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近五年作为通讯作者,共发表了研究论文200余篇,其中被SCI收录180余篇,主要发表在国际著名的Adv. Funct. Mater.、Chem: Eur.J.、Chem. Commun.、J. Mater. Chem.、 J. Phys. Chem. B、J. Phys. Chem. C、J. Comput. Chem.、Inorg. Chem.、Appl. Catal. B、Nanotechnology、J. Phys.: Condensed Matter等学术期刊上,影响因子在3.0以上的论文有50余篇,其中影响因子在5.0以上8篇。成果被SCI收录期刊正面引用1400余次。出版专著两部,美国科学出版社邀请为纳米科学技术大百科全书撰写了完整的一章。申请发明专利14项。已发表和已录用的主要论文清单如下(以下均为SCI期刊收录论文,*代表通讯联系人)·Pan Qing-Jiang,Guo Yuan-Ru,Li Li,Fu Hong-Gang*,and Zhang Hong-Xing “Structures,Spectroscopic Properties and Redox Potentials of Quaterpyridyl Ru(Ⅱ) Photosensitizer and its Derivatives for Solar Energy Cell: A Density Functional Study” Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 2011,DOI:10.1039/C1CP00030F.·Gao Xiao-Qin,Pan Qing-Jiang,Li Li,Guo Yuan-Ru,Zhang Hong-Xing,Fu Hong-Gang* “Structures and Spectroscopic Properties of Ruthenium Phenanthroline Solar-Cell Sensitizers: A Computational Study” Chemical Physics Letters,2011,506,146-151.·Zhou W,Sun FF,Pan K,Tian GH,Fu HG*. Well-ordered large-pore mesoporous anatase TiO2 with remarkably high thermal stability and improved crystallinity: Preparation,characterization and photocatalytic performance. Advanced Functional Materials,2011,21,1922-1930..·Jiang Baojiang,Tian CG,Fu Honggang*,et al. In-Situ Growth of TiO2 in Interlayers of Expanded Graphite for the Fabrication of TiO2-Graphene with Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity. Chemistry-A European Journal,2011,Accepted,chem.201100250.· Li Sun,Chungui Tian,Lei Wang,Jinlong Zou,Guang Mu,Honggang Fu*,Magnetically Separable Porous Graphitic Carbon with Large Surface Area as Excellent Adsorbents for Metal Ions and Dye. Journal of Materials Chemistry,2011,2011,21,7232-7239.· Zhao H,Yang J,Wang L,Tian CG,Jiang BJ,Fu HG*. Fabrication of palladium nanoparticles/graphene nanosheets hybrid via sacrifice of copper template and its application in catalytic oxidation of formic acid. Chemical Communications,2011,47,2014-2016.· Yang J,Tian CG,Wang L,Fu HG*. An effective strategy to small-sized and high-dispersed palladium nano particles supported on graphene with excellent performance for formic acid oxidation. Journal of Materials Chemistry,2011,21,3384-3390.· Tian GH,Chen YJ,Zhou W,Ren ZY,Tian CG,Fu HG*. Facile solvothermal synthesis of hierarchical flower-like Bi2MoO6 hollow spheres as high performance visible-light driven photocatalysts. Journal of Materials Chemistry,2011,21,887 – 892.· Hu ZF,Shen PK*,Fu HG*,et al. Oxygen Reduction Electrocatalysis Enhanced by Nanosized Cubic Vanadium Carbide. Electrochemistry Communications,2011,Accepted,ELECOM 3881.· Tian Guohui,Chen Yajie,Zhou Wei,Pan Kai,Huang Xu-ri and Fu Honggang *,3D hierarchical flower-like TiO2 nanostructure: morphology control and its photocatalytic property. CrstEngComm,2011,13,2994.· Dong Youzhen,Pan Kai,Zhou Wei,Pan Qingjiang,Xie Tengfeng,Wang Dejun,Fu Honggang*,Dye-sensitized solar cells based on TiO2-B nanobelt/TiO2 nanoparticle sandwich-type photoelectrodes with controllable nanobelt length. Dalton Transactions,2011,40,3808–3814.· Cai ZC,Tian CG,Wang L,Zhou W,Wang BL,Fu HG*. One-pot synthesis of silver particle aggregation as highly active SERS substrate. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy,2011,1,5-11.· Tian CG,Li W,Fu HG*,et al. Glucose-mediated solution-solid route for easy synthesis of Ag/ZnO particles with superior photocatalytic activity and photostability,Journal of Alloys and Compounds,2011,509,6935-6941.· Tian CG,Li W,Fu HG*,et al. Controllable Fabrication of Various ZnO Micro/nanostructures from a Wire-like Zn-EG-AC Precursor via a Facile Solution-based Route,Materials Research Bulletin,2011,MRB5116.· Zhao H,Fu HG,Tian CG,et al.Facile shape-controlled synthesis of palladium nanostructures on copper for promising Surface-enhanced Raman scattering,MATERIALS LETTERS,2010,64,2255-2257· Zhao H,Fu HG,Tian CG,et al. Fabrication of silver nanoparticles/single-walled carbon nanotubes composite for surface-enhanced Raman scattering,JOURNAL OF COLLOID AND INTERFACE SCIENCE,2010,351,343-347.· Jiang BJ,Tian CG,Fu HG*,et al. Facile Fabrication of High Quality Graphene from Expandable Graphite: Simultaneous Exfoliation and Reduction. Chemical Communication. 2010,46,4920 - 4922.· Feng SS,Ren ZY,Fu HG*,et al. Synthesis and application of hollow magnetic graphitic carbon microspheres with/without TiO2 nanoparticle layer on the surface. Chemical Communication. 2010,46,6276-6278.· Liu Y,Ren ZY,Fu HG*,et al. Synthesis and applications of graphite carbon sphere with uniformly distributed magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles (MGCSs) and MGCS@Ag,MGCS@TiO2. Journal of Material Chemistry 2010,20,4802- 4808.· Wang L,Tian CG,Fu HG*,et al. Mass production of graphene via an in situ self-generating template route and its promoted activity as electrocatalytic support for methanol electroxidization. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2010,114 (19),8727–8733.· Qu Y,Zhou W,Fu HG*,et al. Hierarchical anatase TiO2 porous nanopillars with high crystallinity and controlled length: An effective candidate for dye-sensitized solar-cells. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 2010,12,9205 - 9212.· Wang BL,Tian CG,Fu HG,et al. Chitosan: a green carbon source for the synthesis of graphitic nanocarbon,tungsten carbide and graphitic nanocarbon/tungsten carbide composites. Nanotechnology 21 (2010) 025606 (9pp).· Li YJ,LV RJ,Fu HG*,et al. Fabrication and evaluation of chiral monolithic column modified by β-cyclodextrin derivatives. Talanta 80 (2010) 1378–1382· Zhou W,Pan K,Fu HG*,et al. Photodegradation of organic contamination in wastewaters by bondingTiO2/single-walled carbon nanotube composites with enhanced photocatalytic activity. Chemosphere 81 (2010) 555–561.· Guohui Tian,Chen Yajie,Pan Kai,Fu Honggang*,Efficient visible light-induced degradation of phenol on N-doped anatase TiO2 with large surface area and high crystallinity. Applied Surface Science 2010,256,3740-3745.· Tian CG,Li W,Fu HG*,et al. One-pot Synthesis of the Ag Nanoparticles modified ZnO Microspheres in Ethylene Glycol Medium and Their Enhanced Photocatalytic Performance. Journal of Solid State Chemistry,2010,183,2720-2725.· Zhou W,Pan K,Fu HG*,et al. The sandwich structure electrodes based on wire-likeTiO2–β-cyclodextrin–SWCNT composite for dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry 2009,207,306–310.· Tian XQ,Wan LJ,Fu HG*,et al. Facile synthesis of mesoporous ZnAl2O4 thin films through the evaporation-induced self-assembly method. Journal of Alloys and Compounds 2009,488,320–324.· Wang RH,Tian CG,Fu HG*,et al. In situ simultaneous synthesis of WC/graphitic carbon nanocomposite as a highly efficient catalyst support for DMFCw. Chemical Communication 2009,3104-3106.· Pan QJ,Fu HG*,Zhang HX*,et al. Theoretical Studies on Metal−Metal Interaction,Excited States,and Spectroscopic Properties of Binuclear Au−Au,Au−Rh,and Rh−Rh Complexes with Diphosphine Ligands: Buildup of Complexity from Monomers to Dimers. Inorganic Chemistry,2009,48,2844–2854.· Zhou W,Pan K,Fu HG*,et al. Solar-induced Self-assembly of TiO2-β-cyclodextrin-MWCNT Composite Wires. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 2009,11,1713-1718.· Kang CH,Jing LQ*,Fu HG*,et al. Mesoporous SiO2-Modified Nanocrystalline TiO2 with High Anatase Thermal Stability and Large Surface Area as Efficient Photocatalyst. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2009,113,1006–1013.· Wang BL,Tian CG,Fu HG*,et al. A simple and large-scale strategy for the preparation of Ag nanoparticles supported on resin-derived carbon and their antibacterial properties. Nanotechnology 2009,20,025603(7pp)· Tian GH,Fu HG*,Jing LQ,et al. Synthesis and photocatalytic activity of stable nanocrystalline TiO2 with high crystallinity and large surface area. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2009,161,1122-1130.· Zhang GX,Yu HT*,Fu HG,et al. First-principles calculations of the stability and electronic properties of the PbTiO3 (110) polar surface. Journal of Computational Chemistry 2009,30,1785-1798.· Tian GH,Pan K,Fu HG*,et al. Enhanced photocatalytic activity of S-doped TiO2-ZrO2 nanoparticles under visible-light irradiation. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2009,166,939-944.· Pan K,Dong YZ,Fu HG*,et al. TiO2-B narrow nanobelt/TiO2 nanoparticle composite photoelectrode for dye-sensitized solar cells. Electrochimica Acta 2009,54,7350-7356.· Kan K,Fu HG,Shi KY*,et al. Amidation of single-walled carbon nanotubes by a hydrothermal process for the electrooxidation of nitric oxide. Nanotechnology 2009,20,185502 (7pp).· Wang L,Tian CG,Fu HG*,et al. Controllable Synthesis of Graphitic Carbon Nanostructures from Ion-Exchange Resin-Iron Complex via Solid-State Pyrolysis Process. Chemical Communication 2008,5411-5413.· Zhou W,Fu HG*,Pan K,et al. Mesoporous TiO2/α-Fe2O3: Bifunctional Composites for Effective Elimination of Arsenite Contamination through Simultaneous Photocatalytic Oxidation and Adsorption. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2008,112,19584-19589.· Liu KS,Fu HG*,Xie Y,et al. Assembly of β-Cyclodextrins Acting as Molecular Bricks onto the Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes.Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2008,112,951-957.· Tian GH,Fu HG*,Jing LQ,et al. Preparation and Characterization of Stable Biphase TiO2 Photocatalyst with High Crystallinity,Large Surface Area and Enhanced Photoactivity. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2008,112,3083-3089.· Zhou W,Liu KS,Fu HG*,et al. Multi-modal mesoporous TiO2–ZrO2 composites with high photocatalytic activity and hydrophilicity. Nanotechnology 2008,19,035610(7pp).· Pan QJ,Zhou X,Fu HG*,et al,“Isovalent Gold(I),-(Ⅱ),and -(Ⅲ) and Mixed-Valent Gold(I)/Gold(Ⅲ) Phosphorus Ylide Complexes. Combined ab Initio and Density Functional Study of Electronic Structures and Spectroscopic Properties” Organometallics 2008,27,2474–2482.· Wan LJ,Fu HG*,Shi KY,et al. Facile synthesis of ordered nanocrystalline alumina thin films with tunable mesopore structures. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 2008,115(3),301-307.· Pan QJ,Zhou X,Fu HG*,et al. A theoretical probe on the ground- and excited-state properties of heterobinuclear Au–Pt complex with phosphine ligands. Comparison with analogous homobinuclear Au–Au and Pt–Pt complexes. Chemical Physics Letters 2008,453,7-12.· Jing LQ*,Li SD,Fu HG*,et al. Investigation on the electron transfer between anatase and rutile in nano-sized TiO2 by means of surface photovoltage technique and its effects on the photocatalytic activity. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 2008,92,1030– 1036.· Wan LJ,Fu HG*,Shi KY,et al. Facile synthesis of iron oxide with wormlike morphology and their application in water treatment. Journal of Solid State Chemistry 2008,181(4),735-740.· Chi YJ,Fu HG*,Qi LH,et al. Preparation and photoelectric performance of ITO/TiO2/CdS composite thin films. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry 2008,195(2-3),357-363.· Xie Y,Yu HT,Fu HG*,et al. Lattice dynamics investigation on different transition behaviors of cubic BaTiO3 and SrTiO3 by first-principles calculatoins. J. Phys.: Condens. Matter,2008,20,215215 (8pp)· Wan LJ,Fu HG*,Shi KY,et al. Simple synthesis of mesoporous alumina thin films.Material Letters 2008,62(10-11),1525-1527.· Song S,Jing LQ*,Fu HG*,et al. Superhydrophilic anatase TiO2 film with the micro- and nanometer-scale hierarchical surface structure. Materials Letters 2008,62,3503–3505.· Zhu YJ,Yuan FL*,Fu HG,et al. Direct NO decomposition over La2-xBaxNiO4 catalysts containing BaCO3 phase. Appl. Catal B-Environ 2008,82,255-263.· Li MX,Zhang HX*,Fu HG,et al. Theoretical Studies of Electronic Structuresand Spectroscopic Properties of Ru Complexes. Inorg. Chem 2008 47(7),2312-2324.· Xie Y,Yu HT,Fu HG*,A First-Principles Investigation of Stability and Structural Properties of the BaTiO3 (110) Polar Surface. Journal of Physical Chemistry C,2007,111,6343-6349.· Kan W,Yu HT,Fu HG*,et al. Theoretical investigation on the protonation reactions and products of the stable [N,C,C,S] isomers,Journal of Computational Chemistry,2007,28,2472-2482.· Zhao YL,Yu HT*,Fu HG,et al. Combined DFT,QCISD(T),and G2 mechanism investigation for the reactions of carbon monophosphide CP with unsaturated hydrocarbons allene CH2CCH2 and methylacetylene CH3CCH,Journal of Computational Chemistry,2007,28,1221-1233.· Pan QJ,Zhang HX*,Fu HG,et al. Electronic Structures and Spectroscopic Properties of Mono- and Binuclear d8 Complexes: a Theoretical Exploration on Promising Phosphorescent Materials. Journal of Physical Chemistry A,2007,111(2); 287-294.· Pan QJ,Zhou X,Fu HG*,et al. Theoretical studies on spectroscopic properties of binuclear palladium(Ⅱ) halide with phosphine ligands Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry,2007,188(2-3),287-292.· Xie Y,Fu HG*,Yu HT,et al. A first-principles investigation into the ferroelectric and antiferrodistortive instabilities of cubic SrTiO3,Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter,2007,19,506213(9pp)· Pan QJ,Zhou X,Fu HG*,et alStructures and electronic spectra of [Pt2(P2O5H2)4X2]4– (X = Cl,Br and I): a comparative study of ab initio and density functional theory Inorganic Chemistry Communications 2007,10,183–186.· Li SD,Jing LQ,Fu HG*,et al. Photoinduced charge property of nanosized perovskite-type LaFeO3 and its relationships with photocatalytic activity under visible irradiation. Materials Research Bulletin 2007,42,203-212.· Yang PP,Fu HG,Lin J*,et al. MCM-41 functionalized with YVO4: Eu3+: a novel drug delivery system. Nanotechnology 2007,18,235703(6pp).· Yang PP,Fu HG,Lin J*,et al. Luminescence functionalization of SBA-15 by YVO4: Eu3+ as a novel drug delivery system. Inorg. Chem. 2007,46,3202-3211.· Jing LQ,Fu HG*,Wang BQ,et al. Effects of Sn dopant on the photoinduced charge property and photocatalytic activity of TiO2 nanoparticles. Applied Catalysis B,2006,62,282-291.· Jing LQ,Xin BF,Fu HG*,et al. Effects of Surface Oxygen Vacancies on Photophysical and Photochemical Processes of Zn-Doped TiO2 Nanoparticles and Their Relationships. Journal of Physical Chemistry B2006,110,17860-17865.· Pan QJ,Fu HG*,Yu HT,et al. A Theoretical Insight Into Electronic Structures and Spectroscopic Properties of [Pt2(pop)4]4–,[Pt2(pcp)4]4– and Related Derivatives (pop = P2O5H22– and pcp = P2O4CH42–) Inorganic Chemistry,2006,45(21),8729–8735.· Liu KS,Zhou W,Fu HG*,et al. Influence of calcination temperatures on the photocatalytic activity and photo-induced hydrophilicity of wormhole-like mesoporous TiO2. Nanotechnology 2006,17,1363-1369.· Liu KS,Fu HG*,Shi KY,et al. Hydrophilicity and formation mechanism of large-pore mesoporous TiO2 thin films with tunable pore diameters. Nanotechnology 2006,17,3641-3648.· Pan QJ,Zhang HX*,Fu HG,et al “Theoretical Studies on Metal–Metal Interaction and Intrinsic 1,3[σ*(d)σ(s/p)] Excited States of Binuclear d10 Complexes with Bridging Phosphine Ligands” European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry 2006 (5),1050-1059.· Jing LQ,Wang DJ,Fu HG*,et al. Effects of noble metal modification on surface oxygen composition,charge separation and photocatalytic activity of ZnO nanoparticles. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A 2006,244,193-200.· Pan QJ,Fu HG*,Yu HT,et al Substituent effect on the structure and luminescence of binuclear Au(I) complexes: An ab initio study. Chemical Physics Letters 2006,426(4-6),257-262.· Jing LQ,Qu YC,Fu HG*,et al. Review of photoluminescence performance of nano-sized semiconductor materials and its relationships with photocatalytic activity. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cell 2006,90,1773-1787.· Pan QJ,Fu HG*,Yu HT,et al Spectroscopic Properties of Mono- and Binuclear Platinum(Ⅱ) Alkynyl Complexes with Phosphine Ligands: A Theoretical StudyInorganica Chimica Acta 2006,359(10),3306–3314.· Wang BQ,Jing LQ,Fu HG*,et al. Enhancement of the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 nanoparticles by surface-capping DBS groups. Applied Surface Science 2006,252,2817-2825.· Liu KS,Zhang ML,Fu HG*,et al. Uniform TiO2 thin films with anatase nanocrystallites synthesized through evaporation-induced assembly. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 2006,352,2284–2287.· Liu KS,Fu HG*,Shi KY,et al. Preparation of large-pore mesoporous nanocrystalline TiO2 thin films with tailored pore diameters. Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2005,109 (40),18719-18722.· Shi KY,Chi YJ,Fu HG*,et al. Controlled growth of mesostructured crystalline iron oxide nanowires and Fe-filled carbon nanotube arrays templated by mesoporous silica SBA-16 film. Journal of Physical Chemistry B2005,109 (7),2546-2551.· Xin BF,Jing LQ,Fu HG*,et al. Effects of simultaneously doped and deposited Ag on the photocatalytic activity and surface states of TiO2. Journal of Physical Chemistry B2005,109,2805-2809.· Liu KS,Zhang ML,Fu HG*,et al. Preparation,characterization,and photo-induced hydrophilicity of nanocrystalline anatase thin films synthesized through evaporation-induced assembly. Nanotechnology 2005,16,3006-3011.· Xin BF,Ren ZY,Fu HG*,et al. Photocatalytic activity and interfacial carrier transfer of Ag–TiO2 nanoparticle films. Applied Surface Science 2005,252,2050–2055.· Liu KS,Zhang ML,Fu HG*,et al. Large pore mesoporous nanocrystalline titania thin films synthesized through evaporation-induced self-assembly. Materials Letters 2005,59,3308 -3310.
利用发电动力装置将水能、石化燃料(煤、油、天然气)的热能、核能以及太阳能、风能、地热能、海洋能等转换为电能,以供应国民经济各部门与人民生活之需。发电动力装置按能源的种类分为火电动力装量、水电动力装置、核电动力装置及其他能源发电动力装置。火电动力装置由电厂锅炉、汽轮机和发电机(惯称三大主机)及其辅助装置组成。水电动力装置由水轮发电机组、调速器、油压装置及其他辅助装置组成。核电动力装置由核反应堆、蒸气发生器、汽轮发电机组及其他附属设备组成。电能在生产、传送、使用中比其他能源更易于调控,因此,它是最理想的二次能源。发电在电力工业中处于中心地位,决定着电力工业的规模,也影响到电力系统中输电、变电、配电等各个环节的发展。到20世纪80年代末,主要发电形式是火力发电、水力发电和核能发电,三者的发电量占全部发电量的99%以上。火力发电因受煤、石油、天然气资源以及环境污染的影响,就全世界范围而言,在80年代所占比重由70%左右降至64%左右;水力发电因工业发达国家的水资源开发已近90%,故所占比重维持在20%左右;核能发电的比重则呈上升趋势,到80年末已超过15%。这反映出随着石化燃料的短缺,核电将越来越受重视。 另外还有:潮汐发电 、光伏发电 、风力发电、岩浆发电 、核能发电 、火力发电 、细菌发电 、生物发电、风筝发电、牛粪发电 、水利发电 、稻壳发电 等等。太阳能光伏发电 ; 中国太阳能热水器网 太阳能是一种自然资源,将太阳能进行采集、转换,使其变为可控电能的系统,即为太阳能光伏发电系统。这项技术由美国贝尔实验室于上世纪五十年代初研究成功,最初仅用于航天等高科技领域。上世纪七十年代爆发的全球性能源危机,促使该技术向民用方面迅速推广。经过三十多年的不断改进与发展,目前已经形成一套完整而成熟的技术,随着全球可持续发展战略的实施,该技术得到了许多国家政府的大力支持,目前在美国、欧、日等发达国家已经实现了普及应用,在我国沿海经济发达地区也有了较广泛地应用。 我国是一个太阳能资源较为丰富的国家,前国家计委、国家经贸委、科技部、建设部等部委曾多次发文,要求各地大力推广、使用包括太阳能光伏发电在内的多种可再生能源。然而时至今日,人们对太阳能应用的认识还停留在“热水器”阶段,太阳能光伏发电也只在少数沿海发达省份得以应用,内陆省虽然太阳能资源充足,但目前仍未有效利用。就山西省而言,目前还没有一个正式的太阳能光伏发电项目。之所以形成目前这种尴尬局面,除了经济实力等客观原因之外。更多的还是人们的认识误区,例如: 太阳能光伏发电技术还不成熟,等成熟了以后再用。 当然,今天的太阳能光伏发电技术绝不能说是尽善尽美,但它的基本技术已经成熟,况且任何一项技术已经成熟,都需要在应用过程中反复改进。 太阳能光伏电投资太大,资金、财力有限,无法应用。 事实并非如此,以公共设施草坪灯为例,用普通照明灯,灯价200元,配套工程等约需300元,合计需500元。另需电费:(60W×10小时),每天即0.60kwh,按0.50元kwh计,需0.30元,按30计,需3285元,总计3785元。而采用太阳能草坪灯,一次性投资仅需800元,为普通话灯费用的21%。 我们现在用电方便,不需要太阳能。 是的,用电是方便,但是应该看到,随着国民经济的快速发展,电力供应已日趋紧张。同时在我国的电力供应结构中,火力发电占主导地位,尤其是我们山西省,基本上全部靠火力发电,由此而造成的大气污染是不可避免的。因此我们更应该认识到,即使现在靠光伏发电解决不了多少缺电问题,但用新能源取代传统能源毕竟是进步,哪怕只是用了一盏太阳能灯,就可以少用一盏灯的电,少用电就可少发电,少发电就能少污染,这正是可持续发展战略的基本要求。 可见,太阳能光伏发电具有环保、经济、时尚等多种特点,迫切需要引起全社会的高度重视。让我们从零做起,把太阳能的光辉在夜间引入城市、引入家庭、引入每一个需要的角落,既照亮今天,更辉煌明天。〝电〞在使用时非常方便、安全,且不会造成污染,但是在将初级能源(燃油、燃煤、燃气、核能、水力、各种再生能源)转换成电能的过程中,却会对社会及环境带来许多的冲击。 不管采用何种初级能源来发电,均需经由各种不同的发电装置。发电装置的建造需要耗费地球的资源。能量密度大的初级能源所需的发电装置较小,能量密度小的初级能源需要较大的发电装置,也将耗费较多的资源。任何发电装置的建构与运转均会对环境带来冲击,冲击的层面与特质会因初级能源的不同而有所不同。任何发电装置的建构与运转也都会有可能对从业人员或者一般民众带来生命的威胁及健康的影响。各类型的发电装置所占的土地,也会因使用之初级能源的不同而有所不同。 理论上来说,各类型发电方法对社会及环境带来的冲击可换算为所谓的〝外部成本〞。但是在换算的过程中,会因地域、时间、对严重性的认知、甚至意识型态的差异而产生许多争议,变成各说各话的局面。因此以下将不讨论如何将冲击与影响换算成外部成本,仅比较各类型发电方法所需的资源及对环境所造成的影响。为了能更深入与广泛的讨论各类型的发电方法、资源的需求与所造成的影响,以下的讨论将不局限于终端使用者。燃煤燃油燃气水力发电地热发电生质能风力发电太阳能发电核能发电各类型发电方式的土地需求任何发电装置的运转均需占用地球表面的面积,根据国际原子能总署资料[5],火力及燃煤电厂每百万瓦(0.1万仟瓦)约需土地面积100到260平方米,利用光电池发电,每百万瓦约需土地面积30,000平方米,而建于陆地的风力发电系统则需75,000平方米。有人认为太阳能发电及风力发电并不占用实际土地面积。但以风力发电而言,一座600仟瓦之风车实际所占的面积为36平方米[6],如果核四装置容量将以风力取代,风车实际所占的面积即为162公顷,这不包括风车间应该保持的距离。各种发电方法所需的材料总量及工时建构任何发电装置均需要材料及人力,以下的比较是以发电量为基准,即是每产生1百万瓦-年(也就是87.6亿度电)电量所需之材料及工时[7]。 材料(公吨) 工时(小时)太阳能发电(光电) ~3.5x104 ~2.5x104太阳能发电(热) ~2.0x104 ~1.0x104风力发电 ~5.0x103 ~1.8x104燃气 ~2.8x102 ~2.9x102燃油 ~5.9x102 ~3.2x102燃煤 ~1.5x103 ~4.0x102核能 ~1.8x103 ~6.0x102各类型发电方法的废弃物体积各类型发电方法均会产生废弃物。核能发电的废弃物包括低阶放射性废料、使用过核燃料、以及铀-235浓缩过程中所产生之铀-235含量较低的铀;燃煤发电的废弃物则包括煤渣、除污装置所收集之微尘及残余物;太阳能发电废弃物的来源则是来自于芯片制造过程中所产生的废弃物,包括许多极具毒性的气体,例如silane, arsine, phosphine, diborane等。这些废弃物的处理都需要特别而昂贵的技术。下表所列为各种发电方法中所产生之废弃物体积,计算基准为1000百万瓦电厂运转30年所累积之废弃物总量[5]。如果将核能产生后之使用过核燃料再处理,回收铀及钸,可以大幅减少废弃物的总量,如果在滋生反应器的技术可以顺利的发展,亦可将U-238当作燃料使用。表格中没有风力发电的数据,其废弃物为报废的设备。发电方法 废弃物种类 总量(公吨) 有害物质(公吨)核 能 使用过核燃料 1.05x103 1.05x103 低阶核废料 5.67x104 5.67x104 铀-238 8.16x106 8.16x106燃 煤 收集之微尘 2.03x106 2.03x106 除污设备产生之废弃物 3.57x106 含量不明 煤渣 2.18x107 含量不明太阳能发电(热) 金属制造 4.35x105 1.63x104太阳能发电(光电) 芯片制造 6.86x103 6.86x103发电对环境的冲击 燃煤一些产煤国利用露天开采的方式采煤,也就是直接使用重机械将岩石及泥土挖起,再做进一步的筛选。露天采煤的方式,对环境带来相当大的冲击,矿区会留下数十平方公里,深达一百公尺的〝大洞〞;挖出的岩石经过雨水的冲刷,造成岩石内的有毒重金属的析出,雨水再重金属带到矿场附近的河流或进入地下水,对生态带来浩劫。在印度Singrauli地方[1],超过20万的居民(大部分是农民),即因为12个露天煤矿场所造成的冲击,流离失所,丧失谋生的依靠。燃煤发电方法对环境最大的冲击来自于煤燃烧所释放出的硫化物、氮氧化物、及微尘,其排放量与使用的煤、电厂的除污设备、及电厂容量因子有关。民国88年,台电燃煤发电的装置总容量为810万仟瓦,总共排放了113,140公吨的硫化物[2],46,035公吨的氮氧化物,以及1,845公吨的微尘到外界环境。燃煤电厂会释放大量的二氧化碳气体到外界环境,二氧化碳被认为是地球大气温室效应转强的主要原因,估计台电810万仟瓦的燃煤电厂每年会排放4,400万公吨的二氧化 碳(民国89年时全国二氧化碳的排放量为22,300万公吨)。燃煤中本来就含有长半衰期的放射性物质铀及钍,据估计[3]全世界的燃煤电厂于1982年共使用了280,000万公吨的煤,共排放了3,640的铀,及8,960吨的钍到外界环境,其中包括23,450公斤的铀-235,这些长半衰期核种的衰变会形成各种放射性物质,对人类及生物造成辐射剂量。 燃油燃油的开采也会对环境带来冲击,但相对于露天煤矿的开采,其影响较小。燃油的运输也有可能对环境带来冲击。1967年Torrey Canyon 油轮的船难,大约3千万加仑原油泄到英吉利海峡及附近海滩[4]。1989年美国Exxon石油公司的油轮释放了超过1千万加仑的原油到Prince William Sound,共花费了20亿美元的清理经费,也对环境及生态带来了巨大的影响。石油的燃烧亦会排放氮化物及硫化物。民国88年,台电燃油电厂的总装置容量为530万仟瓦,总共排放了45,937公吨的硫化物,23,880公吨的氮化物,以及1,731公吨的微尘到外界,估计台电燃油电厂的二氧化碳排放量为2,116万公吨。石油在使用前的提炼过程亦会污染环境,释放有毒化学物质,如铅、水银、镉、及砷到外界环境,这些污染物质会进入水源及食物链,对人体的健康造成影响。 燃气使用燃气发电确实较燃煤及燃油为干净,但是氮化物及硫化物的排放仍然不可避免。民国88年,台电燃气电厂的装置容量为431万仟瓦,总共排放了140公吨的硫化物与1,858公吨的氮化物,以及530公吨的微尘到外界环境。 水力水力发电虽然不会排放污染物到环境,但水坝的建造会淹没大片的土地,必须迁移许多居民与野生动物,水库也会影响到附近,以及下游河川的生态。1964年 Aswan水坝修建前,Nile 河下游渔获量为31,000公吨。1968 年水坝完成后,渔获量锐减为500公吨,造成 4,500 名渔民失业[4]。 地热发电利用地热发电有数种不同的方法。如果是直接抽取地下的热水会造成地层的下陷,而自地底抽出的水含有大量的矿物质,如不妥善的处理,会造成水污染。如果是利用水流入地底加温,成为水蒸汽来发电,注入的水有可能引起地震,而自地底流出之水蒸汽有可能携带有毒的化学物质。利用地热发电会造成地底放射性氢气以及硫化氢的外释。加州的地热发电厂所释放的氢气与核电所释放的放射性核种所造成的影响差不多。 生质能利用生质能发电将需要大片的土地。植物的种植也需要大量的肥料与杀虫剂,植物的燃烧虽不会产生二氧化硫,但会产生微尘,植物的燃烧也会产生二氧化碳。 风力发电风力发电不会造成空气污染,但有可能会对发电装置附近的鸟类,特别是猛禽类造成伤害。美国National Audubon Society 及U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service已知发出呼吁,希望重新检讨于猛禽类较多的区域,开发风力发电的可能性。欧洲的国家亦有相似的相法[5]。 太阳能发电太阳能发电在发电过程中,亦不会造成空气污染,但是在光电芯片的制造过程中会产生大量的有毒废弃物。 核能发电核能发电的热能来自核分裂,因此不会有空气污染的问题,可是核分裂的过程中会产生大量的放射性物质。正常运转的核电厂,将不可避免排放非常微量的放射性物质到外界环境,释放到外界环境之放射性物质所造成的剂量可能小于环境背景辐射的千分之一。但是如果核能电厂发生严重的事故时,会有较大量的放射性物质释放到外界环境,对环境及民众造成伤害。各种发电方法对人所造成的伤害任何发电方法的建造与运转过程中,从业人员都有可能受到伤害;燃料的开采与运输也有可能产生意外,废弃物的处理与环境的污染均有可能对人类带来伤害;核电厂发生事故时,亦会对人类带来伤害,以下之比较亦是以发电量为基准,也就是每产生1百万瓦-年(87.6亿度电)所造成的伤害,伤害是以死亡以及受伤(或生病)所损失的工作天为基础,这些估计是由Roger Bezdek 于1993年所提出的[8]。发电方法 损失工作天 死亡天然气 2-8 1核能 8-15 1-2水力 60-70 2-6太阳能发电(光电) 75-125 6-9太阳能发电(热) 50-90 8-9风力 30-90 7-9燃油 250-825 9-20燃煤 800-1000 20-90 根据统计资料1930年时每亿吨煤的开采要牺牲346名矿工的生命,到1977年时降低19名。煤矿的开采亦会使矿工罹患肺部疾病(Black Lung)。 Wrenn (1979)[9]估计1个1000百万瓦的燃煤电厂使用的煤,会造成2-4名矿工的死亡,以及2-8个Black-Lung的病例。煤的燃烧会造成空气污染,美国一个研究机构估计,中国大陆每年会有90万人因与空气污染有关的疾病死亡[5]。 天然气虽然干净,但是在运输与储存的过程中也有可能发生意外。1989年,前苏联鸟拉山的天然气输入管线发生泄漏[10],因地形的关系,缓慢泄漏出的天然气并未扩散,当一辆客运火车通过时,车体与轨道间的火花引起天然气爆炸,1200名乘客中,有300名立即死亡,另外700名需要住院治疗。 民众对核能最大的疑虑来自核电厂的安全,担心一旦核电厂发生事故,大量放射性物质的外释,会造成非常大的伤亡。到目前为止,核电厂最严重的事故为苏联车诺比尔事故,事故发生后有31人因辐射伤害死亡,145个严重辐射伤害的病例。1989年时,苏联一个民间团体宣称:事故发生后被强制进入污染区工作的平民及军人中有256人因辐射伤害而死亡,1990年时认为有300人因辐射伤害而死亡[5]。苏联车诺比尔事故发生后,大量的放射性物质随风飘向欧洲大陆。但欧洲民众所接受的剂量将不太可能高于每年所接受之背景辐射剂量。 台湾核电厂所使用的普通水反应器不可能发生类似车诺比尔的事故,普通水反应器发生类似三哩岛事故之严重事故的机率非常低。到目前为止,使用普通水反应器的核能电厂尚未对一般民众带来可证明之辐射伤害。结 语人类文明的发展与经济成长需要以能源为动力;在使用能源时必须藉助机械装置;能源使用的本身与机械装置的建构均会对环境造成干扰。到目前为止,人类对这些干扰会带来何种影响还不是非常的了解,只能从干扰发生的〝量〞来估计各类型能源使用的优劣,但是谈到何者的影响较大或较小时,难免会因价值观或意识型态、以及知识多寡的不同,产生各说各话的局面,这也使得所谓发电方法外部成本的评估更加困难,要想达到共识可能是缘木求鱼。但希望能透过数据的交换与分享,让社会大众对各种发电方法所需资源与必须付出的代价有进一步的了解。附 注:以上的文字主要是依据参考数据[5]节译而来。所列参考数据亦取自参考数据[5],但为求证其正确性,曾参阅数篇可以取得的数据。参考数据1. Flavin, c. and Lenssen, N., 1994 Power Surge, Guide to the Coming Energy Revolution, pp 376.2. 文中有关台电的数据均由台电公司提供.3. Science News, October, 1994.4. Moeller, Dade W., 1992, Environment Health, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, p 253-281.5. Lehman, Linda L., 1996, “Nuclear Fear The Environment Cost”, Review Copy.6. 网址 http://www.eindpower.dk)/.7. Inhaber, Herbert, 1979, “Risk with Energy from Conventional and Non-conventional Sources,” Science, Vol. 203, pp. 718~723.8. Bezdek, Roger H., 1933, The Environment Health and Safety Implication of Solar Energy in Center Station Power Production, Energy, Vol, Vol. 18, No.6, pp. 681~685.9. Wrenn, McDonald E., 1979, “A Comparison of Occupational Human Health Costs of Energy Production: Coal and Nuclear Electric Generation,” Energy and Health, Edited by Breslow, Norman E. and Whittemore, Alice S. Philadelphia: SIAM10. Feshbach, Murry and Frieb=ndly, Alfred Jr., 1992, Ecocide in the USSR, pubs. Basic Books, a Division of HarperCollins Publisher, pp. 376.
火力,水力,核能,风能,太阳能。核能水力风能太阳能最好,火力最贵要烧东西。
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