的利益保护[J]. 中国金融, 2009,(06) . [6]李斌. 新《保险法》更注重投保人权益[J]. 新财经, 2009,(05) . [7]袁建华. 2009新《保险法》的显著特点与实施效果预测[J]. 现代财经-天津财经大学学报, 2009,(09) . [8]夏益国. 中国保险业规范发展的新起点——写在新《中华人民共和国保险法》颁布实施之际[J]. 中国保险, 2009,(09) .中国期刊全文数据库 共找到 5 条[1]钟诚. 浅析新《保险法》的修订内容[J]. 北方经济, 2009,(14) . [2]熊悠云. 浅谈保险企业如何应对新《保险法》带来的巨大挑战——基于风险管理的角度[J]. 经营管理者, 2009,(16) . [3]李莎,符芸榕. 浅析法律对保险经营的影响[J]. 技术与市场, 2009,(09) . [4]胡滨. 《保险法》修订及其对中国保险业的影响[J]. 金融与经济, 2009,(08) . [5]李然. 从新保险法的几大变化谈保护保险消费者利益[J]. 金卡工程(经济与法), 2010,(03) . 中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库 共找到 2 条[1]徐敏峰. 开放背景下我国保险资金运用研究[D]. 河海大学, 2005 . [2]唐余. 我国保险合同纠纷解决机制探索[D]. 西南财经大学, 2007 . 中国期刊全文数据库 共找到 6 条[1]张响贤,宣鸣,王勉. 论汽车保险费率市场化的趋势——从日本汽车保险费率的变迁谈起[J]. 保险研究, 2002,(01) . [2]雷定安,刘学宁. 对人身保险不可抗辩条款的深层思考[J]. 东方论坛.青岛大学学报, 2002,(01) . [3]侯刚. 对中国人寿保险中“不可抗辩条款”的思考[J]. 经营管理者, 2008,(16) . [4]李莎,张建刚. 不可抗辩条款在我国的应用前景展望[J]. 当代经济, 2009,(07) . [5]何惠珍. 保险投资:发展障碍与发展路径[J]. 广东金融学院学报, 2005,(04) . [6]魏薇. 金融监管立法日趋成熟——解读新《保险法修订草案》[J]. 中国金融家, 2008,(09) .

网络保险 Internet Insurance Network insuranceNet Insurance保险学 Insurance , in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of a contingent loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium. An insurer is a company selling the insurance. The insurance rate is a factor used to determine the amount, called the premium, to be charged for a certain amount of insurance coverage. Risk management, the practice of appraising and controlling risk, has evolved as a discrete field of study and of insuranceA large number of homogeneous exposure units. The vast majority of insurance policies are provided for individual members of very large classes. Automobile insurance, for example, covered about 175 million automobiles in the United States in 2004.[2] The existence of a large number of homogeneous exposure units allows insurers to benefit from the so-called “law of large numbers,” which in effect states that as the number of exposure units increases, the actual results are increasingly likely to become close to expected results. There are exceptions to this criterion. Lloyd's of London is famous for insuring the life or health of actors, actresses and sports figures. Satellite Launch insurance covers events that are infrequent. Large commercial property policies may insure exceptional properties for which there are no ‘homogeneous’ exposure units. Despite failing on this criterion, many exposures like these are generally considered to be insurable. Definite Loss. The event that gives rise to the loss that is subject to insurance should, at least in principle, take place at a known time, in a known place, and from a known cause. The classic example is death of an insured on a life insurance policy. Fire, automobile accidents, and worker injuries may all easily meet this criterion. Other types of losses may only be definite in theory. Occupational disease, for instance, may involve prolonged exposure to injurious conditions where no specific time, place or cause is identifiable. Ideally, the time, place and cause of a loss should be clear enough that a reasonable person, with sufficient information, could objectively verify all three elements. Accidental Loss. The event that constitutes the trigger of a claim should be fortuitous, or at least outside the control of the beneficiary of the insurance. The loss should be ‘pure,’ in the sense that it results from an event for which there is only the opportunity for cost. Events that contain speculative elements, such as ordinary business risks, are generally not considered insurable. Large Loss. The size of the loss must be meaningful from the perspective of the insured. Insurance premiums need to cover both the expected cost of losses, plus the cost of issuing and administering the policy, adjusting losses, and supplying the capital needed to reasonably assure that the insurer will be able to pay claims. For small losses these latter costs may be several times the size of the expected cost of losses. There is little point in paying such costs unless the protection offered has real value to a buyer. Affordable Premium. If the likelihood of an insured event is so high, or the cost of the event so large, that the resulting premium is large relative to the amount of protection offered, it is not likely that anyone will buy insurance, even if on offer. Further, as the accounting profession formally recognizes in financial accounting standards, the premium cannot be so large that there is not a reasonable chance of a significant loss to the insurer. If there is no such chance of loss, the transaction may have the form of insurance, but not the substance. (See the . Financial Accounting Standards Board standard number 113) Calculable Loss. There are two elements that must be at least estimable, if not formally calculable: the probability of loss, and the attendant cost. Probability of loss is generally an empirical exercise, while cost has more to do with the ability of a reasonable person in possession of a copy of the insurance policy and a proof of loss associated with a claim presented under that policy to make a reasonably definite and objective evaluation of the amount of the loss recoverable as a result of the claim. Limited risk of catastrophically large losses. The essential risk is often aggregation. If the same event can cause losses to numerous policyholders of the same insurer, the ability of that insurer to issue policies becomes constrained, not by factors surrounding the individual characteristics of a given policyholder, but by the factors surrounding the sum of all policyholders so exposed. Typically, insurers prefer to limit their exposure to a loss from a single event to some small portion of their capital base, on the order of 5 percent. Where the loss can be aggregated, or an individual policy could produce exceptionally large claims, the capital constraint will restrict an insurers appetite for additional policyholders. The classic example is earthquake insurance, where the ability of an underwriter to issue a new policy depends on the number and size of the policies that it has already underwritten. Wind insurance in hurricane zones, particularly along coast lines, is another example of this phenomenon. In extreme cases, the aggregation can affect the entire industry, since the combined capital of insurers and reinsurers can be small compared to the needs of potential policyholders in areas exposed to aggregation risk. In commercial fire insurance it is possible to find single properties whose total exposed value is well in excess of any individual insurer’s capital constraint. Such properties are generally shared among several insurers, or are insured by a single insurer who syndicates the risk into the reinsurance market. [edit] IndemnificationMain article: IndemnityThe technical definition of "indemnity" means to make whole again. There are two types of insurance contracts; 1) an "indemnity" policy and 2) a "pay on behalf" or "on behalf of"[3] policy. The difference is significant on paper, but rarely material in "indemnity" policy will never pay claims until the insured has paid out of pocket to some third party; . a visitor to your home slips on a floor that you left wet and sues you for $10,000 and wins. Under an "indemnity" policy the homeowner would have to come up with the $10,000 to pay for the visitors fall and then would be "indemnified" by the insurance carrier for the out of pocket costs (the $10,000)[4].Under the same situation, a "pay on behalf" policy, the insurance carrier would pay the claim and the insured (the homeowner) would not be out of pocket for anything. Most modern liability insurance is written on the basis of "pay on behalf" language[5].An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type, etc.) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a contract, called an insurance 'policy'. Generally, an insurance contract includes, at a minimum, the following elements: the parties (the insurer, the insured, the beneficiaries), the premium, the period of coverage, the particular loss event covered, the amount of coverage (., the amount to be paid to the insured or beneficiary in the event of a loss), and exclusions (events not covered). An insured is thus said to be "indemnified" against the loss events covered in the insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the covered amount of loss as specified by the policy. The fee paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many insureds are used to fund accounts reserved for later payment of claims—in theory for a relatively few claimants—and for overhead costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses (., reserves), the remaining margin is an insurer's profit.[edit] Insurer’s business modelProfit = earned premium + investment income - incurred loss - underwriting make money in two ways: (1) through underwriting, the process by which insurers select the risks to insure and decide how much in premiums to charge for accepting those risks and (2) by investing the premiums they collect from most difficult aspect of the insurance business is the underwriting of policies. Using a wide assortment of data, insurers predict the likelihood that a claim will be made against their policies and price products accordingly. To this end, insurers use actuarial science to quantify the risks they are willing to assume and the premium they will charge to assume them. Data is analyzed to fairly accurately project the rate of future claims based on a given risk. Actuarial science uses statistics and probability to analyze the risks associated with the range of perils covered, and these scientific principles are used to determine an insurer's overall exposure. Upon termination of a given policy, the amount of premium collected and the investment gains thereon minus the amount paid out in claims is the insurer's underwriting profit on that policy. Of course, from the insurer's perspective, some policies are winners (., the insurer pays out less in claims and expenses than it receives in premiums and investment income) and some are losers (., the insurer pays out more in claims and expenses than it receives in premiums and investment income).An insurer's underwriting performance is measured in its combined ratio. The loss ratio (incurred losses and loss-adjustment expenses divided by net earned premium) is added to the expense ratio (underwriting expenses divided by net premium written) to determine the company's combined ratio. The combined ratio is a reflection of the company's overall underwriting profitability. A combined ratio of less than 100 percent indicates underwriting profitability, while anything over 100 indicates an underwriting companies also earn investment profits on “float”. “Float” or available reserve is the amount of money, at hand at any given moment, that an insurer has collected in insurance premiums but has not been paid out in claims. Insurers start investing insurance premiums as soon as they are collected and continue to earn interest on them until claims are paid the United States, the underwriting loss of property and casualty insurance companies was $ billion in the five years ending 2003. But overall profit for the same period was $ billion, as the result of float. Some insurance industry insiders, most notably Hank Greenberg, do not believe that it is forever possible to sustain a profit from float without an underwriting profit as well, but this opinion is not universally held. Naturally, the “float” method is difficult to carry out in an economically depressed period. Bear markets do cause insurers to shift away from investments and to toughen up their underwriting standards. So a poor economy generally means high insurance premiums. This tendency to swing between profitable and unprofitable periods over time is commonly known as the "underwriting" or insurance cycle. [6]Property and casualty insurers currently make the most money from their auto insurance line of business. Generally better statistics are available on auto losses and underwriting on this line of business has benefited greatly from advances in computing. Additionally, property losses in the US, due to natural catastrophes, have exacerbated this , claims and loss handling is the materialized utility of insurance. In managing the claims-handling function, insurers seek to balance the elements of customer satisfaction, administrative handling expenses, and claims overpayment leakages. As part of this balancing act, fraudulent insurance practices are a major business risk that must be managed and of insuranceAny risk that can be quantified can potentially be insured. Specific kinds of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". An insurance policy will set out in detail which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Below are (non-exhaustive) lists of the many different types of insurance that exist. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the categories set forth below. For example, auto insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the . typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's insurance can be any kind of insurance that protects businesses against risks. Some principal subtypes of business insurance are (a) the various kinds of professional liability insurance, also called professional indemnity insurance, which are discussed below under that name; and (b) the business owners policy (BOP), which bundles into one policy many of the kinds of coverage that a business owner needs, in a way analogous to how homeowners insurance bundles the coverages that a homeowner needs.[7]HealthHealth insurance policies will often cover the cost of private medical treatments if the National Health Service in the United Kingdom (NHS) or other publicly-funded health programs do not pay for them. It will often result in quicker health care where better facilities are available. Dental insurance, like medical insurance, is coverage for individuals to protect them against dental costs. In the ., dental insurance is often part of an employer's benefits package, along with health insurance. Most countries rely on public funding to ensure that all citizens have universal access to health care.[edit] DisabilityDisability insurance policies provide financial support in the event the policyholder is unable to work because of disabling illness or injury. It provides monthly support to help pay such obligations as mortgages and credit cards. Total permanent disability insurance insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. Disability overhead insurance allows business owners to cover the overhead expenses of their business while they are unable to work. Workers' compensation insurance replaces all or part of a worker's wages lost and accompanying medical expense incurred because of a job-related injury. CasualtyCasualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific insurance is a form of casualty insurance that covers the policyholder against losses arising from the criminal acts of third parties. For example, a company can obtain crime insurance to cover losses arising from theft or embezzlement. Political risk insurance is a form of casualty insurance that can be taken out by businesses with operations in countries in which there is a risk that revolution or other political conditions will result in a loss. [edit] Life insuranceMain article: Life insuranceLife insurance provides a monetary benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for income to an insured person's family, burial, funeral and other final expenses. Life insurance policies often allow the option of having the proceeds paid to the beneficiary either in a lump sum cash payment or an provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance and require the same kinds of actuarial and investment management expertise that life insurance requires. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance and, from an underwriting perspective, are the mirror image of life life insurance contracts accumulate cash values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and endowment policies, are financial instruments to accumulate or liquidate wealth when it is many countries, such as the . and the UK, the tax law provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of saving as well as protection in the event of early ., the tax on interest income on life insurance policies and annuities is generally deferred. However, in some cases the benefit derived from tax deferral may be offset by a low return. This depends upon the insuring company, the type of policy and other variables (mortality, market return, etc.). Moreover, other income tax saving vehicles (., IRAs, 401(k) plans, Roth IRAs) may be better alternatives for value accumulation. A combination of low-cost term life insurance and a higher-return tax-efficient retirement account may achieve better investment insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance.字数超限了。。。