网络保险的发展论文参考文献

随着互联网的迅速发展和贸易全球化进程的不断加快，营销发生了巨大的变化，网络营销已成为一种新的重要的营销方式，网络营销是 21世纪企业竞争的焦点。但是，对网络营销的绩效 却往往缺乏系统的评价与控制，即使进行评价也往往是侧重某些方面，难以反映网络营销绩效的全貌。目前网络营销已开始被我国企业采用，各种网络调研、网络广告、网络分销、网络服务等网络营销活动，正异常活跃地介入到企业的生产经营之中去。1 研究网络营销的意义和目的网络营销是企业营销实践与现代通信技术、计算机网络技术相结合的产物，是指企业以电子信息技术为基础，以计算机网络为媒介和手段而进行的各种营销活动的总称。互联网革命中网络营销的意义随着互联网的发展产生了电子商务网络营销等新型的商务概念。网络是一种新媒介或新分销渠道，可以代替或至少补充现存传统的分销方法。网络的演变是快速巨大的，网络营销活动将使我们把市场营销理解为“完整的价值提供过程，并超越公司内部传统的分工界限”，网络同时还简化和缩小了所有类型的组织，而且让我们更进一步扩展市场营销的概念，使其成为企业可以不断改进和协作完成的一整套工作能力而非孤立的职能单位。网络营销已成为二十一世纪企业营销的重要方式。在美国，有超过 40％的企业在利用互联网开展营销业务，美国《财富》杂志统计的全球 500强几乎全部在网上开展营销业务。全球互联网上交易额1996 年为 30 亿美元， 1997 年 134 亿元美元，年为 313 亿美元，预计 1999 年将达到 710亿美元，2000 年将突破 2230 亿美元，到 2010年网络贸易额占全球贸易总额的比重将达到 42％。网络营销极具发展前景，必将成为 21世纪的企业营销主流。互联网意味着低成本，意味着机会，全球一体化，服务个性化，开放互动和平等，它引发人类社会最深刻而广泛的变革。互联网革命将使中国获得与世界经济发展齐头并进的机会，而这场革命的迟到者将会彻底地丧失时机。这一点与工业革命可在不同国家先后演进截然不同。研究网络营销的目的在网络飞速发展的今天，电子商务作为信息处理技术的一个飞跃，其影响不会仅仅停留在交易手段和交易方式上。由于某些因素的改变，尤其是供应链的缩短、市场核心的转移、各方面管理成本的大幅度降低，这对企业来说是一个改革自身、重新适应新环境、迅速投入新环境的最佳契机，体现在电子商务中最直接的应用就是网络营销，而网络营销最直接地改变着传统经济形态，最深刻地改变着企业运作方式。电子商务的应用将使企业从网络中获取巨大的资源和潜力，企业将拥有全球的市场，同时将面对世界范围内的竞争和商业经营模式转型带来的冲击、机遇和挑战。中国真正意义上的网上购物始于 1999年。这一年先是 8848网上超市震撼登场，接着是拍卖网站接踵而来，加上轰动一时的“网上 72小时测试”使人们真正感受到网上购物已走入网民生活，而起催化剂的是招商银行一网通的推陈出新和有 70多家商户加盟的招商网上商城的正式启动；在 1998年，中国银行便推出了网上购物服务，招商行的市场触角和行动似乎更为敏锐和快捷，加上成功地市场宣传和网上购物幸运抽奖活动，为 1999年的网上购物增添了绚丽的色彩；在 2000年中国政府和企业上网工程的全面启动，无疑证明了政府及企业对网络的巨大资源和潜力有了一定的重视和开发。从这些实例中我们可以得出一个结论：目前网络营销已开始被我国企业采用，网络营销势必将成为 21世纪中国经济的发展主流。研究网络营销的目的就是要求企业把传统经营模式与电子商务网络模式紧密地结合起来，扬长避短。以网络带动我国经济飞速发展，使人们的生活在 21世纪更方便、更快捷、更具有信息化的特征，使网络成为我国与世界经济交流的重要枢纽。网络营销相对于传统营销的明显优势网络媒体具有传播范围广、速度快、无时间地域限制、无时间版面约束、内容详尽 ，多媒体传送，形象生动、双向交流、反馈迅速等特点，有利于提高企业营销信息传播的效率，增强企业营销信息传播的效果，降低企业营销信息传播的成本。网络营销无店面租金成本，且有实现产品直销，能帮助企业减轻库存压力，降低经营成本。国际互联网覆盖全球市场，通过它企业可以方便快捷地进入任何一个市场。尤其是世贸组织第二次部长会议决定在下次部长会议之前不对网络贸易征收关税，网络营销更为企业架起了一道通向国际市场的绿色渠道。在网上，任何企业都不受自身规模的绝对限制，都能平等地获得世界各国各地的信息及平等地展示自己，这为中小企业创造了一个极好的发展空间。利用互联网，中小企业只需花极小的成本，就可以迅速地建立起自己的全球信息网和贸易网，将产品信息迅速传递到以前只有财务雄厚的大公司才能接触到市场中去，平等地与大企业进行竞争。从这个角度看，网络营销为刚刚起步且面临强大竞争对手的中小企业提供了一个强有力的竞争武器。网络营销中公平、公正、公开的经营特色，体现在销售和服务的价格、质量等方面。网络营销能使消费者拥有比传统营销更大的选择自由。消费者可以根据自己的特点和需求在全球范围内不受地域、时间限制，快速寻找所需的商品，并进行充分比较，有利于节省消费者的交易时间与交易成本。此外，互联网还可以帮助企业实现与消费者一对一的沟通。准确高效的服务营销。网络营销并非只是通过网上直接销售一种形式，利用网络开展服务和技术支持同样是一种营销形式，而且是极具魅力的一种营销形式。比如在互联网上企业提供与消费者直接对话的产品咨询服务、顾客咨询服务、技术使用指南、顾客意见收集和反馈、产品质量指标、质量监督等等服务。2 我国网络营销的发展现状及存在的问题我国网络营销的发展现状我国网络营销的现状 为，网络营销起步较晚，直到 1996 年，才开始被我国企业尝试。 1997年，江苏无锡小天鹅利用互联网向国际上八家大型洗衣机生产企业发布合作生产洗衣机的信息，并通过网上洽商，敲定阿里斯顿作为合作伙伴，签定合同万元；海尔集团 1997 年通过互联网将 3000台冷藏冷冻冰箱远销爱尔兰，至 1999 年 5 月 12日，该公司累计通过互联网发布信息共 11298次，接受并处理用户电子函件 3600多封，访问人数由去年同期平均每天 2300 人次扩大到现在平均每天 27000人次，并有 20%的出口业务通过互联网实现。北京、上海、广州等地不少商业企业也纷纷在网上开设虚拟商店，全国网上商店已达 100家左右。目前网络营销已开始被我国企业采用，各种网络调研、网络广告、网络分销、网络服务等网络管销活动，正异常活跃地介入到企业的生产经营中。经国家信息中心有关统计数字表明，目前我国有 8万余家企业已加人互联网涉及网络营销，其中以计算机行业、通讯行业、金融行业较为普遍，计算机行业占 34％，通讯行业为 23% ，金融行业为 11% ， 其他为 32%.尽管如此，与发达国家相比，我国网络营销发展的总体水平较低，仍停留在起步阶段，具体表现在：第一，网络竞争意识不强，对网络营销认识不清。绝大部分企业还只把竞争焦点定位于实体市场，没有充分意识到知识经济时代抢占网络信息这一虚拟市场对赢得企业未来竞争优势的必要性与紧迫性，把网络看得过于神秘，总以为只有工程师、电脑技术人员才能使用这一高科技产物。第二，上网企业数量少，分布不均衡。目前，国内企业上网总体雷声大，雨点小，全国 560万家企业（含乡镇企业）中，上网企业所占的比例不足五 ％，且集中分布在北京、广州、上海等几个大城市。上网企业数量少，测览的客户就下降，网络给企业创造的效益就减缓，从而形成恶性循环。第三，网络利用率不高，营销方式单一。大部分上网企业的网络营销只仅仅停留在网络广告与网络宣传促销上，而且最终促销也只是将企业的厂名、品名、地址、电话挂在网上而已。很少有企业拥有自己独立的域名网址，并利用其对企业形象及产品作具体、系统介绍，网络利用率低。甚至有不少企业上网是为了赶时髦、追潮流，把网络仅当作一种方便快捷价廉的通讯联络方式。网络调研、网络分销、网络新产品开发、网络服务等营销活动，涉足者寥寥无几，网络对企业营销的巨大优势与潜力远远没有被挖掘出来。第四，网络营销产品少、范围不广。目前，我国企业网上营销的产品主要集中于电脑及其配件、软件、图书、汽车等有限的几类特殊产品，面向大众的服装、食品、日用品、家电等上网的商品甚少。第五，网络营销策略水平不高，效益不佳。对网络营销这一特殊营销方式的营销策略缺乏系统研究，还处于实践摸索阶段，没有形成一套适合我国国情的网络营销策略。不少企业还只能沿用过去传统实体市场营销策略，网络营销效益不高。据悉，目前全国开通网上购物的商业企业，迄今尚无一家盈利，不少网上商店开张不久即宣布倒闭，少数几家也是依靠现时的实体商场的信誉而勉强维持。我国网络营销中出现的问题从整体看，网络营销并未取得应有的效益从整体看，我国目前的网络营销并未取得应有的效益。据有关人士分析，在中国开展网络营销理应节省 76 . 59％的交易费用，但实际上只节省了11. 61％的交易费用。这说明中国网络营销的效益潜力只发挥了 .在近几年的电子商务热中，我国兴办了不少电子商务网站。但相当一部分电子商务网站走的是“大肆炒作——吸引公众——争取广告——上市圈钱”这样一条路子，并没有在扎扎实实地搞好商务上下功夫。由于网上交易量太少，其收入不足以维持日常的运转，大多数网站不得不依靠外来的资金投入（俗称“烧钱”）就是说，我国的电子商务中存在不少泡沫的成分。 2000年下半年以来，在美国纳斯达克指数迅速下降的影响下，我国不少互联网企业出现了生存危机，裁员、倒闭接踵而至。在我国，政府部门是信息的最大拥有者和最大使用者。而据调查，政府部门掌握的可公开信息中，有近 80%处于封闭状态。虽然许多政府部门花费大量资金，开启了政府网站，但相当数量的网站信息更新不及时，信息陈旧，特色欠缺，没有充分发挥政府信息窗口的基础作用。信息化基础比较薄弱近年来，我国计算机网络虽然发展很快，但在许多方面（包括普及程度、技术管理、通讯速度、资费水平、安全保密等等）仍远不适应电子商务的要求。据国家统计局调查， 1999年我国每百户城镇居民拥有的计算机只有 台。由于家庭计算机普及率低，上网率更低，在家上网者主要是一部分知识分子和青少年学生，再加上我国的网络基础设施差、线路少、费用高、速度慢，安全性不高。因此，难以形成对电子商务较大规模的最终有效需求。我国企业的信息化程度较低。据对重点企业的调查，我国重点企业普遍存在着信息管理水平低、信息机构不健全、信息化建设投入不足与建设成本过高、经营管理中运用计算机网络不充分等问题。虽然有 74%的重点企业建立网站或在互联网上建立了主页，但网站质量较好的仅有 28%，且行业和地区发展十分不平衡。在企业信息化建设过程中，企业用于信息、技术和设备投资累计仅占总资产的 ，与发达国家大企业 8 ％ -10%的水平相距甚远。我国信息产业整体技术落后，尤其是缺乏具有自主知识产权的信息产品和技术。据对国家重点企业的调查，在企业主要信息化装备的配备中，境外品牌的产品和技术占有绝对的市场垄断地位。所有这些严重制约着信息产业与网络营销在我国的发展。 社会公众对网络营销的安全与可靠性存在疑虑网络营销本身的运行模式与传统的企业管理模式和人们固有的消费与购物方式有较大的差异。由于国际互联网本身的开放性和虚拟性，使网上交易面临种种风险。目前，我国仍处在经济转型期，市场还很不成熟，社会信用体系很不健全。市场上假冒伪劣产品屡禁不止，坑蒙拐时有发生，互相拖欠相当普遍，交易行为缺少必要的自律和严厉的社会监督。在这种情况下，开展网络营销有相当的风险。在网上交易中，如何保护企业的商务秘密，如何确定交易双方的真实身份和可靠性，如何保证交易达成后的不可否认性和不可修改性，如何保证网上支付的安全？网上交易发生纠纷怎么办，如何取得满意的售后服务等等。这些令人担忧的问题在很大程度上影响了我国企业和消费者对网络营销的信心和热情。再加上传统购物观念对消费者的束缚，都会制约网络营销的发展。物流配送体系不完善和金融体系支撑不足应当指出，即使在电子商务高度发达的条件下，单纯依靠网络也无法完成商务活动的全过程。这是因为，相当一部分实物商品必须借助于其他运输工具送到企业或消费者手中，才能满足企业和消费者的需求。发达国家的货物配送体系社会化程度高，从事电子商务的企业可以将配送任务交给专门从事快递业务的企业去完成，既安全快捷，费用也比较低廉。在我国，目前货物配送体系尚不完善，快递业务尚未充分开展。不少从事电子商务的企业不得不自办快递业务，不仅无法覆盖较为广阔的区域，而且费用较高，配送所花费的时间较长，影响企业效益和消费者网上购物的意欲。网络营销虽然缩小了企业之间的信息虚拟市场的竞争差距，但对企业的物流水平与能力提出了更高的要求。而目前，拥用全国物流能力的企业寥寥无几，特别是广大中小企业，物流能力不强，效率不高，不能及时与网络用户实体交流，已成为阻碍其网络营销发展的主要因素。高层次的电子商务还需要有相应的安全高效的电子化金融服务相配套。目前我国金融水平和电子化程度不高，现阶段绝大部分的电子商务只能做到“在线浏览，离线交易”，无法进行“网上支付”。网络分销也成了一种“网上订货、网下付款”的一种交易方式 ，极大地影响了网络分销的效率。这对于提高电子商务和网络营销的效益和水平是不利的。3 发展我国网络营销的主要对策大力发展我国电子商务事业大力推动企业信息化进程，搞好计算机信息网络建设必须更新企业经营观念，改革企业经营管理，建立起市场经济环境下的现代企业制度。同时政府要为企业信息化做好组织工作，制定好发展规划。开展电子商务的示范工程，积累经验。首先，在一些管理特点比较适合电子商务发挥长处的领域中推行电子商务。试点工作应选择条件成熟的行业，国家优先发展的行业，例如银行、民航、证券、外贸、连锁店、软件、出版物和影视产品等。 让这样的行业先行动起来，获得成功，在取得经验的基础上再去带动其他的企业。其次，对那些经济比较发达、信息化程度相对较高、领导重视、对电子商务有需求和有效益的地区，特别是一些有条件的沿海省市。以及内地的少数省会城市和中心城市，应鼓励他们不失时机地发展各种方式的电子商务，发挥其示范效应。以便向其他地区推广普及。第三。采取在电子商务和传统商务的结合中逐步扩大电子商务比重的做法，电子商务解决不了的问题先由传统商务解决，这样电子商务的起步和发展将会容易一些。加强物流配送系统的建立发展网络营销，必须物流先行。国外电子商务物流解决方面有着值得借鉴的成功经验。物流中央化的美国物流模式强调“整体化的物流管理”，是一种以整体利益为主，突破按部门分管的体制，从整体进行统一规划管理的模式。我们应该借鉴这些成功经验，尽快建立起适合我国国情的、现代化的物流配送系统。根据市场需求，确定发展电子商务的方向和目标。重点发展 B to B（互联网上商家到商家的电子商务模式），积极推动 B to C （互联网上商家到顾客的电子商务模式 ）。企业应设计和建立适合自身情况的物流平台并对物流平台有科学的管理。鼓励和倡导发展第三方物流。解决好网上支付问题网上支付问题解决的好坏是直接关系到电子商务成败的关键。我们认为主要有以下策略：①在技术标准上应该具有战略眼光，不仅要建立全国统一的网上支付安全认证中心，而且努力和国际标准接轨。②及早立法，确定网上银行的资格认定，规定网上交易的权利和义务，并严厉打击黑客犯罪行为，将网上支付纳入到一个安全的、可预测的法律框架之内。③由政府牵头，各商业银行、中介机构和社会各界积极参与响应，借鉴发达国家经验，建立一套适合我国国情的信用体系。加快建立和建全网络营销的政策法规加强对网络营销的立法与监督，规范企业的网络营销行为。在网络商场的市场准入制度、网络交易的合同认证、执行和赔偿、反欺、知识产权保护、税收征管、广告管制、交易监督，以及网络有害信息过滤等方面的制定规则，为网络营销健康有序快速的发展，提供一个公平规范的法律环境。制订鼓励、扶持网络营销发展的优惠政策，为网络营销的发展提供一个良好的经济环境。同时，对网络营销的发展也要科学的规划，统筹安排，即要防止畏缩不前，又要避免不顾客观现实条件的急躁冒进。为网络营销创造一个宽松的环境加快电信产业的发展以打破电信行业垄断经营的局面，充分引入市场竞争机制，改善电信服务质量，调低电信的资费标准，使网络消费与人们的收入水平相适应，使网络真正走进寻常百姓家，为网络营销创造人气基础。加快改善网络硬件设施，改变低水平设施与高水平收费的现状，在尽快打破制约网络营销发展的技术瓶颈的同时，加强网络安全性方面的工作。为网络营销创造一个宽松的环境。打破传统购物观念对网络营销的制约千方百计打破传统购物观念对消费者的束缚。网络营销不仅是对企业经营理念的革命，而且也是对消费者购物观念的革命。据调查 39%的人认为网上商品无实体感，对其质量不放心，而宁愿选择自己去市场中购买这。种眼见为实的传统购物观念在很大程度上束缚了消费者对网络营销这一新事物的接受程度，也制约了网络营销在我国的发展。所以必须强化对网络营销在我国的舆论宣传，提高社会与公众对网络营销的认识，消除他们对网络营销的陌生感，神秘感，增强对网络营销的信任感。引导广大消费者改变过去眼见为实的传统购物方式与购物习惯，使其从心理上接受网络营销，以达到为网络营销形成较大规模的最终有效需求的目的。真正认识到网络营销对经济发展的作用，充分发挥网络营销的潜力效益充分认识发展我国网络营销对经济的发展作用及抢占网络信息市场的必要性和紧迫性，抓住有利时机，缩短我国与发达国家的差距。政府及企业必须对互联网蕴涵的资源和潜力优势有真正意义上的认识，从而加强网络技术研究，改善网络基础设施，提高网络整体水平以强化我国的信息化基础。广泛开展对网络营销的学术研究，不断开发适合我国国情的网络营销新方式与新策略。企业和政府对互联网络应进行深层次开发和应用：政府部门是信息的最大拥有者和最大使用者，要充分发挥政府信息窗口的基础性作用；企业应尽快尽早地申请和注册自己的网址域名，并加强对网址域名的宣传，努力树立网络形象，并要确定适合网络营销的产品，采用低价的策略吸引消费者。网络营销的成功离不开优质服务的支撑，所以企业要向顾客提供个性化服务，并建立服务质量信息系统，改进服务流程。还要切实提高自身物流能力，大力培养网络人才。同时要整合其他营销手段，不断提高网络营销的水平和效益。参考文献：[1] 王旗林，黎志成。网络营销的策略探讨 [J].科技进步与对策，2000（3）。[2] 司林胜。网络营销绩效评价研究 [J].河南工业大学学报：社会科学版，2005（3 ） .[3] 刘新武，祝伟明。网络营销现状及改进策略 [J].企业经济，2005（1 1） .

网络保险 Internet Insurance Network insuranceNet Insurance保险学 Insurance , in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of a contingent loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium. An insurer is a company selling the insurance. The insurance rate is a factor used to determine the amount, called the premium, to be charged for a certain amount of insurance coverage. Risk management, the practice of appraising and controlling risk, has evolved as a discrete field of study and of insuranceA large number of homogeneous exposure units. The vast majority of insurance policies are provided for individual members of very large classes. Automobile insurance, for example, covered about 175 million automobiles in the United States in 2004.[2] The existence of a large number of homogeneous exposure units allows insurers to benefit from the so-called “law of large numbers,” which in effect states that as the number of exposure units increases, the actual results are increasingly likely to become close to expected results. There are exceptions to this criterion. Lloyd's of London is famous for insuring the life or health of actors, actresses and sports figures. Satellite Launch insurance covers events that are infrequent. Large commercial property policies may insure exceptional properties for which there are no ‘homogeneous’ exposure units. Despite failing on this criterion, many exposures like these are generally considered to be insurable. Definite Loss. The event that gives rise to the loss that is subject to insurance should, at least in principle, take place at a known time, in a known place, and from a known cause. The classic example is death of an insured on a life insurance policy. Fire, automobile accidents, and worker injuries may all easily meet this criterion. Other types of losses may only be definite in theory. Occupational disease, for instance, may involve prolonged exposure to injurious conditions where no specific time, place or cause is identifiable. Ideally, the time, place and cause of a loss should be clear enough that a reasonable person, with sufficient information, could objectively verify all three elements. Accidental Loss. The event that constitutes the trigger of a claim should be fortuitous, or at least outside the control of the beneficiary of the insurance. The loss should be ‘pure,’ in the sense that it results from an event for which there is only the opportunity for cost. Events that contain speculative elements, such as ordinary business risks, are generally not considered insurable. Large Loss. The size of the loss must be meaningful from the perspective of the insured. Insurance premiums need to cover both the expected cost of losses, plus the cost of issuing and administering the policy, adjusting losses, and supplying the capital needed to reasonably assure that the insurer will be able to pay claims. For small losses these latter costs may be several times the size of the expected cost of losses. There is little point in paying such costs unless the protection offered has real value to a buyer. Affordable Premium. If the likelihood of an insured event is so high, or the cost of the event so large, that the resulting premium is large relative to the amount of protection offered, it is not likely that anyone will buy insurance, even if on offer. Further, as the accounting profession formally recognizes in financial accounting standards, the premium cannot be so large that there is not a reasonable chance of a significant loss to the insurer. If there is no such chance of loss, the transaction may have the form of insurance, but not the substance. (See the . Financial Accounting Standards Board standard number 113) Calculable Loss. There are two elements that must be at least estimable, if not formally calculable: the probability of loss, and the attendant cost. Probability of loss is generally an empirical exercise, while cost has more to do with the ability of a reasonable person in possession of a copy of the insurance policy and a proof of loss associated with a claim presented under that policy to make a reasonably definite and objective evaluation of the amount of the loss recoverable as a result of the claim. Limited risk of catastrophically large losses. The essential risk is often aggregation. If the same event can cause losses to numerous policyholders of the same insurer, the ability of that insurer to issue policies becomes constrained, not by factors surrounding the individual characteristics of a given policyholder, but by the factors surrounding the sum of all policyholders so exposed. Typically, insurers prefer to limit their exposure to a loss from a single event to some small portion of their capital base, on the order of 5 percent. Where the loss can be aggregated, or an individual policy could produce exceptionally large claims, the capital constraint will restrict an insurers appetite for additional policyholders. The classic example is earthquake insurance, where the ability of an underwriter to issue a new policy depends on the number and size of the policies that it has already underwritten. Wind insurance in hurricane zones, particularly along coast lines, is another example of this phenomenon. In extreme cases, the aggregation can affect the entire industry, since the combined capital of insurers and reinsurers can be small compared to the needs of potential policyholders in areas exposed to aggregation risk. In commercial fire insurance it is possible to find single properties whose total exposed value is well in excess of any individual insurer’s capital constraint. Such properties are generally shared among several insurers, or are insured by a single insurer who syndicates the risk into the reinsurance market. [edit] IndemnificationMain article: IndemnityThe technical definition of "indemnity" means to make whole again. There are two types of insurance contracts; 1) an "indemnity" policy and 2) a "pay on behalf" or "on behalf of"[3] policy. The difference is significant on paper, but rarely material in "indemnity" policy will never pay claims until the insured has paid out of pocket to some third party; . a visitor to your home slips on a floor that you left wet and sues you for $10,000 and wins. Under an "indemnity" policy the homeowner would have to come up with the $10,000 to pay for the visitors fall and then would be "indemnified" by the insurance carrier for the out of pocket costs (the $10,000)[4].Under the same situation, a "pay on behalf" policy, the insurance carrier would pay the claim and the insured (the homeowner) would not be out of pocket for anything. Most modern liability insurance is written on the basis of "pay on behalf" language[5].An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type, etc.) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a contract, called an insurance 'policy'. Generally, an insurance contract includes, at a minimum, the following elements: the parties (the insurer, the insured, the beneficiaries), the premium, the period of coverage, the particular loss event covered, the amount of coverage (., the amount to be paid to the insured or beneficiary in the event of a loss), and exclusions (events not covered). An insured is thus said to be "indemnified" against the loss events covered in the insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the covered amount of loss as specified by the policy. The fee paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many insureds are used to fund accounts reserved for later payment of claims—in theory for a relatively few claimants—and for overhead costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses (., reserves), the remaining margin is an insurer's profit.[edit] Insurer’s business modelProfit = earned premium + investment income - incurred loss - underwriting make money in two ways: (1) through underwriting, the process by which insurers select the risks to insure and decide how much in premiums to charge for accepting those risks and (2) by investing the premiums they collect from most difficult aspect of the insurance business is the underwriting of policies. Using a wide assortment of data, insurers predict the likelihood that a claim will be made against their policies and price products accordingly. To this end, insurers use actuarial science to quantify the risks they are willing to assume and the premium they will charge to assume them. Data is analyzed to fairly accurately project the rate of future claims based on a given risk. Actuarial science uses statistics and probability to analyze the risks associated with the range of perils covered, and these scientific principles are used to determine an insurer's overall exposure. Upon termination of a given policy, the amount of premium collected and the investment gains thereon minus the amount paid out in claims is the insurer's underwriting profit on that policy. Of course, from the insurer's perspective, some policies are winners (., the insurer pays out less in claims and expenses than it receives in premiums and investment income) and some are losers (., the insurer pays out more in claims and expenses than it receives in premiums and investment income).An insurer's underwriting performance is measured in its combined ratio. The loss ratio (incurred losses and loss-adjustment expenses divided by net earned premium) is added to the expense ratio (underwriting expenses divided by net premium written) to determine the company's combined ratio. The combined ratio is a reflection of the company's overall underwriting profitability. A combined ratio of less than 100 percent indicates underwriting profitability, while anything over 100 indicates an underwriting companies also earn investment profits on “float”. “Float” or available reserve is the amount of money, at hand at any given moment, that an insurer has collected in insurance premiums but has not been paid out in claims. Insurers start investing insurance premiums as soon as they are collected and continue to earn interest on them until claims are paid the United States, the underwriting loss of property and casualty insurance companies was $ billion in the five years ending 2003. But overall profit for the same period was $ billion, as the result of float. Some insurance industry insiders, most notably Hank Greenberg, do not believe that it is forever possible to sustain a profit from float without an underwriting profit as well, but this opinion is not universally held. Naturally, the “float” method is difficult to carry out in an economically depressed period. Bear markets do cause insurers to shift away from investments and to toughen up their underwriting standards. So a poor economy generally means high insurance premiums. This tendency to swing between profitable and unprofitable periods over time is commonly known as the "underwriting" or insurance cycle. [6]Property and casualty insurers currently make the most money from their auto insurance line of business. Generally better statistics are available on auto losses and underwriting on this line of business has benefited greatly from advances in computing. Additionally, property losses in the US, due to natural catastrophes, have exacerbated this , claims and loss handling is the materialized utility of insurance. In managing the claims-handling function, insurers seek to balance the elements of customer satisfaction, administrative handling expenses, and claims overpayment leakages. As part of this balancing act, fraudulent insurance practices are a major business risk that must be managed and of insuranceAny risk that can be quantified can potentially be insured. Specific kinds of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". An insurance policy will set out in detail which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Below are (non-exhaustive) lists of the many different types of insurance that exist. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the categories set forth below. For example, auto insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the . typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's insurance can be any kind of insurance that protects businesses against risks. Some principal subtypes of business insurance are (a) the various kinds of professional liability insurance, also called professional indemnity insurance, which are discussed below under that name; and (b) the business owners policy (BOP), which bundles into one policy many of the kinds of coverage that a business owner needs, in a way analogous to how homeowners insurance bundles the coverages that a homeowner needs.[7]HealthHealth insurance policies will often cover the cost of private medical treatments if the National Health Service in the United Kingdom (NHS) or other publicly-funded health programs do not pay for them. It will often result in quicker health care where better facilities are available. Dental insurance, like medical insurance, is coverage for individuals to protect them against dental costs. In the ., dental insurance is often part of an employer's benefits package, along with health insurance. Most countries rely on public funding to ensure that all citizens have universal access to health care.[edit] DisabilityDisability insurance policies provide financial support in the event the policyholder is unable to work because of disabling illness or injury. It provides monthly support to help pay such obligations as mortgages and credit cards. Total permanent disability insurance insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. Disability overhead insurance allows business owners to cover the overhead expenses of their business while they are unable to work. Workers' compensation insurance replaces all or part of a worker's wages lost and accompanying medical expense incurred because of a job-related injury. CasualtyCasualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific insurance is a form of casualty insurance that covers the policyholder against losses arising from the criminal acts of third parties. For example, a company can obtain crime insurance to cover losses arising from theft or embezzlement. Political risk insurance is a form of casualty insurance that can be taken out by businesses with operations in countries in which there is a risk that revolution or other political conditions will result in a loss. [edit] Life insuranceMain article: Life insuranceLife insurance provides a monetary benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for income to an insured person's family, burial, funeral and other final expenses. Life insurance policies often allow the option of having the proceeds paid to the beneficiary either in a lump sum cash payment or an provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance and require the same kinds of actuarial and investment management expertise that life insurance requires. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance and, from an underwriting perspective, are the mirror image of life life insurance contracts accumulate cash values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and endowment policies, are financial instruments to accumulate or liquidate wealth when it is many countries, such as the . and the UK, the tax law provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of saving as well as protection in the event of early ., the tax on interest income on life insurance policies and annuities is generally deferred. However, in some cases the benefit derived from tax deferral may be offset by a low return. This depends upon the insuring company, the type of policy and other variables (mortality, market return, etc.). Moreover, other income tax saving vehicles (., IRAs, 401(k) plans, Roth IRAs) may be better alternatives for value accumulation. A combination of low-cost term life insurance and a higher-return tax-efficient retirement account may achieve better investment insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance.字数超限了。。。

Insurance, in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of potential financial loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care. there are a few principles of insurance, which are considered as the uncertain losses, the predictable rate and distribution of losses,the sinificant of loss and the loss must be catastrophic. A property or liability insurance policy is a "personal contract," a "conditional contract," a "unilateral contract," a "contract of adhesion," a "contract of indemnity," and a contract which requires that the person insured have an insurable interest at the time of the insured-against contingency. Further: An Insurance Contract is one of Uberrima fides. This is a Latin phrase meaning "utmost good faith" (or translated literally, "most abundant faith"). It is the name of a legal doctrine which governs insurance contracts. This means that all parties to an insurance contract must deal in good faith, making a full declaration of all material facts in the insurance proposal. This contrasts with the legal doctrine of caveat emptor (let the buyer beware). An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a contract, defined as an insurance 'policy'. This legal contract sets out terms and conditions specifying the amount of coverage (compensation) to be rendered to the insured, by the insurer upon assumption of risk, in the event of a loss, and all the specific perils covered against (indemnified), for the term of the contract. When insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the amount of loss as specified by the policy contract. The fee paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many clients are used to fund accounts set aside for later payment of claims—in theory for a relatively few claimants—and for overhead costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses, the remaining margin becomes their profit. Insurers make money in two ways. Through underwriting, the process through which insurers select what risks to insure and decide how much premium to charge for accepting those risks and by investing the premiums they have collected from insureds Some people consider insurance a type of wager (particularly as associated with moral hazard) that executes over the policy period. The insurance company bets that you or your property will not suffer a loss while you put money on the opposite outcome. The difference in the fees paid to the insurance company versus the amount for which they can be held liable if an accident happens is roughly analogous to the odds one might expect when betting on a racehorse (for example, 10 to 1). For this reason, a number of religious groups, including the Amish and some Muslim groups, avoid insurance and instead depend on support provided by their communities when disasters strike. This can be thought of as "social insurance," as the risk of any given person is assumed collectively by the community who will all bear the cost of rebuilding. In closed, supportive communities where others can be trusted to step in to rebuild lost property, this arrangement can work. Any risk that can be quantified probably has a type of insurance to protect it. Among the different types of insurance are: Automobile insurance, also known as auto insurance, car insurance and in the UK as motor insurance, is probably the most common form of insurance and may cover both legal liability claims against the driver and loss of or damage to the vehicle itself. Over most of the United States purchasing an auto insurance policy is required to legally operate a motor vehicle on public roads. Recommendations for which policy limits should be used are specified in a number of books. In some jurisdictions, bodily injury compensation for automobile accident victims has been changed to No Fault systems, which reduce or eliminate the ability to sue for compensation but provide automatic eligibility for benefits. Boiler insurance (also known as Boiler and Machinery insurance or Equipment Breakdown Insurance) Casualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property. Credit insurance pays some or all of a loan back when certain things happen to the borrower such as unemployment, disability, or death. Financial loss insurance protects individuals and companies against various financial risks. For example, a business might purchase cover to protect it from loss of sales if a fire in a factory prevented it from carrying out its business for a time. Insurance might also cover failure of a creditor to pay money it owes to the insured. Fidelity bonds and surety bonds are included in this category. Health insurance covers medical bills incurred because of sickness or accidents. Liability insurance covers legal claims against the insured. For example, a homeowner's insurance policy provides the insured with protection in the event of a claim brought by someone who slips and falls on the property, and brings a lawsuit for her injuries. Similarly, a doctor may purchase liability insurance to cover any legal claims against him if his negligence (carelessness) in treating a patient caused the patient injury and/or monetary harm. The protection offered by a liability insurance policy is two-fold: a legal defense in the event of a lawsuit commenced against the policyholder, plus indemnification (payment on behalf of the insured) with respect to a settlement or court verdict. Life insurance provides a cash benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for burial, funeral and other final expenses. Annuities provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance. Total permanent disability insurance insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. Locked Funds Insurance is a little known hybrid insurance policy jointly issued by governments and banks. It is used to protect public funds from tamper by unauthorised parties. In special cases, a government may authorise its use in protecting semi-private funds which are liable to tamper. Terms of this type of insurance are usually very strict. As such it is only used in extreme cases where maximum security of funds is required. Marine Insurance covers the loss or damage of goods at sea. Marine insurance typically compensates the owner of merchandise for losses sustained from fire, shipwreck, etc., but excludes losses that can be recovered from the carrier. Nuclear incident insurance — damages resulting from an incident involving radioactivive materials is generally arranged at the national level. (For the United States, see Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act.) Environmental Liability Insurance protects the insured from bodily injury, property damage and cleanup costs as a result of the dispersal, release or escape of a pollutant. Political risk insurance can be taken out by businesses with operations in countries in which there is a risk that revolution or other political conditions will result in a loss. Professional Indemnity Insurance is normally a mandatory requirement for professional practitioners such as Architects, Lawyers, Doctors and Accountants to provide insurance cover against potential negligence claims. Non licensed professionals may also purchase malpractice insurance, it is commonly called Errors and Omissions Insurance and covers a service provider for claims made against them that arise out of the performance of specified professional services. For instance, a web site designer can obtain E&O insurance to cover them for certain claims made by third parties that arise out of negligent performance of web site development services. Property insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance. Terrorism insurance Title insurance provides a guarantee that title to real property is vested in the purchaser and/or mortgagee, free and clear of liens or encumbrances. It is usually issued in conjunction with a search of the public records done at the time of a real estate transaction. Travel insurance is an insurance cover taken by those who travel abroad, which covers certain losses such as medical expenses, lost of personal belongings, travel delay, personal liabilities.. etc. Workers' compensation insurance replaces all or part of a worker's wages lost and accompanying medical expense incurred due to a job-related injury. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the above categories. For example, car insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from say, causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the . typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property. Potential sources of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". Examples of perils might be fire, theft, earthquake, hurricane and many other potential risks. An insurance policy will set out in details which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Insurance companies may be classified as Life insurance companies, who sell life insurance, annuities and pensions products. Non-life or general insurance companies, who sell other types of insurance. In most countries, life and non-life insurers are subject to different regulations, tax and accounting rules. The main reason for the distinction between the two types of company is that life business is very long term in nature — coverage for life assurance or a pension can cover risks over many decades. By contrast, non-life insurance cover usually covers a shorter period, such as one year.

保险，是指投保人根据合同约定，向保险人支付保险费，保险人对于合同约定的可能发生的事故因其发生所造成的财产损失承担赔偿保险金责任，或者被保险人死亡、伤残、疾病或者达到合同约定的年龄、期限等条件时承担给付保险金责任的商业保险行为。下面学术堂整理了几个保险专业的毕业论文题目，供大家进行参考：1、我国寿险市场竞争方式探讨2、也谈保险信用问题3、保险营销方式创新谈4、试论我国寿险产品发展趋势5、车险费率市场化之我见6、试论我国商业健康险的发展模式7、也谈保险创新8、银保合作方式新探9、中资保险公司竞争能力分析10、也谈保护我国民族保险业11、如何提升保险公司的核心竞争能力12、构建战略联盟提升保险公司的竞争能力13、也谈网络保险14、我国保险监管趋势探讨15、略论中资保险公司应对外资保险公司入侵的对策