体育馆钢结构检测测量论文

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钢结构的焊接技术的好坏，在一定程度上会影响到建筑本身的质量。下面我整理了钢结构焊接技术论文，欢迎大家阅读!钢结构焊接技术论文篇一：《钢结构安装焊接施工技术》 摘要：某工程塔楼为全钢结构，焊接工作量大，且大部分为全熔透焊缝，质量要求高，构件板厚最大达到85mm，焊接难度大。工程开始前进行了工艺评定。 关键词：钢结构;焊接;全熔透焊;工艺评定 1工程概况 某工程位于湖南长沙，为全钢结构，地上35层,钢柱锚入地下一层，高150m.南北立面为双曲面，外围钢柱以每4层为一折线点。核心筒共31根钢柱，外围钢框架柱共23根。钢柱主要为箱形柱，钢梁为轧制、焊接H形梁。钢结构总重量约14000t。 钢材 本工程钢柱使用的钢材为高层建筑结构用钢板Q345GJC，大于40mm厚钢板为Q345GJC-Z15，产地为舞阳钢铁厂，主梁使用钢材为Q345C，钢支撑采用Q235C，产地为武汉钢铁厂。 构件 钢柱长12m，构件单件最重，钢柱板厚28、34、40、55、70、85mm，典型截面600×600×70，钢梁翼缘板厚16、24、28、40mm，典型截面700×240×14×28。由于钢板厚度大，因此焊接难度大，焊接质量要求高。 节点形式与焊缝检测 按照设计，现场安装柱与柱之间的对接为全熔透焊，钢梁与钢柱牛腿上、下翼缘为全熔透焊，钢梁腹板大部分为高强螺栓连接，双剪连接板与钢柱为角焊缝。 由于钢板厚度大，焊缝又多数是全熔透焊缝，所以对本工程的全熔透焊缝实施B级超声波检测，100%超声波探伤。现场探伤工作中，由现场焊接员填写检测委托单，检测单位按照填写的检测部位进行探伤。如发现焊接缺陷，检测单位填写质量返修单，通知焊接负责人，进行返修重焊后，再进行超声波探伤。本工程委托单位为冶金院检测所，采用的仪器为CTS-2000，选用斜探头进行超声波探伤。探伤 报告 必须明确探伤部位、缺陷的位置和大小、评定级别，并判定合格或不合格;返修部位严格按照焊接工艺评定的参数进行焊接，返修不得超过二次。 2典型焊接节点概况 钢柱对接焊缝。 3焊接准备 焊接吊篮与平台 焊接设备和焊接材料 4焊接施工劳动力安排 高层钢结构焊接工程专业性很强，劳动强度大，专业管理人员和焊工都要求有较好的技术素质。本工程现场焊工均持有钢结构焊接CO2气体保护焊合格证，在正式施工前，在业主、监理等各单位的监督下进行了现场附加考试。 5焊接施工顺序和工艺 焊接顺序 根据本工程平面和立面形状，结构形式等，塔楼分东西两区组织施工。当钢结构安装完成三个及以上单元的校正和高强螺栓的终拧后，从平面中心选择四面都有焊接梁的柱子作为基准柱，并以此作为垂偏测量基准，并首先安排其四侧都有抗弯焊接的梁、然后向四周扩展施焊。随安装滞后跟进。采取结构对称、节点对称和全方位对称焊接的原则。 栓-焊混合节点中，设计要求梁的腹板上的高强度螺栓先初拧70%后→焊接梁的下、上翼缘板→终拧梁腹板上的高强度螺栓至100%施工扭矩值。 竖向上的焊接顺序： (1)地下一柱一层梁的焊接顺序： 上层框架梁→柱脚板部位的焊接→支撑→焊接检验。 (2)地上及以上一柱二层梁的焊接顺序： 上层框架梁→压型金属板支托→下层框架梁→压型金属板支托→上柱与下柱焊接→焊接检验(也可先焊柱—柱节点→上层框架梁→下层框架梁→焊接检验)。 (3)地上及以上一柱三层的焊接顺序： 上层框架梁→压型金属板支托→下层框架梁→压型金属板支托→中层框架梁→压型金属板支托→上柱与下柱焊接→焊接检验，(但也可先焊柱—柱节点→上层框架梁→下层框架梁→中层框架梁→焊接检验)。 柱—梁节点上对称的两根梁应同时施焊，而一根梁的两端不得同时施焊作业。 柱—柱节点焊接时，箱形柱的对称两面应由两名焊工相对依次逆时针焊接。 梁的焊接应先焊下翼缘，后焊上翼缘，以减少角变形。 安装焊接工艺 安装焊接前的准备工作 本工程使用的高层建筑结构用钢板在国内应用并不多，针对其中数量较多且具有代表性的接头形式进行了相应焊接 方法 的工艺评定试验。试验钢材包括Q345GJC-Z15(壁厚70mm)、Q345GJC-Z15(壁厚40mm)、Q345C(翼缘厚28mm)，焊接位置为柱—柱横焊、柱—梁平焊(包括桁架梁上下翼缘平焊)、T型角立焊。坡口形式及尺寸按设计要求。焊后外观及超声波检查合格后取样进行了力学和物理试验。试验结果接头的抗拉强度达到母材抗拉强度标准值，接头弯曲180°无裂纹。采用的焊接材料和焊接设备技术条件应符合国家标准，性能优良。清渣、气刨、焊条烘干保温等装置应齐全有效。 手工电弧焊及CO2气保焊焊材和设备 (1)焊条应在高温烘干箱中150℃烘干2小时，且焊条烘干次数不得超过两次。 (2)焊丝包装应完好，如有破损而导致焊丝污染或弯折、紊乱时应部分弃之。 (3)CO2气体纯度应不低于(体积比)，含水量应低于(重量比)，瓶内高压低于1MPa时应停止使用。 (4)焊机电压应正常，地线压紧牢固，接触可靠，电缆及焊钳无破损，送丝机应能均匀送丝，气管应无漏气或堵塞。 安装焊接程序及一般规定 焊接的一般顺序为：焊前(装配)检查→装焊垫板和引弧板→除锈预热→焊接→检验(返修，不得超过二次)， 焊前检查坡口角度、钝边、间隙及错边量(小于规范要求)，坡口内和两侧的锈斑、油污、氧化铁皮等应清除干净。 装焊垫板及引弧板，其表面清洁程度要求与坡口表 面相 同，垫板与母材应贴紧，引弧板与母材焊接应牢固。 预热。焊前用气焊或特制烤枪对坡口及其两侧各100mm范围内的母材均匀加热，并用表面测温计测量温度，防止温度不符合要求或表面局部氧化，预热温度。 钢结构焊接技术论文篇二：《钢结构的安装焊接施工技术》 摘要：本文简要分析了厂房钢结构焊接施工的主要工艺及保障焊接质量的主要方法，并提出了控制焊接质量的主要对策，以供与大家交流学习。 关键词：厂房;钢结构;焊接技术 1、工程概述 某装焊厂房位于某工程有限公司内，建筑面积为22000平方米，为单层工业厂房，主体钢结构为门式钢架结构，轴线位置编号见图纸，为三跨结构，单跨跨度为32米，柱距为8米，共有116根主钢柱，203根主钢梁，336根吊车梁。门式钢架梁、柱及吊车梁钢材均采用Q345B，钢梁钢柱连接用高强螺栓均采用大六角级，摩擦面做喷砂处理。钢结构主构件采用抛丸除锈。该工程设计使用年限50年，结构安全等级为二级，抗震设防烈度为7度。焊接部位包括有：(1)上节柱与下节柱的对接接头;(2)钢梁与钢柱的对接接头。(3)钢梁上的栓钉焊接。 2、钢结构安装焊接前的准备 本工程使用的钢板在国内应用并不多，针对其中数量较多且具有代表性的接头形式进行了相应焊接方法的工艺评定试验。试验钢材包括Q345GJC-Z15(壁厚70mm)、Q345GJC-Z15(壁厚40mm)、Q345C(翼缘厚28mm)，焊接位置为柱—柱横焊、柱—梁平焊(包括桁架梁上下翼缘平焊)、T型角立焊。坡口形式及尺寸按设计要求。焊后外观及超声波检查合格后取样进行了力学和物理试验。试验结果接头的抗拉强度达到母材抗拉强度标准值，接头弯曲180°无裂纹。采用的焊接材料和焊接设备技术条件应符合国家标准，性能优良。清渣、气刨、焊条烘干保温等装置应齐全有效。 手工电弧焊及CO2气保焊焊材和设备：(1)焊条应在高温烘干箱中烘干，焊条烘干次数不得超过两次。 (2)焊丝包装应完好，如有破损而导致焊丝污染或弯折、紊乱时应部分弃之。(3)CO2气体纯度应不低于(体积比)，含水量应低于(重量比)，瓶内高压低于1MPa时应停止使用。(4)焊机电压应正常，地线压紧牢固，接触可靠，电缆及焊钳无破损，送丝机应能均匀送丝，气管应无漏气或堵塞。 3、安装焊接程序及注意的规定要点 焊接的一般顺序为：焊前检查 →预热除锈 → 装焊垫板和引弧板→ 焊接 → 检验 具体来说：(1)同一节柱上的梁，先焊上层梁，后焊下层梁。(2)柱两侧对称的梁应同时焊接，同一根梁的两端不能同时焊接。(3)同一根梁的上下翼板应先焊下翼板，后焊上翼板。(4)从中部柱开始焊接，对称向外围焊接。(5)上下节柱的对接接头采用对称焊接，施焊时，应两人同时对称焊接一个接头，防止焊接变形引起柱弯曲。对称的两面先焊至1—3层，然后将另外对称的两个面焊满，再将未焊满的焊缝焊满。 规定与注意：(1)焊前检查坡口角度、钝边、间隙及错口量，坡口内和两侧的锈斑、油污、氧化铁皮等应清除干净。(2)预热。焊前用气焊或特制烤枪对坡口及其两侧各100mm范围内的母材均匀加热，并用表面测温计测量温度，防止温度不符合要求或表面局部氧化，预热温度。(3)重新检查预热温度，如温度不够应重新加热，使之符合要求。(4)装焊垫板及引弧板，其表面清洁程度要求与坡口表面相同，垫板与母材应贴紧，引弧板与母材焊接应牢固。(5)焊接：第一层的焊道应封住坡口内母材与垫板的连接处，然后逐道逐层累焊至填满坡口，每道焊缝焊完后，都必须清除焊渣及飞溅物，出现焊接缺陷应及时磨去并修补。(6)一个接口必须连续焊完，如不得已而中途停焊时，应进行保温缓冷处理，再焊前，应重新按规定加热。(7)遇雨、雪天时应停焊，构件焊口周围及上方应有挡风、雨棚，风速大于5m/s时应停焊。环境温度低于零度时，应按规定采取预热和后热 措施 施工。(8)碳素结构钢应在焊缝冷却到环境温度、低合金结构钢应在完成24h以后，进行焊缝探伤检验。(9)焊工和检验人员要认真填写作业记录表。 4、焊接施工中的重要工艺参数 4、1典形节点的焊接顺序和工艺参数 主要是：(1)上下柱无耳板侧由两名焊工在两侧对称焊至板厚的1/3处时，切去耳板。(2)然后在切去耳板侧由两名焊工在两侧对称焊至板厚的1/3处。(3)再由两名焊工分别承担相邻两面的焊接。(4)每两层之间焊道的接头应相互错开，两名焊工焊接的焊道接头也要注意每层错开，焊接过程中要注意检测层间温度。(5)焊接工艺参数，如下： 1)CO2气保焊：焊丝直径Φ，电流280～320A，焊速350～450mm/min 2)焊丝伸出长度：约20mm，气体流量25～80L/min， 3)电压：29～34V，层间温度120～150℃ 4、2柱—梁、梁—梁节点的处理 主要是：(1)先焊梁的下翼缘，梁腹板两侧的翼缘焊道要保持对称焊接。(2)待下翼缘焊完，然后焊接上翼缘。(3)如翼缘板厚大于30mm时，宜上下翼缘轮换施焊。(4)焊接工艺参数，如下： 1)CO2气保焊：焊丝直径φ，电流280～360A，焊速300～500mm/min 2)焊丝伸出长度：约20 mm，气体流量20～80L/mm 3)电压：30～38V，层间温度120～150℃ 5、结束语 钢结构安装焊接质量控制是一项综合技术，焊接质量受材料性能、工艺方法、设备、工艺参数、气候和焊工技术及情绪的影响。施工前根据工艺评定编制操作指导书，便于每个焊接人员明确操作要领、材料的使用和质量要求。施工过程中焊工做好焊前和焊接的记录，焊接工程师检查时逐条焊缝检查验收、做好记录，确保实体工程的安全使用。在该厂房主体工程竣工后，根据国家、行业相关要求对该工程进行了钢结构主体工程的鉴定，鉴定依据：(1)《钢结构工程施工质量验收规范》GB50205-2001;(2)《建筑结构检测技术标准》GB/T50344-200;(3)《建筑工程施工质量验收统一标准》GB50300-2001;(4)《建筑钢结构焊接规程》JGJ81-2002;(5)《钢焊缝手工超声波探伤方法和探伤结果分级》GB11345-1989;(6)某装焊车间厂房设计图纸。实际证明，该钢结构主体工程的施工安装质量符合GB50205-2001技术标准及设计要求，可以交付使用。 参考文献 1、陈海波。某装焊厂房钢结构工程鉴定[J]，建筑科技与管理，2009年第11期 2、杨凌川，杨文柱。高层建筑钢结构安装焊接施工质量控制，重庆建筑大学学报[J]，增刊2000，22:208-211 钢结构焊接技术论文篇三：《试谈建筑钢结构低温焊接施工技术》 摘 要：通过对低温环境条件下管道焊接施工措施的研究，并经工程实验，得出在低温环境条件下，影响焊接质量的因素更多的在于施工机具、焊接设备的适应性、焊工劳动防护措施的保暖性和轻便性等因素。 关键词：低温焊接;预热温度;焊后保温 随着焊接环境温度的降低，焊缝金属的硬度值增大。采取有效的预热、层间温度和焊后缓冷措施以降低焊缝金属的冷却速度，从而改善焊缝金属的硬度值。热温度不足的情况下，根焊缝产生裂纹的倾向性增加，但增加预热温度和改进预热方式，可明显提高焊缝质量。创造适合的施工环境和焊接条件，保证焊工劳动防护措施的保暖性和轻便性，焊接过程中使用自制的可移动式保温防风棚和管端封堵器等。 1.低温焊接时的施工工艺 由于是在低温环境中进行焊接作业，所以为了更好的完成焊接任务，应该尽量选取氢含量较低的焊接材料，并且对焊接材料进行必要的 烘焙 以及保温措施。为了达到尽量减少热量的损失，可以在进行焊接作业的地方构建相应的保护房，从而形成相对密闭的空间。如果条件不允许构建防护房，也可以采取其他一些措施来起到防护热量损失的作用。在进行一些气体保护焊接操作时，气瓶也要进行必要的保温措施。预热和层间温度。相比较于常温条件下的焊接预热，低温焊接时的预热温度要稍高，并且需要预热的区域范围较大，通常情况下是焊接点周围大于等于两倍钢厚度的范围，并且这一范围不小于100mm。焊接层的温度通常要高于预热温度，或者是不低于相应规定中的最低温度20℃，二者之间取较高温度者;采用合理的焊接方法。尽量使用窄摆幅，多层多道焊，严格控制层间温度;焊接后热及保温。焊接后及时对焊接接头进行后热保温处理。利于扩散氢气的逸出，防止因冷速过快而引起的冷裂纹，同时适当的后热温度还可以适当降低预热温度。 2.钢结构的焊接施工技术 焊接施工流程 施焊人员必须要熟悉图纸，做好焊接工艺技术交底，确保施焊人员执证上岗，明确焊工的焊接任务，然后进行现场验电，预热，后热温度试验确定等作业准备。然后选择合适的焊接工艺以及合适的焊接参数，并通过焊接实验验证。焊接工作开始，对焊口进行清理，检查坡口等是否符合要求，检查定位焊是否牢固，焊缝周围是否有油污和锈污。对焊材进行预热和保温，然后按照既定的焊接参数进行焊接，焊接完成后，对焊缝周围进行清渣处理，做好焊后保温工作，焊接完成。 焊材的选择和与钢材的匹配 与钢材的规定最低标准相比，焊材的金属强度，坚韧性，可塑性都要明显高于钢材本身，而且，在焊接接头的地方，各种基本性能指标都要与钢材规定的最低标准等同或比之更高;要保证焊缝的可塑性，钢材较厚时，要根据厚度选择合的焊材;选择合适韧性的焊材，韧性好的焊材可以提高焊缝和热影响区的韧性，使之能够满足钢结构的受力要求。 焊接质量控制 对输入的热和焊接冷却速度进行控制：通过控制焊接电压，焊接电流，接速度以及熔融金属的冷却速度等来对焊接质量进行控制。控制焊缝内元素组成进行控制：选择高质量的焊材，操作人员高超的操作手法和技巧，保证焊缝外观质量。选择能量密度高的，输入热量低的焊接方法，对焊接应力与变形进行控制。从钢材料的出发，考量各项技能的标准要求，选择合适的焊材以及评估焊接质量的试验方法，得出适合生产的焊接工艺，在焊接时，注意层间温度的控制，防止出现焊接接头弱化的现象。总之，尽量在最低成本的原则下，完成高质量的焊接任务。焊工须持双证上岗，即安全上岗证、焊工合格证。且具有相应的施焊资历。 3.高强钢焊接的施工工艺 焊接材料的选择及匹配 强节点弱杆件，即与母材规定的最低标准相比，焊接材料熔敷金属在强度、韧性、塑性等方面要明显高于标准;并且焊接接头位置的各种基本的性能指标至少要与母材料规定的最低标准相匹配;在进行厚板焊接时，应该根据厚度效应后的强度来选择适当的焊材，通常当节点的拘束度比较大的时候，可以在1/4 板厚以后选择强度稍低的焊材;对焊材韧性的选择是一项非常重要的工作，好韧性的焊材能够使焊缝以及热影响区的韧性满足钢结构的规定标准。比如在焊接无裂纹钢种的时候，可以选取低H 或者超低H 的焊接材料，同时，在钢板厚度低于50mm 或者温度在0℃以上的时候，可以不对钢结构进行预热。这一方法的明显优势就是它的力学指标突出，尤其是在区强比的冲击性能方面更显优越。 确定最低预热温度的常用方法 通过裂纹实验来进行控制，即通过进行斜Y 坡口试样抗裂方面的试验对最低的预热温度进行确认;通过硬度控制预热温度，通常采用的方法是根据一定碳含量的钢材，其不同板厚T 形接头角焊缝热影响区硬度达到350HV 对应的冷却速度(540℃时)，查表确定焊接线能量;根据裂纹敏感指数、板厚范围、拘束度等级、熔敷金属扩散氢含量确定最低预热温度;根据接头热输入、冷却时间和钢材的特定曲线□确定最低预热温度。 对焊接质量的控制方法 对热输入以及冷却速度进行控制。此方法主要是通过对焊接时的电压、电流以及焊接时的焊接速度和熔敷金属在800℃～500℃区间内的冷却时间的控制，进而完成焊接质量的控制;对焊缝中各种元素的质量百分比进行必要的控制，主要是指碳、硫、磷、氢、氧等。为了达到这一目的，除了要选择质量优越的低氢焊接材料外，还要求操作人员拥有较好的操作手法，从而对熔池金属进行很好的保护;应力与变形控制。选用高能量密度、低热输入的焊接方法。 4.结束语 最后得到适合于生产的焊接工艺，起到相应的指导生产的要求。在进行这一钢材的焊接时，为了避免其产生冷裂现象，应该注意采取相应的措施。同时为了出现接头弱化的现象，焊接时应该对层间温度以及焊接线能量进行较为严格的筛选和控制。总的原则还是应该在较低的成本下，尽可能完成高质量的焊接任务。 参考文献： [1]姚晋勇.论钢结构焊接现场施工工艺[J].科技情报，2012 [2]徐鹏毅.钢结构焊接现场施工工艺探讨[J].中国地产，2013 猜你喜欢： 1. 电焊工个人简历模板 2. 钢结构安全管理论文 3. 钢结构施工管理论文范文 4. 钢结构职称论文 5. 锅炉焊接技术论文

这个人是直接在网上复制的！不是他写的！

太长了，超过了10000字发不了。我这里先给你个英文的你加我QQ我给你中文的两部分不会弄，你加我QQ我发给你吧，加分啊395886292 <英文版> Talling building and Steel construction Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings. The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems. Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway. In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium. Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings. Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee. Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building. Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building. Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area. Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns andspandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh. Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings. Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at () centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs. Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories. Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system. Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the , , , Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression , those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension , those bearing the pull of suspended loading. The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, feet () long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station. Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot. In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails. The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the . A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft () in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907, failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used. The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months. The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the oldheavy masonry. Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( ) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot. Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft () Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building. The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade. World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The Empire State’s 102 stories (1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, ., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days. The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance. Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections. Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the ., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.