钢结构图书馆毕业论文

太长了，超过了10000字发不了。我这里先给你个英文的你加我QQ我给你中文的两部分不会弄，你加我QQ我发给你吧，加分啊395886292 <英文版> Talling building and Steel construction Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings. The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems. Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway. In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium. Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings. Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee. Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building. Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building. Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area. Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns andspandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh. Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings. Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs. Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories. Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system. Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading. The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station. Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot. In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails. The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S. A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used. The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months. The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the oldheavy masonry. Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot. Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building. The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade. World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The Empire State’s 102 stories (1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days. The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance. Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections. Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.

摘要： 钢结构建筑本身具有自重轻、强度高、施工快等优点，与其他建筑工程相比，更具有在“高、大、轻”三个方面发展的独特优势。随着改革开放，我国的钢铁产量有了突飞猛进的发展，特别是1997年以后，我国的钢产量突破1亿吨，尽管我国是世界的钢铁产量的大国，但在钢铁应用上只占产量的3%左右。近几年随着国家经济建设的发展，特别是2008年奥运会场馆设施、首都钢铁公司的搬迁、同时十五期间我国将钢结构住宅作为重点推广的项目。为此，国家外经贸委会同冶金部制定了在建筑工程中推广使用钢结构的一系列政策措施，鼓励建筑工程采用钢结构形式，争取在2010年建筑钢结构的用量达到总钢产量的6%，使一个发展建筑钢结构行业和市场的势头正在我国出现。

关键词：钢结构；钢结构特点；发展趋势

钢结构工程同其他结构工程相比，具有材料强度高、抗震性能好、工业化生产程度高、密闭性能好、安全更可靠的特点，决定了过去在一些高度或跨度较大的结构，荷载或吊车起重量很大的结构、有较大振动的结构、高温车间的结构、密封要求很高的结构、要求能活动或经常装拆的结构、桥梁结构中应用比较广。随着改革开放和经济发展，钢结构工程正从跨度大、多层或高层、耐热性等要求高的工业建筑足见向民用建筑发展。

1从我国钢材生产上看，越来越给钢结构建筑发展创造了非常好的物质基础。随着我国经济的发展，随着老钢厂的不断更新，新钢厂不断崛起，越来越多的钢铁基地为了适应市场的需要，成品钢材的品种越来越齐全，热轧H型钢、彩色钢板、冷弯型钢的生产能力大大提高，为钢结构发展创造了重要的条件。其他钢结构中型钢、及涂镀层钢板都有明显增长，产品质量有较大提高。耐火、耐候钢、超薄热轧H型钢等一批新型钢已开始在工程中应用，为钢结构发展创造了条件。

2从设计、施工、钢结构工业化生产看，越来越多的标志性钢结构建筑，已经足够证明我国的钢结构建筑无论从设计到施工，还是从设计到钢结构构件的工业化生产加工，专业钢结构设计人员的素质在实践中得到不断提高，一批有特色有实力的专业研究所、设计院、建筑施工单位、施工监理单位都在日臻成熟，专业性、技术性、规模化更加完善。

随着钢结构建筑的遍地开花，我国各地分别建起了钢结构的标志性建筑，如：世界第三高度421米的上海金茂大厦，具有国际领先水平、高度279米的深圳赛格大厦，跨度1490米的润扬长江大桥，跨度550米的上海卢浦大桥，345米高的跨长江输电铁塔，以及首都国际机场，鸟巢国家体育中心，首钢钢结构厂房建筑群等等许多采用钢结构建筑体系的重要工程，标志着建筑钢结构正向高层重型和空间大跨度钢结构发展。

3从钢结构应用范围看，我国的钢结构建筑正从高层重型和空间大跨度工业和公共建筑钢结构向住在发展。近年来，随着城市建设的发展和高层建筑的增多，我国钢结构发展十分迅速，钢结构住宅作为一种绿色环保建筑，已被建设部列为重点推广项目。其实，我国钢结构住宅起步很晚，只是改革开放后，从国外引进了一些低层和多层钢结构住宅，才使我们有了学习与借鉴的机会。1986年意大利钢铁公司和冶金部建筑研究总院合作介绍一种低层钢结构住宅建筑体系——Bsis，并在冶金部建筑研究总院院内建造一栋二层钢结构住宅样板房；1988年日本积水株式会社赠送上海同济大学二栋钢结构住宅（二层），建在同济新村中；90年代个别国外公司为推广其产品在北京、上海等地建立多层钢结构办公、住宅楼。大规模研究开发、设计制造、施工安装钢结构住宅还是近几年才发展起来。这说明了钢结构住宅的发展势头良好。

4钢结构作为绿色环保产品，与传统的混凝土结构相比较，具有自重轻、强度高、抗震性能好等优点。适合于活荷载占总荷载比例较小的结构，更适合与大跨度空间结构、高耸构筑物并适合在软土地基上建造。也符合环境保护与节约、集约利用资源的国策，其综合经济效益越来越为各方投资者所认同，客观上将促使设计者和开发商们选择钢结构。也正是钢结构建筑的这些优点和实用性，引起了政府的高度重视和推广，并把钢结构住宅作为我国十五期间的重点推广项目。

5钢结构的发展趋势表明，我国发展钢结构存在着巨大的市场潜力和发展前景。这存在的'巨大市场潜力和发展前景及趋势，主要来源于：

（1）我国自1996年开始钢产量超过一亿吨，居世界首位。1998年投产的轧制H型钢系列给钢结构发展创造了良好的物质基础。

（2）高效的焊接工艺和新的焊接、切割设备的应用以及焊接材料的开发应用，都为发展钢结构工程创造了良好的技术条件。

（3）1997年11月建设部发布的《中国建筑技术政策》中，明确提出发展建筑钢材、建筑钢结构和建筑钢结构施工工艺的具体要求，使我国长期以来实行的“合理用钢”政策转变为“鼓励用钢”政策。将为促进钢结构的推广应用起到积极的作用。

（4）钢结构行业将出现一批有特色有实力的专业设计院、研究所，年产量超过20万吨的大型钢结构制造厂，有几十家技术一流、设备先进的施工安装企业，上千家中小企业相互补充、协调发展，逐步形成较规范的竞争市场。

6发展钢结构住宅是我国住宅产业化的必由之路。住宅产业化是我国住宅业发展的必由之路，这将成为推动我国经济发展新的增长点。钢结构住宅体系易于实现工业化生产，标准化制作，与之相配套的墙体材料可以采用节能、环保的新型材料，它属绿色环保性建筑，可再生重复利用，符合可持续发展的战略，因此钢结构体系住宅成套技术的研究成果必将大大促进住宅产业化的快速发展，直接影响着我国住宅产业的发展水平和前途。

随着钢结构建筑的发展，钢结构住宅建筑技术也必将不断的成熟，大量的适合钢结构住宅的新材料也将不断的涌现，同时，钢结构行业建筑规范、建筑标准也将随之逐渐完善。相信不久的将来，钢结构住宅必然会给住宅产业和建筑行业带来了一场深层次的革命。

“钢结构是环保住宅，钢结构符合可持续发展概念”——21世纪钢结构将占领广阔的建筑市场。在我国目前大力推广住宅产业化的时代背景下，钢结构体系必将成为住宅结构体系的主流。展望未来，随着经济建设的蓬勃发展和交流的进一步扩大，要建造更多的高层建筑、桥梁和大型公共场所、新型的智能化小区等建筑物的需求十分旺盛。这将为钢结构的发展提供更多的机会，钢结构产业兴旺发展的新局面就在眼前。

现在我国钢结构研究已进入一个新阶段，有关规范和标准已出台，国内钢产量充足，为钢结构住宅的发展提供了较好的物质和技术基础。应及时把握其发展趋势，结合我国国情，积极借鉴并吸纳国外成熟技术，注意各专业间的相互配合，促进钢结构住宅产业化发展，相信我国钢结构住宅的发展前景是美好的。

标题的样式还有多种，作者可以在实践中大胆创新。副标题和分标题为了点明论文的研究对象、研究内容、研究目的，对总标题加以补充、解说，有的论文还可以加副标题。非凡是一些商榷性的论文，一般都有一个副标题，如在总标题下方，添上“与××商榷”之类的副标题。另外，为了强调论文所研究的某个侧重面，也可以加副标题。如《如何看待现阶段劳动报酬的差别——也谈按劳分配中的资产阶级权利》、《开发蛋白质资源，提高蛋白质利用效率——探讨解决吃饭问题的一种发展战略》等。设置分标题的主要目的是为了清楚地显示文章的层次。有的用文字，一般都把本层次的中心内容昭然其上；也有的用数码，仅标明“一、二、三”等的顺序，起承上启下的作用。需要注重的是：无论采用哪种形式，都要紧扣所属层次的内容，以及上文与下文的联系紧密性。目录一般说来，篇幅较长的毕业论文，都没有分标题。设置分标题的论文，因其内容的层次较多，整个理论体系较庞大、复杂，故通常设目录。设置目录的目的主要是：1．使读者能够在阅读该论文之前对全文的内容、结构有一个大致的了解，以便读者决定是读还是不读，是精读还是略读等。2．为读者选读论文中的某个分论点时提供方便。长篇论文，除中心论点外，还有许多分论点。当读者需要进一步了解某个分论点时，就可以依靠目录而节省时间。目录一般放置在论文正文的前面，因而是论文的导读图。要使目录真正起到导读图的作用，必须注重：1．准确。目录必须与全文的纲目相一致。也就是说，本文的标题、分标题与目录存在着一一对应的关系。2．清楚无误。目录应逐一标注该行目录在正文中的页码。标注页码必须清楚无误。3．完整。目录既然是论文的导读图，因而必然要求具有完整性。也就是要求文章的各项内容，都应在目录中反映出来，不得遗漏。目录有两种基本类型：1．用文字表示的目录。2．用数码表示的目录。这种目录较少见。但长篇大论，便于读者阅读，也有采用这种方式的。内容提要内容提要是全文内容的缩影。在这里，作者以极经济的笔墨，勾画出全文的整体面目；提出主要论点、揭示论文的研究成果、简要叙述全文的框架结构。内容提要是正文的附属部分，一般放置在论文的篇首。写作内容提要的目的在于：1．为了使指导老师在未审阅论文全文时，先对文章的主要内容有个大体上的了解，知道研究所取得的主要成果，研究的主要逻辑顺序。2．为了使其他读者通过阅读内容提要，就能大略了解作者所研究的问题，假如产生共鸣，则再进一步阅读全文。在这里，内容提要成了把论文推荐给众多读者的“广告”。因此，内容提要应把论文的主要观点提示出来，便于读者一看就能了解论文内容的要点。论文提要要求写得简明而又全面，不要啰哩啰嗦抓不住要点或者只是干巴巴的几条筋，缺乏说明观点的材料。内容提要可分为报道性提要和指示性提要。报道性提要，主要介绍研究的主要方法与成果以及成果分析等，对文章内容的提示较全面。指示性提要，只简要地叙述研究的成果(数据、看法、意见、结论等)，对研究手段、方法、过程等均不涉及。毕业论文一般使用指示性提要。