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水热法生长二氧化钛纳晶及在染料敏化太阳能电池板的应用1 引言1991 年瑞士学者Gratzel 等在Nature 上发表文章,提出了一种新型的以染料敏化二氧化钛纳晶薄膜为光阳极的太阳能电池，其具有制作简单、成本低廉、效率高和寿命长等优点,光电转换效率目前可以达到11%以上,因此成为新一代太阳能电池的主要研究发展方向[1-4]。染料敏化太阳能电池的光电转换效率的提高要归功于其独特的纳晶多孔薄膜电极，其可以使电子在薄膜中有较快的传输速度，且具有足够大的比表面积，能够吸附大量的染料，并且与染料的能级相匹配。所以因对染料敏化太阳能电池的复杂的作用，许多科学工作者致力于制备功能和性能良好的TiO2 纳晶多孔薄膜电极[5, 6]。在纳晶TiO2 的三种晶型中，锐钛矿相的光电活性最好，最实用于染料敏化太阳能电池中，所以在制备纳晶TiO2 时，金红石相和板钛矿相纳晶应该尽量避免。对TiO2 纳晶的生长，许多研究者开始在水热法中采用有机碱做胶溶剂来制备TiO2 纳晶[7-9]。Yang 用三种有机碱做胶溶剂制备了粒经和形貌不相同的TiO2 纳晶，其结果证明了有机碱的加入对纳晶粒子大小、形貌及表面积等有一定影响[10]。但是，如何制备晶型和形貌都能满足于染料敏化太阳能电池的要求却很少讨论。在本章中，采用水热法基础上，分别使用三种有机碱四甲基氢氧化铵（TMAOH）、四乙基氢氧化铵（TEAOH）、四丁基氢氧化铵（TBAOH）做胶溶剂来制TiO2 备纳晶并应用于染料敏化太阳能电池中并研究了制备条件的不同对纳晶形貌、粒径大小及电池光电性能的影响。2 实验主要药品和仪器钛酸四正丁酯、异丙醇、聚乙二醇20,000、碘、碘化锂、4-叔丁基吡啶（TBP）、OP乳化剂（Triton X-100）（AR，均购于中国医药集团上海化学试剂公司）；敏化染料（cis-[(dcbH2)2Ru(SCN)2]，SOLARONIX SA.）；四甲基氢氧化铵（TMAOH）(25 %)、四乙基氢氧化铵（TEAOH）(20 %)、四丁基氢氧化铵（TBAOH）(10 %) （均购于中国医药集团上海化学试剂公司）；可控温磁力搅拌器（C-MAG HS4，德国IKA）；马弗炉（上海实验电炉厂）；100 W 氙灯（XQ-100 W，上海电光器件有限公司）；导电玻璃基片（FTO，15 Ω/cm2，北京建筑材料研究院）；X 射线粉末衍射仪（XRD） D8-advance(Bruker 公司)；扫描电子显微镜(SEM)S-3500N（日本日立公司)；透射电镜(TEM)JEM-2010(日本)；红外光谱分析仪Nicolet Impact 410 spectrometer；紫外–可见分光光度计UV-Vis 3100 (Shimadzu corporation, Japan)。3 实验部分3.1 纳晶TiO2 的制备根据文献的制备方法[6-11]，把钛酸四正丁酯与等体积的异丙醇混合均匀并逐滴加入到蒸馏水中并不断的搅拌30分钟（[H2O]/[Ti(OBu)4] = 150），过滤并用水和乙醇溶液洗剂2-3次。在强烈搅拌下，把所得到的沉淀加入到pH=13.6的含有有机碱的溶液中，在100 °C搅拌24小时，得到半透明的胶体。将得到胶体装入高压釜（填充度小于80%）。在200 oC水热处理12小时。水热处理后，得乳白色混合物并伴有鱼腥味，这表明有机碱分解为了胺类化合物。将高压釜处理后的TiO2胶体连同沉淀一起倒入烧杯，经50 oC浓缩至原来的1/5，加入相当于TiO2量20%-30%的聚乙二醇20,000及几滴Triton X-100，搅拌至均匀，得稳定的TiO2纳晶浆体。3.2 纳晶薄膜电极的制备将洗净的导电玻璃四边用透明胶带覆盖，通过控制胶带的厚度和胶体的浓度来控制膜的厚度[12]，中间留出约1×1 cm2空隙，将在酸性条件下制备的小粒径的纳晶TiO2胶体用玻片均匀的平铺在空隙中。空气中自然晾干后，在马弗炉中升温至450 ?C热处理30分钟，使TiO2固化并烧去聚乙二醇等有机物，冷却至80 ?C，经过仪器测量，薄膜的平均厚度在6微米左右。将获得的纳晶多孔薄膜浸泡于N3染料溶液中24小时，使染料充分地吸附在TiO2上，取出后用乙醇浸泡3-5分钟，洗去吸附在表面的染料，在暗处自然晾干，即得到染料敏化的纳晶多孔TiO2薄膜电极。首先按上文所述制备纳晶多孔薄膜，制备的薄膜平均厚度在4.5微米左右，将其重新用透明胶带覆盖，把用TMAOH做胶溶剂的条件下制备的大粒径的纳晶TiO2浆体用玻片均匀的平铺在空隙中。空气中自然晾干后，重新在马弗炉中升温至450 ?C热处理30分钟，反射层的纳晶薄膜的平均厚度控制在1.5微米左右，热处理后即得双层纳晶薄膜。浸泡染料后即得双层纳晶薄膜电极。3.3 DSSC 的组装以染料敏化纳晶多孔TiO2薄膜电极为工作电极，以镀铂电极为对阴极[13]，将染料敏化电极与对阴极用夹子固定，在其间隙中滴入以乙腈为溶剂、以0.5 mol/L LiI+0.05 mol/L I2+0.2mol/L TBP为溶质的液态电解质，封装后即得到染料敏化太阳能电池。3.4 光电性能测量采用100 W氙灯作为太阳光模拟器，其入射光强Pin为100 mW/cm2。在室温下进行测量，记录其短路电流ISC和开路电压VOC，并应用公式计算其填充因子ff和光电转换效率η。3.5 表征与分析采用 D8-advance 型X 射线粉末衍射仪测定TiO2 的晶体结构，测试条件为：Cu Kα(λ=1.5405 ?)，电压：40 KV，电流：40 mA。扫描速度:6?/min，扫描范围：10?-80?。采用KBr 压片法测量样品的红外光谱，测试条件：400-4000 cm-1，软件：OMNIC 6.0，扫描次数30 次。采用JEM-2010（日本)型透射电子显微镜(TEM)观察TiO2 纳晶的表面形貌及粒径大小。用紫外-可见分光光度计（UV-3100）测试不同粒径TiO2 纳晶多孔薄膜电极吸附染料的吸光度。TG 的升温速度：10 ℃/min，范围：室温至1000 ℃，测试仪器：SDT 2960 同步DSC-TGA 装置 (USA TA 设备)。4 结果与讨论4.1 有机碱对TiO2 纳晶的形貌和粒径的影响Sugimoto 和他的合作者们研究了影响TiO2 纳晶生长的一些因素，其中pH 的值、有机碱的烷基链的长短、水热的温度以及水热的时间等因素都对TiO2 纳晶颗粒的大小和形貌有很大的影响[14-17]。通过研究发现，四烷基有机碱作为模板来控制TiO2 纳晶的形貌和大小。所以可以使用不同的有机碱来制备适合于染料敏化太阳能电池光电传输的晶型完整并具有较大的比表面积的TiO2 纳晶。是在不同的有机碱做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 纳晶的TEM 图，a 图是采用TMAOH 做胶溶剂，b 图是采用TEAOH 做胶溶剂，c 图是采用TBAOH 做胶溶剂。从图中可以看出，在相同pH 值下，不同的有机碱做胶溶剂时，制备的纳晶明显不同，这说明胶溶剂对TiO2纳晶的粒径大小和形貌有很大的影响，而且随着有机碱胶溶剂烷基链的加长，TiO2 纳晶的粒径减小，并且粒子为多面体。当用TMAOH 做胶溶剂时，制备的TiO2 纳晶的粒子多为四方体，颗粒宽12-20 nm，粒子长20-40 nm，如图1a 所示。当用TEAOH 做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 纳晶的粒子颗粒不均匀，而且形貌也不规则有多面体形的也有四面体形的，粒子宽度8-10 nm，长度10-25 nm，如图1b 所示。而当有机碱的烷基链长从两个碳原子增加到四个碳原子时，即用TBAOH 用作胶溶剂时制备的纳晶颗粒粒子大小较均匀而且形貌也较规则，多为正方体，粒子大小一般在5nm 左右，如图1c 所示。在TiO2 纳晶的水热生长过程中，有机碱首先是吸附在TiO2 的晶核上，而烷基链的长短不同吸附的能力不同，吸附能力越大则就会阻碍纳晶的生长。研究发现[6]，烷基链越长则有机碱吸附在晶核上的吸附力越大，则会阻碍晶体的生长，所以随着有机碱烷基链的长度的增加，纳晶颗粒在不断的减小；并且研究发现，胶溶剂的浓度不能太大，太大时制备的TiO2 纳晶就会出现严重的团聚现象[10]。4.2 有机碱对TiO2 纳晶晶型的影响是用三种有机碱做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 纳晶的XRD 图，a 是制备的TiO2 纳晶经过自然风干后的XRD，b 是制备的三种TiO2 纳晶经过50 °C 热处理30 分钟中后的XRD 图。从图2a 中可以看出，2θ = 25.3°是TiO2 纳晶锐钛矿的特征峰，但是还有一些其它的杂峰，这些杂峰证明是有机胺类化合物的峰。当把制备的纳晶经过450 °C 热处理30 分钟中后，a 图中的杂峰就消失，TiO2 在2q ＝25.3°，37.55°，47.85°，53.75°，55.05°和62.35°的衍射峰的d 值均与标准PDF 卡片锐钛矿型TiO2 衍射峰相符，说明所制备的TiO2 的晶型为锐钛矿，没有金红石相和板钛矿相出现，制备的为纯的锐钛矿相TiO2 纳晶。在传统水热方法中，采用硝酸做胶溶剂，制备的纳晶TiO2 中，含有少量的金红石相和板钛矿相，而这两种的光电性能较差，影响染料敏化太阳能电池的光电转换效率。而用有机碱做胶溶剂制备的TiO2 纳晶可满足染料敏化太阳能电池中对锐钛矿相的要求。随着有机碱烷基链的增加，样品的特征衍射峰宽逐渐变大，并且衍射峰值逐渐减小，这表明制备纳晶颗粒不断减小，这与TEM 的结果一致。4.3 TiO2 纳晶的热稳定性分析是用三种有机碱制备的TiO2 纳晶的红外光谱图，(a) 是制备的纳晶粉末在80 °C 烘干24 小时，(b)是制备的纳晶粉末在450 °C 热处理1 小时，光谱范围是400-4000 cm-1。从红外光谱图可知，三种纳晶红外图谱相近。图3(a)中出现了有机化合物的一些键如C-H, N-H,和O-H 等键，但随着在450 °C 热处理1 小时后，这些化合键就消失了，而TiO2 薄膜的红外谱图中主要有Ti-O-Ti 键伸缩振动峰在500cm-1 附近，没有出现宽的吸收带，如图3(b)所示，这一结果与文献中的结果相一致[7]。这说明在有机碱条件下制备的TiO2 纳晶在经过450 °C后为稳定的锐钛矿相，吸附在其表面的有机物分解完全。从XRD 的结果也可以得出(图 3b)，所有有机化合物在经过450 °C 热处理后都消失完全了，这说明二氧化钛化合物在高于450 °C热处理后，可以晶化为稳定的锐钛矿相TiO2 纳晶。是用有机碱做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 纳晶粉末热稳定性的TG 分析。这些纳晶粉末是在105 °C 下烘干24 小时，而没有进行任何热处理的。从图中可以看出，有两个失重过程。第一个过程是100～250 °C 之间的明显失重，可以认为是失去了吸附在纳晶粉末表面的水分子和一些醇。第二个过程是250～400 °C 之间的失重，是因为粉体中吸附的有机物成份的失去。有机物与制备的氧化物之间有很强的键和作用，这些有机物包裹着氧化物，当温度达到400 °C 时，这些键和作用才会消失，有机物完全分解，这说明有机物与纳晶颗粒之间的力结合不是太大不影响纳晶的晶化。另外发现，在不同有机碱胶溶剂下制备的纳晶粉末的失重情况明显不同，在采用TBAOH 做胶溶剂时的失重明显要高于使用TMAOH 做胶溶剂时的，这说明前者表面吸附了更多的有机物。吸附有机物的量不同，表明制备的纳晶粉末的形貌和粒径大小也明显不同[14]，这与TEM 的结果一致，在采用TBAOH 做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2纳晶颗粒较小表面积较大，这就使吸附在纳晶表面的有机物就增多，所以在进行热分解时失重较多；而采用TMAOH 做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 纳晶颗粒明显大许多，表面积又小所以吸附的有机物就会减小，所以在热分解时失重较少。从失重量的多少也可以简单分析出制备的纳晶颗粒和形貌的异同。用有机碱做胶溶剂来制备TiO2 纳晶，会对其晶型及其晶型的稳定性有一定的影响。图5 为有机碱TEAOH 做胶溶剂的条件下制备的TiO2 纳晶及其分别在300 °C，500 °C，700 °C，800 °C，900 °C 烧结1 小时样品的XRD 谱图。在TiO2 纳晶的晶型中，峰位于2θ=25.3°是锐钛矿相的特征衍射峰，峰位于2θ=27.4°是金红石相的特征衍射峰。从图中可知，TiO2 纳晶在800 °C 烧结前，晶型没有发生变化。在800 °C 烧结之后，才出现了金红石相晶型，这一结果与Young 等人的研究结果一致[18]。据报道在酸性条件下制备的TiO2 纳晶，在烧结温度达600 °C 时，锐钛矿晶型就开始向金红石晶型转变[19]。而用有机碱TEAOH 做胶溶剂制备的TiO2 纳晶从锐钛矿相向金红石相转变的温度有所提高，这说明用有机碱TEAOH 做胶溶剂制备的TiO2 纳晶热稳定性提高了，这一稳定性说明，可以对锐钛矿型TiO2 纳晶在较高的温度下进行烧结，而不改变其晶型，即没有金红石型纳晶出现。4.4 BET 和吸附染料能力的研究用不同的有机碱做胶溶剂所制备的TiO2 纳晶粉的表面积进行分析，实验得出，在使用有机碱TMAOH 做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 纳晶粉的比表面积为66 m2·g-1，但是当使用TEAOH和TBAOH 做胶溶剂时，制备的TiO2 纳晶粉的比表面积为78 m2·g-1 和82 m2·g-1。这一结果与粒径越大比表面积越小相一致，颗粒大小如图1 所示，这说明颗粒越小比表面积越大。研究发现，吸附的染料（RuL2(SCN)2）的多少并不一定随着比表面积的增大而增大。为了研究用于染料敏化太阳能电池测试的TiO2 纳晶多孔薄膜吸附染料的多少，把敏化的电极在5 mL 0.05 mol/L NaOH 溶液中让染料进行脱附，之后对染料的碱性溶液进行吸光度的分析，UV-vis 吸收光谱的结果如图5 所示。图中a、b 和c 三条曲线分别是采用TMAOH、TEAOH和TBAOH 做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 纳晶。根据朗伯-比尔定律可知吸光度随浓度增加而增大，结果显示，采用TMAOH 做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 纳晶吸收的染料最少，这与比表面积越小吸附的染料越少相吻合，但比其它两种纳晶的吸附量要少很多。虽然采用TBAOH 做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 纳晶的比表面积比用TEAOH 做胶溶剂所制备的TiO2 纳晶的比表面积大，但是后者却比前者所吸附的染料多，这里可能的解释就是因其用TBAOH 做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 纳晶的颗粒太小还不足10nm，所以用其制备的纳晶多孔薄膜太致密而使得吸附的染料减小。4.5 染料敏化太阳能电池光电性能研究采用有机碱制备的三种不同形貌和粒径大小的TiO2 纳晶，并用其制备了敏化电极应用于染料敏化太阳能电池光电性能的研究，如图6 所示。表1 给出了三种不同电极的所组装的电池的短路电流、开路电压、填充因子和光电转换效率的值。在100 mW/cm2 光照条件下，三种电池的短路电流分别为10.7、13.1、10.4 mA/cm2，开路电压分别为0.779、0.700、0.698V，填充因子分别为0.52?0.62?0.60，光电转换效率分别达到了4.4%?5.67%?4.4%。从实验结果可知，采用有机碱TEAOH 制备的TiO2 纳晶所组装的电池的光电转换效率比其它两种电池的光电转换效率要高。可知，采用有机碱TEAOH 所制备的TiO2 所制备的电池的开路电压要比采用有机碱TMAOH 所制备的TiO2 所制备的电池的要低，但是其电池的短路电流和填充因子都要比其它两种有机碱所制备TiO2 所组装的电池要高。这可能是因为（1）用有机碱TEAOH 所制备的TiO2 纳晶粒经比较适中，制备的多孔薄膜粒子与粒子之间结合比较紧密，这样就提高了电子在薄膜中的传播速度；（2）较其它两种多孔薄膜吸附的染料要多，研究表明吸附的染料的量与所产生的光电流成正比，吸附的染料越多，则产生的光电流越大，用有机碱TEAOH 做胶溶剂所制备的TiO2 多孔薄膜所吸附的染料最多，所以用其所组装的染料敏化太阳能电池的短路电流最高，电池的光电转换效率也达到最好。5 结论本章采用了钛酸四正丁酯为原料，以三种有机碱做胶溶剂来制备TiO2 纳晶，以三种制备的敏化的纳晶多孔薄膜为电极组装了染料敏化太阳能电池，并对其进行了电池光电性能的测试。研究了这三种有机胶溶剂对TiO2 纳晶晶体生长的影响，采用三种不同烷基链的有机碱做胶溶剂制备的纳晶形貌和大小有很大的不同，研究发现，随着烷基链的加长，纳晶的形貌开始变得规整，粒径也减小，但是有机碱的浓度不能太大，浓度过高时，会使制备的纳晶出现团聚，所以在使用有机碱做胶溶剂时，采用的是在pH=13.6 的条件下制备的。通过热稳定性分析发现，吸附在TiO2 纳晶表面的有机碱在450 °C 热处理后，有机物分解完全，这说明在制备纳晶多孔薄膜时，有机物分解完全，多孔薄膜中为纯的TiO2 纳晶。因为三种TiO2纳晶形貌和大小不同所以制备的多孔薄膜吸附染料的量也不相同。实验发现采用有机碱TEAOH 做胶溶剂时制备的TiO2 的敏化电极吸附的染料最多，电池光电性能测试也显示用此TiO2 纳晶制备的电池开路电流达到13.1 mA cm-2，光电转换效率达到5.67%，比其它两种电池的光电转换效率要高，这说明用有机碱TEAOH 做胶溶剂所制备的TiO2 纳晶的形貌和大小比其它两种有机碱胶溶剂制备的TiO2 更适合应用于染料敏化太阳能电池。更多毕业论文请到

Sino-Japan Trade Relations The bilateral trade between China and Japan amounted to US$236 billion in 2007, reflecting an increase of 20.6 percent compared with the previous year, 33 times over the trade volume at the beginning of the reform and opening up. This vast volume and fast growth took place amid China’s accession into the World Trade Organization at the end of 2001 and increased trade disputes between the two countries, not to mention recurrent foreign exchange rate fluctuations in international currency markets and somehow intensified fears in Japan of China’s enhanced competitiveness. Given this background, it is of interest to speculate on what future prospects will be for the two neighbors’ economic relations, and in particular, what has been special in their bilateral economic relations as well as what challenges lie ahead for them. I. Characteristics of Sino-Japanese Trade Bilateral diplomatic relations between the People’s Republic of China and Japan were normalized in 1972, shortly after the United States President Richard Nixon visited Beijing but well before the normalization of U.S.-China relations in 1979. During the year immediately prior to Sino-Japanese diplomatic normalization, the two countries’ bilateral trade stood at about 900 million dollars, approximately 4 percent of China’s total external trade at the time. Normalization was quickly followed by a sharp rise in China’s imports of Japanese goods, first mainly of textile goods and various machinery tools, and later of household electronics, cars and light trucks, etc. Sino-Japanese relations made considerable progress in the 1980s. Only a few years after China’s reform and opening in 1978, Japanese brands of TV sets and cars flooded into Chinese markets, and ordinary Chinese consumers began to taste the products of western materialism. Surges in Chinese imports of Japanese goods, through various means and channels of trade, led China to accumulate serious trade deficits and to draw on her official foreign exchange reserves. This ultimately resulted in substantial Chinese currency devaluations throughout the 1980s. The growth of China’s external trade dipped in 1989-1990 perhaps mainly due to various non-economic reasons, but the bilateral trade with Japan continued to expand at a steady rate. In 1993 Japan surpassed Hong Kong to become Chinese Mainland’s largest trade partner, by official Chinese statistics, and it has remained so ever since. Overall, between 1990 and 2002, the growth of bilateral trade between China and Japan in dollar terms averaged 16.3 percent per annum, exceeding that of China’s total external trade over the same period (15 percent). From 2000 to 2007, annual foreign trade volume increased by 16 percent. The fact that the growth in bilateral trade between China and Japan since the early 1990s has been rapid and more or less steady (except briefly for 1997-98), appears somehow unusual or even puzzling. First, during many of the years of the period, the Japanese economy and Japan’s overall external trade had slowed down significantly compared to the 1980s. Second, as the Asian financial crisis hit many of the economies and their intraregional trade hard, bilateral trade between China and Japan suffered only a slight setback, if any, during the turbulent two years of 1997-98. Third, when the Japanese yen witnessed significant depreciations vis-à-vis the US dollar whilst Chinese Yuan continued steady peg to the US dollar during 1998 and 2000, China’s Japanese imports/exports seemed not to have been reactive to the changes in the foreign exchange rates. In the case of 1998, China’s exports to Japan did decrease by a moderate amount (a 7 percent fall), which was nonetheless proportionally smaller than the overall falling level in Japan’s imports (an 11.4 percent fall). In the case of 2000, China’s exports to Japan actually increased by a large amount, unscathed by any unfavorable moves in the currency markets. However, as long as the further appreciation of Chinese Yuan to US dollar, the pressure on exporting industry in China becomes more serious than ever before. These “unusuals” seem to suggest that there have been fundamental, structural driving forces behind the growth in the bilateral trade between China and Japan. Had Sino-Japanese economic relations been similar to other ordinary bilateral economic relations, a rather slower growth in the bilateral trade could have been expected instead. Moreover, even if (from a Chinese point of view) China’s economy and trade have achieved a high growth record, it remains to be wondered why China’s trade with Japan grew faster than her trade with the entire outside world since the early 1990s. II. The Sino-Japanese “Special Relationship” Right now, China has surpassed U.S. to be the largest trade partner to Japan, and Japan means the third largest trade partner to China as well. At mean time, Japan is the largest importing origin country and the fourth largest exporting market of China. It should be kept in mind as always that both at the beginning of our reform and opening and presently after three decades of development, China was and still is in a catching-up process in relation to the developed world where Japan has long belonged. Over this period, both China and Japan have undergone a number of fundamental economic structural changes, and these have affected their trade and economic relations. What will be of interest to us here are the common or enduring factors that have been effective within the dynamics of interaction between demand and supply on each side of the two countries’ economic relations. We will look first at China’s demand for Japanese products and then at Japan’s demand for Chinese products. With a growing economy and an increasingly diversified trade partnership network throughout the 1990s, China’s demand for Japanese products had gradually moved into relatively high quality consumer goods and internationally price-competitive industrial goods. It is well-known that a breed of new domestic Chinese producers of electronics has emerged and has expanded their share in China’s domestic markets, resulting in a fall in the market shares that used to be enjoyed by certain Japanese brands. Yet Japanese manufacturers as a whole have been successful in investing in Research and Development, moving on to upscale markets, thus maintaining their competitiveness in the world manufacturing market as well as in China’s domestic market. On the other hand, the role of Japanese direct investment in China and Japan’s financial aid to China in promoting bilateral trade should also be noted. Throughout the 1990s Japan’s direct investment had been virtually invariably more than 10 percent of China’s FDI inflow in annual terms, though there had been some marked falls between 1997 and 2000. Moreover, Japanese direct investment in China has been relatively concentrated in manufacturing, which is believed to have a stronger effect in generating trade linkages between the two countries than otherwise. Japan had been investing in China during the early 1990s, and trade decreased during the late 1990s, but resurged at the millennium. The resurgence might have been because of the prospect of China becoming a part of the World Trade Organization (WTO). “By 2001 China’s international trade was the sixth-largest in the world” and over the next several years it is expected to be just under Japan, the fourth largest. Up to December, 2007, the real invest from Japan to China accumulated to US$61.56 billion. Japan turns to the second largest investing origins to China. Japan’s financial aid to China (first begun with the diplomatic normalization in the 1970s), mainly through government-to-government channels, has totaled some US$20 billion in the form of lending on favorable terms, together with some additional US$2 billion mainly in the form of technical assistance. Japan is the largest provider of financial aid to China. The role of this financial aid has been significantly positive and multifaceted in China’s development process, and it has certainly helped the growth of bilateral trade. Since 1995 Japan has been taking a very proactive role in using WTO law to challenge its dominant trade partners, the United States. But its emphasis on a rule-based approach is not only relegated to the United States. In fact, it promises also to spill over into trade disputes with key partners in Asia where, for historical, reasons Japan has had trouble taking confrontational stances. This is particularly true for the case for China, which is widely perceived as the rising economic power that poses a direct challenge to Japan across a number of critical and sensitive economic issues. This paper focuses specifically on the interplay between WTO law and politics as Japan seeks to deal with China across a number of trade issues and disputes.Sino-Japanese trade relations boast great growth potential and the two sides should make more efforts to push economic cooperation in more fields.China and Japan have made much headway in terms of bilateral trade in the past 30 years, when their bilateral trade volume expanded, with more types of goods traded, and they have played an increasingly important role in each other's trade development.Japan is China's third largest trade partner and the fourth largest export destination while China replaced the US in July to become the No 1 export destination of Japan. The volume of bilateral trade jumped to $236 billion last year from a meager $4.8 billion in 1978, a 48-fold increase. During this time, China had a trade deficit with Japan for most of the years.However, Sino-Japanese trade growth still lags behind that of China's overall trade. In 1978, Sino-Japanese trade accounted for 23.4 percent of China's total trade while last year it had shrunk to less than 11 percent. Unwelcome as it is, it also shows that bilateral trade still has great potential to expand further.Japan has supported China's economic development through yen loans and grants. By the end of last year, Japan had committed to a total of $30 billion to China for financing 255 projects.Another $1.27 billion has been earmarked in grants to help China's social causes, such as education and poverty reduction.As Chinese President Hu Jintao said in a speech during his visit to the Waseda University in May: "The Japanese government has played a positive role in China's modernization drive by making Japanese yen loans in support of China's infrastructure construction, environmental protection, energy development and scientific and technological advancement."Japan also benefits from its yen loans for China. Through the yen loans, it can ensure imports of Chinese resources, provide more opportunities for its enterprises to export to and invest in the Chinese market. Japanese enterprises, for example, have had much more investment in such places as the Yangtze River Delta, the Pearl River Delta and areas surrounding Bohai Sea. They used to invest mainly in Dalian, Liaoning province.As Sino-Japan economic cooperation deepens, the market has replaced government as the major driving force for bilateral trade and investment growth. The yen loans have been earmarked for projects in more fields, such as environment since 1996, and Chinese enterprises have expanded investment in Japan, with some listed in the Japanese stock market.With those achievements, the two countries need to strengthen cooperation in sectors of mutual concern, such as energy saving and environment. Japanese enterprises are not very active in technological transfers owing to IPR concerns. They have transferred mainly low-end technologies to China.As the Chinese government is enhancing IPR protection, it is advisable for Japanese enterprises to enter China to have the "first-mover" advantage in future cooperation. Meanwhile, the prices of technological transfers are often too high for Chinese firms to afford, which is also a hurdle for technology trade between the two countries.The two sides should also enhance cooperation between Japanese small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and Chinese businesses through such moves as establishing a "Japan SME Park". The China Association of International Trade is now setting up a system to help products of Japanese SMEs to enter the Chinese market.it is of interest to speculate on what future prospects will be for the two neighbors’ economic relations, and in particular, what has been special in their bilateral economic relations as well as what challenges lie ahead for them. Had Sino-Japanese economic relations been similar to other ordinary bilateral economic relations, a rather slower growth in the bilateral trade could have been expected instead. Moreover, even if (from a Chinese point of view) China’s economy and trade have achieved a high growth record, it remains to be wondered why China’s trade with Japan grew faster than her trade with the entire outside world since the early 1990s.这是我以前写论文时候找的材料，你按照题目找找吧，希望能有点用

vi设计 网上多的要死啊 你随便找点就行了 我当时毕业设计也是VI 主要是基础设计部分 尤其是标志设计 其他的往上套就可以了