西方经济学有关价格机制的论文

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price rise. A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely positive. But others don’t agree with the viewpoint. John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too much. However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this year. The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also decreases. Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher returns. But Mr. Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of gaiatsu. That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the history. He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen recently. However, that will not happen. One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would like. Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take place. So the inflation is not good news for cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of inflation. Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the demand. To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $ bills that are able to buy them with. If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $. However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of goods. So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the goods. This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of goods. (, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram below. In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price level. AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply curve. When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’. But the price level decreases from P to P’. So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $. This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of money. By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on anything. (, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten years. That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of deflation. The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the deflation. If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be good. For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was increasing. So the supply of goods obviously went up. Therefore, the price level dropped. Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same result. If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be bad. The economy contracted because of lack of liquidity. People may lose their jobs. Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off it. Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their jobs. (, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary policy. A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest rate. An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to 2006. In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased sharply. That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary policy. Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this policy. That would activate the aggregate demand. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation problem. One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too long. That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 years. Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated fully. The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic demand. So the purpose of the policy has not achieved completely. The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would like. Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest rate. So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange rate. As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange market. Foreign exchange is one type of financial assets. An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital returns. Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial market. If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the currency. If the interest rate drops, the return will decrease. Therefore, the attraction of the currency is low. BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 economy. That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital inflows. Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the imports. First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign goods. So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will decrease. It is good for Japanese exports and international reserve. Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national income. The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is falling. As a result, the company profits are reducing. So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain competitive. One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal wage. Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt-tightening. Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 years. So when the inflation is happening, the price level is increased. Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by deflation. So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is increasing. But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the problem. Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation period. In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short run.

西方经济学，就是被运用于西方市场经济国家的经济学，有市场经济学之称。以 1776 年亚当·斯密《国富论》的出版为标志，西方经济学历经了 200 多年的风雨沧桑。在这个不长不短的历史进程中，从斯密、李加图、萨伊、穆勒、马尔萨斯、马歇尔到凯恩斯、弗里德曼、萨谬尔森、卢卡斯、斯蒂格利茨，经济学大师辈出；从古典经济学、新古典经济学到凯恩斯主义经济学、新古典宏观经济学和新凯恩斯主义经济学，经济学流派林立。百花齐放，百家争鸣，带来西方经济学的不断创新和发展，以致于文献上有“经济学帝国”之称。 � 西方经济学 它主要介绍流行于西方市场经济国家的现代经济理论与经济政策。它既研究古老而又现代的家政管理，又研究多姿多彩的企业经营，还大胆解说政府日益加码的经济调控。它既赞美价格机制这只“看不见的手”的效率优势，也无情的剖析市场机制在不少领域资源配置上的诸多缺陷。 主要包括微观经济学和宏观经济学。微观经济学 -- 研究家庭、厂商和市场合理配置经济资源的科学 -- 以单个经济单位的经济行为为对象；以资源的合理配置为解决的主要问题；以价格理论为中心理论；以个量分析为方法；其基本假定是市场出清、完全理性、充分信息。宏观经济 - 研究国民经济的整体运行中充分利用经济资源的科学 — 以国民经济整体的运行为对象；以资源的充分利用为解决的主要问题；以收入理论为中心理论；以总量分析为方法，其基本假定为市场失灵、政府有效。 从方法上看，西方经济学运用实证分析和规范分析梁中方法。实证分析企图超脱于一切价值判断，只研究经济本身的内在规律，并据此分析和预测人们的经济行为效果，着重回答“是什么”的问题。实证分析的步骤。定义 ---- 对经济学所研究的各种变量规定明确的含义；这里的变量有内生变量和外生变量、流量和存量；内生变量是一种理论内所要解释的变量，外生变量是一种在理论内影响其他变量而他本身则由理论外的因素来决定的变量；存量是通常在一定时点上才能有效测定的变量，流量是指通常在一定时期内才能有效测定的变量；假设 ---- 某一理论所适用的条件，在假设条件下得出结论，就象自然科学在严格的假定条件下分析自然现象一样，事实上整个社会即使天然的实验室；假说 ---- 未经证明的各个经济变量之间的关系；预测 ---- 根据假说对未来进行预期规范分析通过设定一些价值判断和好与坏的标准，作为经济理论的前提和制定政策的依据，并研究如何才能符合这些标准，着重回答“应该是什么”的问题。 西方经济学德发展可以主要分为三个部分，即古典经济学、新古典经济学与现代经济学。古典经济学 — 从 17 世纪中期开始到 19 世纪 70 年代为止 — 包括英国经济学家斯密、李嘉图、西尼尔、穆勒、马尔萨斯，法国经济学家萨伊 — 以斯密为代表，其 1776 年出版的《国富论》被称为经济学上的第一次革命，建立了以自由放任为中心的经济学体系，他标志着经济学的诞生 — 代表性的教科书是穆勒《政治经济学原理及其在社会哲学上的应用》流行了 20 年。新古典经济学 — 从 19 世纪的“边际革命”开始到 20 世纪 30 年代为止 — 包括英国经济学家杰文史、马歇尔，法国经济学家瓦尔拉斯 — 边际效用价值论的提出被说成是经济学上的第二次革命，他标志着新古典经济学的开始，马歇尔在 1890 年发表的《经济学原理》是其代表性的教科书。现代经济学 — 开始于 20 世纪 30 年代凯恩史主义的产生 --- 包括英国经济学家凯恩史、琼·罗宾逊、斯拉伐，以及美国经济学家萨缪尔森、弗里德曼和卢卡斯 — 其中凯恩斯在 1936 年出版的的《就业利息和货币通论》标志着当代经济学的产生，该书与爱因斯坦的《相对论》、达尔文的《物种起源》、马克思的《资本论》被人们称着改变世界历史的四大著作；而萨缪尔森的 1948 年开始发行的《经济学》至今已出第十六版，是第三本好教科书

摘要：就业是民生之本，是人们改善生活条件的基本前提和途径，历来都是各国经济社会发展中的重大问题。中国由于人口基数大，劳动力的无限供给和就业岗位严重不足之间的矛盾是最严峻的问题，解决好劳动就业问题其意义极为重大。不仅涉及到求职者的工作安置和许多家庭的切身利益，还关系到经济发展和社会的稳定和谐。回顾西方经济学主要的就业理论，提出这些理论对我国的启示，再结合我国实际情况加以深化认识和借鉴，进而寻求解决我国就业矛盾的有效途径。 关键词：就业理论；就业问题；借鉴一、引言我国经济连续多年高速增长，近几年经济增长率都在10%左右，是世界上经济发展最快的国家之一，但是，经济的高增长没有带来高就业。进一步讲，就业形势的好坏，与国民经济的发展速度有着密切关系。一般而言，一定的经济增长所带来的就业增长也是一定的，然而我国的经济增长对就业增长的贡献却不是很明显。 最近十多年来，中国经济高速增长，但就业增长却相对缓慢，中国目前有大量的农村剩余劳动力以及存在大量的大学、大专毕业生面临就业选择，甚至毕业就失业的境况。可以说，中国的就业压力很大，劳动力总量供过于求，局部就业供给不足，结构性矛盾日益突出。 因而面对着巨大的就业压力，我们应将视野放宽，在立足国情的基础上，充分借鉴西方经济学中有关就业理论研究的成果，解决就业问题，对于中国来说具有非常重要的现实意义。二、西方就业理论演进剖析就业这一重大的社会经济问题长期以来一直受到西方经济学家的关注，从而形成了各具特色的就业理论。西方经济学家对就业问题的长期研究和探索，形成了适应市场经济需求的多角度、多层次的就业理论。如古典经济学派的就业理论，凯恩斯的充分就业理论，新古典综合学派的就业理论，新凯恩斯主义的工资粘性就业理论等。 （一）古典学派的就业理论 萨伊定律是古典经济学派就业理论的基石，其基本内涵是供给创造需求。该学派经济学家代表人物有马歇尔、庇古等，他们从完全竞争的市场结构出发，认为市场上产品价格和货币工资可以根据市场供求状况自发调整。劳动供给和劳动需求相互作用决定实际工资和就业水平，供求平衡时的就业量就是充分就业水平。进而认为，只要不存在工资刚性，工资率可以自由伸缩，市场机制能自由的发挥调节作用，可使一切可供使用的劳动力资源都被用于生产，劳动力市场总能达到就业均衡，长期持续的非自然失业不可能存在，存在的只是自愿失业和短期性摩擦性失业。 他们认为，解决失业问题的办法是消除货币工资的刚性，使货币工资能够随市场的需求而发生相应的变化。古典学派将自由竞争作为前提条件，主张市场调节平衡就业，否定了失业问题的普遍性。但换个角度理解失业的产生仍然是有可能的，失业问题正是竞争不充分所导致的结果，要解决失业问题首先就应该解决劳动力市场竞争的不充分问题。 （二）凯恩斯的就业理论 凯恩斯就业理论是以有效需求原则为核心，认为就业量取决于有效需求。失业之所以持续不断，是由于资本主义社会一般情况均存在“有效需求不足”。即总供给价格和总需求价格达到均衡时的总需求不足，由此造成较多的社会失业，即不充分就业。凯恩斯主义的促进就业理论实际上主张降低工资，即在不降低名义工资的情况下，降低实际工资。但前提是扩大总需求，因为总需求的扩大，必然会导致通货膨胀，工人名义工资不变，但实际工资相对减少。为实现充分就业，凯恩斯认为，必须摒弃自由放任的经济政策，依靠国家干预，提出需求管理政策，从而达到促进生产，增加就业的目的。 （三）新古典综合学派的就业理论 20世纪60年代末，各主要资本主义国家的经济相继陷入“滞胀”的困境，凯恩斯理论失灵了。因而以托宾、杜生贝等为代表的新古典综合学派经济学家提出“结构性失业问题”，力图用市场结构的变化来解释失业和通货膨胀并发症，认为是微观市场的不完全性和结构变化引起滞胀。得出结构性失业是因经济结构的变化而引起的劳动力供给和需求的结构失调，结构性失业的存在必然引起失业与工作空位并存。由于强大的工会力量使工资易涨不易跌，所以尽管社会上存在着失业，但货币工资却不下降，而只要存在工作空位，货币工资就会迅速上升。于是，失业与工作空位并存就转化为失业与货币工资上涨并存，进而转化为失业与通货膨胀的并发症。该理论主张从就业内容或就业结构角度来解决结构性失业问题，如政府要指导收入政策，即政府要采取措施限制工资和物价的上升，以缓和通胀；注重完善劳动力市场，缓和因劳工市场技术结构变化造成的失业；适当修改完善失业补助金制度，激励失业者就业。 （四）新凯恩斯主义的工资粘性就业理论 新凯恩斯主义的劳动市场理论主要包括名义工资粘性和实际工资粘性两方面。名义工资粘性是由于长期劳动合同的存在和交错调整工资所致，工资通常是由于工会与企业通过谈判订立的合同而固定下来的。在合同有效期限内工资不能随市场供求行情而调整。即使没有工会组织未签订劳动合同的企业，因受有合同的企业粘性工资的影响，工资也不会轻易变动。隐性合同理论认为，雇员与雇主之间随着时间的推移，它们之间会形成某种稳定收入的非正式契约，从而使工资具有粘性。隐性合同导致失业的原因是由于在非对称信息条件下，厂商和工人因信息有限，决定了均衡合同出现无效率的非充分就业，因而通常会解除工人。效率工资论则说明了雇主会主动付给员工高工资，以提高雇员的生产积极性，提高跳槽和偷懒的机会成本同时吸引有能力及高技术人才。内部人——外部人理论则指出，内部人由于受到劳动转换成本的保护，在工资决定上有着重要的讨价还价能力，具有较强的就业优势和地位。致使工资调整主要取决于在职人员而不是失业者，于是，便可能出现非自愿性失业。因而解决失业问题政府就要干预工资合同，要减少工资粘性，增加工资弹性，使工资能够适时适度灵活调整。 （五）反古典经济学的就业理论 “反古典”学派主张放弃自由放任的经济政策，借鉴日本的经济模式及行政主导性的市场经济模式。在就业问题上，强调在保证企业自由用人和求职者自主择业的前提下，在保持企业活力和充分发挥市场机制作用的基础上，国家对市场活动进行宏观调控和政策指导。同时建立稳定就业，劳动力流动平缓、劳资合同和工资差距较小的劳动力模式。三、西方就业理论对我国的启示及借鉴（一）古典学派就业理论的启示及借鉴 首先要解决劳动力市场的分割问题和就业歧视问题，完善劳动力市场的结构，实现劳动力市场的充分竞争。我国目前劳动力市场的竞争不充分表现得很突出，市场存在严重的城乡分割和地区分割，就业歧视随处可见。就业招聘中存在严重的歧视性条款，如户籍歧视、地域与方言歧视、学历歧视、性别和年龄歧视乃至身高、相貌等身体歧视、婚姻状况歧视、犯罪经历歧视、姓氏歧视等等已经成为我国劳动力招聘中的一个正常现象。这些现象严重阻碍了我国劳动力市场的正常发展，破坏了就业市场的公平竞争环境，导致了人力资源的巨大浪费，因而必须加强透明化、公平化、法制化和市场化。 其次，为了规范我国的劳动力市场，运用市场价格机制调节的同时要严格落实劳动用工合同制度，同时要鼓励企业履行现在流行的SA8000社会责任认证标准的相关规定，保护劳动者的合法权利。（二）凯恩斯就业理论的启示及借鉴 凯恩斯就业理论强调宏观的财政政策、货币政策，以及政府对对外贸易的干预和实行税收政策等来调节就业，是一种总量就业理论。它只考察资本主义社会的总就业量的变化、就业水平的高低，而不分析就业的结构。由于它只强调从增加有效需求来解决失业问题，忽视对劳动力供给方面的管理与改善；只强调投资总量的增加而忽视投资的就业效率和投资结构的优化。因此，中国在通过政府扩大投资规模解决就业问题的过程中，一定要注意提高投资的就业效率，要尽可能投向吸纳劳动力较多的行业和领域。另外，政府应注意经济增长模式的选择，制定有利于增加就业的经济增长计划和产业政策，把技术密集型、资金密集型和劳动密集型增长方式结合起来。因而当前应当实行就业优先的发展战略，选择“以就业为中心”的经济增长模式，实施以就业为基础的经济政策，优化就业结构和产业结构，积极发展劳动密集型产业。 （三）新古典综合派的就业理论启示及借鉴 新古典综合派认为，政府应主要从劳动力市场和人力政策来解决结构性失业问题。第一，采取全方位人力资源开发措施，对劳动力进行多层次、多领域、多种形式的继续培训，使劳动者及时掌握新知识和新技能；第二，大力发展职业介绍机构，负责信息咨询、指导服务、就业介绍等方面工作，使企业和求职者实现信息对称；第三，减少户籍制度对劳动力的限制，增加劳动力的区际流动，帮助解决劳动力和企业进行地区迁移。 结合我国目前的情况，应建立完善就业教育制度，积极开发人力资源，全面提高职业技术教育水平。对于农村学龄儿童要普及九年义务教育，同时对劳动力加强职业教育和技术培训以及在岗培训指导等，从而有利于生产要素的及时有效配置，消除结构性失业。鼓励引导劳动力在地区、行业间的流动，实现资源的优化配置。再则建立和完善劳动力市场