研究论文的三明治结构

“三明治”式结构：导语段+主体段+总结段

议论文结构模式：六段式主备人贾国田王志杰教学目标：学习高考满分作文常见结构，让作文结构井然，层次清楚。教学重点：“六段式”及典范文章分析教学过程：一、明确模式第一段：提出论点，准确鲜明。或引用，或比喻，或排比，或比兴，总之，三两句话直奔主题，切忌故弄玄虚，拖泥带水。第二段：详例剖析，叙议结合。事实胜于雄辩，一个精当的事实论据，往往能够有力地证明论点。只是要写好详例剖析殊为不易，不少学生忘记了议论文的体裁特点，叙事过于详尽，变成了记叙文的写法，这是应该尽力避免的。笔者在指导时，就让学生学会“三明治”式的结构，即首尾是议论评价性文字，中间是高度概括性的叙述（一般不超过120字）。第三段：略例排比，形成气势。如果说详例是点的勾勒，那么略例就是面的铺展。点面结合能够形成立体感，略例以三四个为佳，若能形成古今中外的格局，则更有全面的代表性了。

为了支持自己的论点或是为了修辞上的考虑，在研究论文中引用文献作为实证，是非常好的写作手法，其中 直接引用 更是强化自己论点的极佳方式，透过引用学术圈内其他研究者的观点及想法，不但可以为文章在学术领域中找到定位，更有助于论点的可信度。 然而，如果单纯将一段引文一字不漏的贴到文章里，这样的做法不仅无法达到预期的效果，更不可能向读者证明作者的论点。作者需要清楚地告诉读者，该段引文是如何支持他的论点的。 “三明治引用法” Quotation Sandwich 能够有助于科研人员有效地引用文献内容。 “三明治引用法”包含下列四个步骤：1. 呈现论点：首先陈述作者的观点与看法，也即接下来的引文所要支持的论点。 2. 介绍引文：使用转承词（如：for instance或for example），清楚地点出该段引文能支持文中的主要论点，然后提供引文来源的信息，如：作者、出处（书籍、文章、部落格）。 3. 引文内容：列出完整的引文内容，尽可能包含能支持作者论点的文字。 4. 诠释引文：指出支持作者论点的关键词，并解释为何觉得这段引文很重要。此类诠释大多以下列词组开头，如：This description shows…、This passage emphasizes…、As (insert author’s name) demonstrates…、In other words, X argues…。 报价三明治以下是所有研究论文的两个基本规则： 如果你没有想到，请告诉读者你在哪里。 不要浪费你的报价。 告诉我们你在哪里得到它 这是绝对的： 不要假装别人的话是你自己的 。这是欺诈。（在学术界，我们称之为剽窃，这是一个快速旅行，成为这个优秀机构的 前 学生）。无论您是使用直接引用还是间接引用，文本应该向仔细的读者清楚你停止说话，你的来源开始。 无论您是使用您支付的书籍100美元的书籍还是免费提供的互联网来源，本规则都适用。是的，维基百科和About.com都适用于所有人，但是您没有在那里写下这些话，所以不要说谎，告诉我们他们是你的。 要查看直接报价，请访问 EasyWriter§23a （第121页）或作者 规则 §37（第302页）。要查看间接报价，请访问 EasyWriter§23d （第124页）或作者 规则 §13d（第108页）。 尴尬的问题：常识 你不必引用你所看到的 一切 。如果您需要字典来学习“适应环境”的定义，请不要引用。一般规则（难以实施）是不引用常识。什么是常识？这是大多数目标受众群体应该知道或可以轻松访问的信息。富兰克林·罗斯福是美国第32任总统吗？是的（即使 你 不知道 - 这些信息可以从几十个来源获得）。常见的知识是因为小儿麻痹症而失去了双腿的使用吗？也许，虽然不会是在1940年。他是常识，他是哈佛的“C”学生吗？可能不会。你必须引用那个。 做三明治 当你做了一个 下降的报价 ，你浪费了它。一个丢弃的报价简单地落入文本，没有任何介绍或讨论。你假设读者可以弄清楚为什么它在那里，它为论证做出了什么贡献。（基本上，你给读者分配解释事情的任务，一个你应该做的工作。）这是一个丢弃报价的例子： 这个世界上的任何人都可以归类为有计算机成瘾。没关系，如果你是白人或黑人，贫穷或富有，女性或男性，聪明或愚蠢，你可以有这个问题。许多孩子沉迷于电脑上的所有不同类型的游戏。“有些孩子每周玩电脑游戏多达30小时”（“电脑瘾”）。如今，许多孩子在电脑上玩耍，而不是专注于学校工作。 一个更好的路线是制作一个三明治的报价： 介绍（也许包括一个评论，为什么你的来源值得听） 引用的材料本身（无论是直接引用还是间接引用） 引用 讨论这篇文章对你论文的论点的贡献 以下是一个例子： 1999年，城市交通研究中心的研究人员对手机问题进行了调查，得出结论认为“没有国家认可的手机使用和交通事故之间的联系”（Alasdair和Burris）。由于研究成果如此不确定，所以在通过可能不必要的法律之前，请先等待。 如果您在研究论文中做出报价三明治，您将获得三个好处： 如果你曾经试图遵循“迟来引用”的愚蠢和懒惰的策略（当纸张没有引用设备时，总是一个剽窃的一个很好的借口），三明治就会拯救你。上面的计算机成瘾样本只是用报价代替学生自己的写作;如果她推迟了引用，她可能完全错过了。实际上 做 一些报价使它脱颖而出。 如果您在撰写简短的文章时遇到麻烦，那就是说不出来，报价三明治就会给你合法的内容，以便你的文章。 由于大多数研究论文的目的不仅在于您所发现的内容，而且将其转化为解释结果，讨论部分将您的论文推向目的地。 引文机械 虽然大学使用了几种引用格式，但两种是非常常见的：MLA和APA（上述引用是MLA风格）。他们有几个特点： 文中的引文是括号中的简短评论。 后页提供了完整的书目材料。 脚注是偶然的评论，不是参考书目。 语法手册，在线资源，英语教师和图书馆人员都可以获得很多帮助。你不必发明东西。有人已经弄清楚如何引用你的来源。 混合配对 当你正在进行研究时，你的源材料将会遇到几种不同的引文样式。但是，当您正在撰写论文时，您必须使所有内容保持一致。如果这是一本MLA论文，整个事情应该是一个MLA论文，而不是不同风格和引文的拼贴。以下是几个非常常见的学生错误： 不要在MLA Works Cited页面中使用APA文本引用。如果你真的想做一个APA论文请求许可，那么也要做更困难的APA参考页面。 如果您正在撰写一本MLA论文， 所有 的本文引用都是MLA风格！不要扔几个APA引用的品种！（同样的规则适用于APA论文。） 如果您正在编写一本MLA论文，作品被引用页面上的 所有 条目都是MLA风格！APA参考页的相同规则！ 不要发明书目页没有创造力的地方。如果您在参考手册或网站中找不到您需要的内容，请咨询某人（例如图书馆员或英语老师）。 如果你引用以APA风格写的来源，并且正在撰写一本MLA论文，请以MLA风格引用。 互联网咆哮 我的大多数学生认为一个裸露的网址是参考书目页面所需要的。错误！如果我引用富兰克林·罗斯福的维基百科页面，那么MLA作品引用条目或APA参考文献比有更多的内容。这是引用真的应该是这样的： 工作重点： “富兰克林·罗斯福”。 维基百科，自由的百科全书。 维基百科，自由的百科全书，2011年8月2日。2011年8月2日。。 APA： 富兰克林·罗斯福（2011年8月2日）。在 维基百科，自由的百科全书。 检索于2011年8月2日14:55，从 Quotation SandwichHere are two basic rules for all research papers: 1.If you didn't think it up, tell the reader where you got it. 2.Don't waste your quotations. On telling us where you got it This one is absolute: don't pretend that the words of other people are your own . That's fraud. (In the academic world, we call it plagiarism, and it's a quick trip to becoming a former student of this fine institution.) Whether you are using a direct quotation or an indirect quotation, the text should make it clear to the careful reader when you stop talking and your source begins. The rule applies whether you are using material from a book you paid $100 for or an Internet source that came to you free. Yes, Wikipedia and About.com are available to everyone, but you didn't write the words there, so don't lie and tell us that they are yours. For a review of direct quotations, go to EasyWriter §23a (page 121) or Rules for Writers §37 (page 302). For a review of indirect quotations, to go to EasyWriter §23d (page 124) or Rules for Writers §13d (page 108). Awkward question: common knowledge You don't have to cite everything you look up. If you needed the dictionary to learn the definition of "acclimate," don't cite it. The general rule (which is difficult to implement) is that you don't cite common knowledge. And what is common knowledge? It's information that most members of your target audience should know or have easy access to. Is it common knowledge that Franklin Roosevelt was the 32nd President of the USA? Yes (even if you didn't know it—that information is available from dozens and dozens of sources). Is it common knowledge that he had lost the use of his legs because of polio? Perhaps, though it wouldn't have been in 1940. Is it common knowledge that he was a "C" student at Harvard? Probably not. You'd have to cite that one. Making the sandwich When you do a  dropped quotation , you waste it. A dropped quotation simply drops into the text without any introduction or discussion. You assume that the reader can figure out why it's there and what it contributes to the argument. (Essentially, you're assigning the reader the task of explaining things, a job you should have done.) Here's an example of a dropped quote: Anybody in this world can be classified as having a computer addiction. It does not matter if you are white or black, poor or rich, female or male, smart or dumb you could have this problem. Many children become addicted to all the different kind of games on their computers. "Some children play computer games up to 30 hours a week" ("Computer Addiction"). Nowadays many children play on their computers instead of concentrating on their school work. A much better route is to make a sandwich of the quote: The introduction(perhaps including a comment about why your source is worth listening to) The quoted material itself(whether it's a direct quote or an indirect) The citation A discussionof the contribution this material made to your paper's argument Here's an example: Researchers from the Center for Urban Transportation Research surveyed research on the cell phone issue as of 1999 and concluded that there is"no nationally-accredited document to prove the connection between mobile phone use and traffic accidents"(Alasdair and Burris).Because research results have been so inconclusive, it makes sense to wait before passing laws that might well be unnecessary. If you make quotation sandwiches in your research papers, you will get three benefits: If you were ever tempted to follow the stupid and lazy strategy of "putting in the citations later" (that's always a thin excuse for plagiarism when a paper comes without the citation apparatus), the sandwich will rescue you. The computer addiction sample above is simply using the quote as a substitute for the student's own writing; if she had postponed doing citations, she could have missed that one altogether. Actually doing something with the quote makes it stand out. If you have trouble writing short papers that just don't say enough, the quotation sandwich will give you legitimate content to flesh out your essay. Because the purpose of most research papers goes beyond mere reporting of what you found and moves into interpreting the findings, thediscussion sectiondrives your paper toward its destination. The Citation Machinery Though there are several citation formats used in the University, two are extremely common: MLA and APA (the citations above are in MLA style). They share several characteristics: Citations within the text are very brief comments in parentheses. A back page gives complete bibliographic material. Footnotes are for incidental comments, not for bibliography. Lots of help is available from grammar handbooks, online sources, English teachers, and library personnel. You don't have to invent things. Someone has already figured out how to cite your source. On mixing and matching When you are doing research, you will run into several different citation styles in your source material. When you are writing your paper, however, you must make everything consistent. If it's an MLA paper, the whole thing should be an MLA paper—not a collage of different kinds of styles and citations. Here are several very common student errors to avoid: Do not use APA in-text citations with an MLA Works Cited page. If you really want to do an APA paper ask permission, then do the much more difficult APA references page too. If you're writing an MLA paper, ALL of the in-text citations are MLA style! Do not throw in a couple of APA citations for variety! (The same rule applies to APA papers.) If you are writing an MLA paper, ALL of the entries on the Works Cited page are MLA style! Same rule for APA Reference page! Do not invent. The bibliographic page is no place for creativity. If you can't find what you need in a reference handbook or website, ask someone (librarian or English teacher, for example). If you are quoting a source that was written in APA style and you are writing an MLA paper, cite it in MLA style. Internet rant Most of my students think that a bare web address is all that the bibliography page needs. Wrong! If I were to cite the Wikipedia page for Franklin Roosevelt, there's a whole lot more to the MLA Works Cited entry or the APA References entry than www.wikipedia.org. Here's what the citations really should look like: MLA: "Franklin D. Roosevelt." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 2 Aug. 2011. Web. 2 Aug. 2011. . APA: Franklin D. Roosevelt. (2011, August 2). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:55, August 2, 2011, from