一:1、题目。应能概括整个论文最重要的内容,言简意赅,引人注目,一般不宜超过20个字。论文摘要和关键词。2、论文摘要应阐述学位论文的主要观点。说明本论文的目的、研究方法、成果和结论。尽可能保留原论文的基本信息,突出论文的创造性成果和新见解。而不应是各章节标题的简单罗列。摘要以500字左右为宜。关键词是能反映论文主旨最关键的词句,一般3-5个。3、目录。既是论文的提纲,也是论文组成部分的小标题,应标注相应页码。4、引言(或序言)。内容应包括本研究领域的国内外现状,本论文所要解决的问题及这项研究工作在经济建设、科技进步和社会发展等方面的理论意义与实用价值。5、正文。是毕业论文的主体。6、结论。论文结论要求明确、精炼、完整,应阐明自己的创造性成果或新见解,以及在本领域的意义。7、参考文献和注释。按论文中所引用文献或注释编号的顺序列在论文正文之后,参考文献之前。图表或数据必须注明来源和出处。(参考文献是期刊时,书写格式为:[编号]、作者、文章题目、期刊名(外文可缩写)、年份、卷号、期数、页码。参考文献是图书时,书写格式为:[编号]、作者、书名、出版单位、年份、版次、页码。)8、附录。包括放在正文内过份冗长的公式推导,以备他人阅读方便所需的辅助性数学工具、重复性数据图表、论文使用的符号意义、单位缩写、程序全文及有关说明等。4规范指导编辑(一)题名(Title,Topic)题名又称题目或标题。题名是以最恰当、最简明的词语反映论文中最重要的特定内容的逻辑组合。论文格式相关书籍论文题目是一篇论文给出的涉及论文范围与水平的第一个重要信息,也是必须考虑到有助于选定关键词不达意和编制题录、索引等二次文献可以提供检索的特定实用信息。论文题目十分重要,必须用心斟酌选定。有人描述其重要性,用了下面的一句话:“论文题目是文章的一半”。对论文题目的要求是:准确得体:简短精炼:外延和内涵恰如其分:醒目。(二)作者姓名和单位(Author and department)这一项属于论文署名问题。署名一是为了表明文责自负,二是记录作用的劳动成果,三是便于读者与作者的联系及文献检索(作者索引)。大致分为二种情形,即:单个作者论文和多作者论文。后者按署名顺序列为第一作者、第二作者……。重要的是坚持实事求是的态度,对研究工作与论文撰写实际贡献最大的列为第一作者,贡献次之的,列为第二作者,余类推。注明作者所在单位同样是为了便于读者与作者的联系。(三)摘要(Abstract)论文一般应有摘要,有些为了国际交流,还有外文(多用英文)摘要。它是论文内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述。其他用是不阅读论文全文即能获得必要的信息。摘要应包含以下内容:①从事这一研究的目的和重要性;②研究的主要内容,指明完成了哪些工作;③获得的基本结论和研究成果,突出论文的新见解;④结论或结果的意义。(四)关键词(Key words)关键词属于主题词中的一类。主题词除关键词外,还包含有单元词、标题词的叙词。主题词是用来描述文献资料主题和给出检索文献资料的一种新型的情报检索语言词汇,正是由于它的出现和发展,才使得情报检索计算机化(计算机检索)成为可能。主题词是指以概念的特性关系来区分事物,用自然语言来表达,并且具有组配功能,用以准确显示词与词之间的语义概念关系的动态性的词或词组。技巧—:依据学术方向进行选题。论文写作的价值,关键在于能够解决特定行业的特定问题,特别是在学术方面的论文更是如此。因此,论文选择和提炼标题的技巧之一,就是依据学术价值进行选择提炼。技巧二:依据兴趣爱好进行选题。论文选择和提炼标题的技巧之二,就是从作者的爱好和兴趣出发,只有选题符合作者兴趣和爱好,作者平日所积累的资料才能得以发挥效用,语言应用等方面也才能熟能生巧。技巧三:依据掌握的文献资料进行选题。文献资料是支撑、充实论文的基础,同时更能体现论文所研究的方向和观点,因而,作者从现有文献资料出发,进行选题和提炼标题,即成为第三大技巧。技巧四:从小从专进行选题。所谓从小从专,即是指软文撰稿者在进行选则和提炼标题时,要从专业出发,从小处入手进行突破,切记全而不专,大而空洞。
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called An illustration of furnace bellows operated by waterwheels, from the Nong Shu, by Wang Zhen, 1313 AD, during the Chinese Yuan earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold. Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c. 40,000 BC.[1] Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East, ancient Egypt and Anatolia (Turkey), Carthage, the Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, ancient and medieval India, ancient and medieval Japan, etc. Of interest to note is that many applications, practices, and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were first established in ancient China long before Europeans mastered these crafts (such as the innovation of the blast furnace, cast iron, steel, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, etc.)Extractive metallurgyExtractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer form. In order to convert a metal oxide or sulfide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced either physically, chemically, or metallurgists are interested in three primary streams: feed, concentrate (valuable metal oxide/sulfide), and tailings (waste). After mining, large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing and/or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough where each particle is either mostly valuable or mostly waste. Concentrating the particles of a value in a form supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste may not be necessary if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to leaching. Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution. The solution is collected and processed to extract valuable bodies often contain more than one valuable metal. Tailings of a previous process may be used as a feed in another process to extract a secondary product from the original ore. Additionally, a concentrate may contain more than one valuable metal. That concentrate would then be processed to separate the valuable metals into individual in production engineeringIn production engineering, metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic components for use in consumer or engineering products. This involves the production of alloys, the shaping, the heat treatment and the surface treatment of the product. The task of the metallurgist is to achieve design criteria specified by the mechanical engineer, such as cost, weight, strength, toughness, hardness, corrosion and fatigue resistance, and performance in temperature engineering metals are aluminium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium and zinc. These are most often used as alloys. Much effort has been placed on understanding one very important alloy system, that of purified iron, which has carbon dissolved in it, better known as steel. Normal steel is used in low cost, high strength applications where weight and corrosion are not a problem. Cast irons, including ductile iron are also part of this steel or galvanized steel are used where resistance to corrosion is important. Aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys are used for applications where strength and lightness are nickel-based alloy such as Monel is used in highly corrosive environments and for non-magnetic applications. The nickel-based superalloy Inconel is used in high temperature applications such as turbochargers, pressure vessels, and heat operating environment of the product is very important; a well-designed material will resist expected failure modes such as corrosion, stress concentration, metal fatigue, creep and environmental stress fracture. Ferrous metals and some aluminium alloys in water and especially in an electrolytic solution such as seawater, corrode quickly. Metals in cold or cryogenic conditions tend to lose their toughness becoming more brittle and prone to cracking. Metals under continual cyclic loading can suffer from metal fatigue. Metals under constant stress in hot conditions can engineering of metalsMetals are shaped by processes such as casting, forging, Flow Forming, Rolling (metalworking), extrusion, sintering, metalworking, machining and fabrication. With casting, molten metal is poured into a shaped mould. With forging, a red-hot billet is hammered into shape. With rolling, a billet is passed through successively narrower rollers to create a sheet. With extrusion, a hot and malleable metal is forced under pressure through a die, which shapes it before it cools. With sintering, a powdered metal is compressed into a die at high temperature. With machining, lathes, milling machines, and drills cut the cold metal to shape. With fabrication, sheets of metal are cut with guillotines or gas cutters and bent into shape."Cold working" processes, where the product’s shape is altered by rolling, fabrication or other processes while the product is cold, can increase the strength of the product by a process called work hardening. Work hardening creates microscopic defects in the metal, which resist further changes of forms of casting exist in industry and academia. These include sand casting, investment casting (also called the “lost wax process”), die casting and continuous is a technique for joining certain ferrous metals and certain aluminium alloys. The metals in the weld and on both sides of the join are generally similar alloys. Brazing is a technique for joining ferrous or non-ferrous metals with a copper-based (generally brass or bronze) can be heat-treated by annealing, quenching, tempering and case hardening to alter properties of toughness, hardness or resistance to corrosion. Annealing softens the metal and makes a shaped product tougher by reducing the effects of work hardening. Quenching and case hardening make a shaped product harder. Quenching by itself makes the metal very hard and very brittle. Tempering after quenching is used to reduce the brittleness and improve overall is the main surface-treatment technique. It involves bonding a thin layer of another metal such as gold, silver, chromium or zinc to the surface of the product. It is used to reduce corrosion as well as to improve the product's aesthetic and electronic engineeringMetallurgy is also applied to electrical and electronic materials where metals such as aluminium, copper, tin and gold are used in power lines, wires, printed circuit boards and integrated is a method of joining metallic electrical conductors where high strength is not techniquesMetallurgists study the microscopic and macroscopic or sometimes known as small and large mechanisms that cause a metal or alloy, one metal bonded with an element to form a hybrid,to behave in the way that it does, . the changes that occur on the atomic level that affect the metal's (or alloy's) macroscopic properties. Examples of tools used for microscopic examination of metals are optical and electron microscopes and mass study crystallography, the effects of temperature and heat treatment on the component phases of alloys, such as the eutectic and the properties of those alloy macroscopic properties of metals are tested using machines and devices that measure tensile strength, compressive strength and hardness.
在早期的文明国度和地区中,中国使用铜、铁等金属的年代相对说来是较晚的。但是,由于中国在冶铸技术方面的发明和创新,使中国的冶金业很快就后来居上,跃升于世界的前列,并为中国古代文明的高度发达奠定了坚实的物质基础。从这里我们可以看到一个技术进步带动生产发展,并进而促进社会文明进步的典型范例。 埃及大约在公元前5000年时开始进入青铜时代,公元前1000年左右开始进入铁器时代;美索不达米亚地区大约在公元前7000年时开始利用自然铜,公元前4000年时开始进入青铜时代,公元前1200年左右开始进入铁器时代;爱琴海地区大约在公元前3300年时开始进入青铜时代,公元前1000年左右开始进入铁器时代;印度大约在公元前2500年时开始进入青铜时代,公元前800年左右开始进入铁器时代;而中国是在公元前1500年左右开始进入青铜时代,公元前500年左右开始进入铁器时代的。 中国冶金史上的一个最突出的特点,是铸造技术占有重要的地位,以至于铸造既作为成形工艺而存在,又成为冶炼工序中的一个组成部分,达到了“冶”与“铸”密不可分的地步。因此在古代文献中往往是冶铸并称,并对中国文化产生了深刻的影响。如常用词汇“模范”、“范围”、“陶冶”、“就范”等,都是由冶铸技术衍生而来的。这种冶与铸密不可分的冶金传统,是古代世界上其它国家和地区所无法比拟的。 1.青铜冶炼 被认为是中国古文明象征的商周到战国的青铜器,在某种意义上可以说是铸造技术所造就的。中国开始冶炼青铜的时期虽然晚于西方约千余年,然而后来居上,冶炼水平很快超过了西方。 从重875公斤的司母戊方鼎、精美的曾侯乙尊盘和大型的随县编钟群,以至大量的礼器、日用器、车马器、兵器、生产工具等,可以看到当时中国已经非常熟练地掌握了综合利用浑铸、分铸、失蜡法、锡焊、铜焊的铸造技术,在冶铸工艺技术上已处于世界领先的地位。而《考工记》中所记载的:“金有六齐。六分其金而锡居一,谓之钟鼎之齐。五分其金而锡居一,谓之斧斤之齐。四分其金而锡居一,谓之戈戟之齐。三分其金而锡居一,谓之大刃之齐。五分其金而锡居二,谓之削杀矢之齐。金、锡半,谓之鉴燧之齐”,是世界上最早的合金配比的经验性科学总结,表明当时中国已认识到合金成分与青铜的性能和用途之间的关系,并已定量地控制铜锡的配比,以得到性能各异,适于不同用途的青铜合金。 《考工记》中还记载有:“凡铸金之状,金与锡,黑浊之气竭,黄白次之;黄白之气竭,青白次之;青白之气竭,青气次之,然后可铸也”,说明当时已掌握了根据火焰的颜色,来判定青铜是否冶炼至精纯程度的知识,这是后世化学中火焰鉴别法的滥觞。用以比喻工夫达到纯熟完美境界的成语“炉火纯青”,就是由此引伸出来的。 在炼铜中的另一项重要成就是湿法炼铜,也叫胆铜法。这是利用炼丹家所发现的铁对铜离子的置换反应,进行冶铜的方法。其工艺过程是把硫酸铜或碳酸铜(古称曾青、胆矾、石胆等)溶于水,使成胆水,然后投铁块于溶液中,因铁的化学性能比铜活泼,铁离子会置换出铜来。这是世界上最早的湿法冶金,宋代已用此法进行大规模的炼铜生产。 2.铸铁冶炼 中国冶炼块铁的起始年代虽然迟至公元前6世纪,约比西方晚900年,然而冶炼铸铁的技术却比欧洲早2000年。中国铸铁的发明出现在公元前5世纪,而欧洲则迟至公元后的15世纪。由于铸铁的性能远高于块铁,所以真正的铁器时代是从铸铁诞生后开始的。社会发展的历史表明,铸铁的出现是社会生产力提高和社会进步的主要标志。中国从块铁到铸铁发明的过渡只用了约一个世纪的时间,而西方则花费了近三千年的漫长路程。中国古代炼铁技术发展得如此迅速是世界上绝无仅有的。英国著名科学史家贝尔纳说,这是世界炼铁史上的一个唯一的例外。 由于生铁含碳量高,虽硬但脆,不耐碰击,易毁坏,为改进生铁的性能,中国古代发明了一系列的生铁加工技术: 其中,首先是战国时期问世的铸铁柔化术。该项技术又分为两类,一类是在氧化气氛下对生铁进行脱碳热处理,使成白心韧性铸铁;一类是在中性或弱氧化气氛下,对生铁进行石墨化热处理,使成黑心韧性铸铁。而在西方,白心韧性铸铁的生产技术1722年方由法国人首次记述,黑心韧性铸铁是1831年才在美国问世的。到汉代,铸铁柔化术又有新的突破,形成了铸铁脱碳钢的生产工艺,可以由生铁经热处理直接生产低、中、高碳的各种钢材,中国从此成为世界上的先进钢铁生产国。其产品亦随着中外交通贸易的发展,输运到周围各国以及中亚、西亚和阿拉伯一带。 另一杰出的生铁加工技术是炒钢,它是中国古代由生铁变成钢或熟铁的主要方法,大约发明于西汉后期。其法是把生铁加热成液态或半液态,并不断搅拌,使生铁中的碳份和杂质不断氧化,从而得到钢或熟铁。河南巩县铁生沟和南阳瓦房庄汉代冶铁遗址,都提供了汉代应用炒钢工艺的实物证据。东汉时成书的《太平经》中也说:“有急乃后使工师击治石,求其中铁,烧冶之使成水,乃后使良工万锻之,乃成莫耶。”“莫耶”乃古代宝剑之称。这段文字虽失之疏简,但不难看出,它叙述的是由矿石冶炼得到生铁,再由生铁水经过炒炼,锻打成器的工艺过程。炒钢工艺操作简便,原料易得,可以连续大规模生产,效率高,所得钢材或熟铁的质量高,对中国古代钢铁生产和社会发展都有重要的意义。类似的技术,在欧洲直至十八世纪中叶方由英国人发明。 中国古代的炼钢技术主要是百炼钢。自从西晋刘琨写下“何意百炼钢,化为绕指柔”这一脍炙人口的诗句后,“千锤百炼”、“百炼成钢”便成为人们常用的成语。百炼钢肇始于西汉早期的块炼渗碳钢,其后不断增加锻打次数而成定型的加工工艺。到东汉、三国时,百炼钢工艺已相当成熟。上引《太平经》中的“万锻之,乃成莫邪”,即是其生动的写照。曹操曾令工师制作“百辟利器”,曹丕的《典论·剑铭》中说:“选兹良金(指铁),命彼国工,精而炼之,至于百辟”。刘备曾令“蒲元造刀五千口,皆连环,及刃口刻七十二湅”。《古今注·舆服》亦说:“吴大帝有宝剑三,……一曰百炼,二曰青犊,三曰漏景”。后世这一工艺一直被继承,并不断得到发展。 此外,在1981年经中国学者关洪野等人对513件出土的汉魏时期铁器研究后表明,中国早在两千多年前的汉代就已经发明了球墨铸铁,远远早于发达的欧洲国家。目前,中国学者所做的结论已经得到了国际学术界的承认。 创始于魏晋南北朝时期的灌钢技术,是中国冶金史上的一项独创性发明。陶弘景说:“钢铁是杂炼生柔作刀镰者”,北齐的綦母怀文“造宿铁刀,其法烧生铁精以重柔铤,数宿则成刚”,说的就是灌钢技术。灌钢的工艺过程大致为,将熔化的生铁与熟铁合炼,生铁中的碳份会向熟铁中扩散,并趋于均匀分布,且可去除部分杂质,而成优质钢材。灌钢技术在宋以后不断被改进,减少了灌炼次数,以至一次炼成。沈括在《梦溪笔谈》卷三说:“世间锻铁所谓钢铁者,用柔铁屈盘之,乃以生铁陷其间,泥封炼之,锻令相入,谓之‘团钢’,亦谓之‘灌钢’”,并说“二三炼则生铁自熟,仍是柔铁”,正反映了灌炼次数的减少。其中把柔铁屈盘起来是为了增加生熟铁的接触面,提高灌钢的效率,并促使碳份分布更均匀;封泥则可以促进造渣,去除杂质,并起保护作用。明代灌钢技术又进一步发展,据《天工开物》卷十四记载,已把柔铁屈盘改为薄熟铁片,进一步增加了生熟铁的接触面,加速“生熟相和,炼成则钢”的进程,泥封亦改为草泥混封。灌钢又称“抹钢”、“苏钢”,其工艺自清至近代仍很盛行。在坩埚炼钢法发明之前,灌钢法是一种最先进的炼钢技术。 铜、铁外,中国古代冶炼和使用的金属还有金、银、汞、铅、锡、锌等,其中锌的炼制是中国首先发明的。中国在先秦的青铜中已把锌作为伴生矿加入铜合金中,从汉代至元代更是有意识地把锌的氧化物“炉甘石”加入化铜炉中,以生产锌为主要合金元素的铜合金黄铜。明代时,则开始了大规模地用炉甘石作原料提炼金属锌。从十六世纪起,中国的锌便不断传进欧洲。欧洲到十七世纪才开始炼锌,其工艺也是源自于中国。另:百度文库上一篇名为《冶金史》的文章:
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